Tremendous breakthroughs are being made in cancer drug discovery and development. However, such b... more Tremendous breakthroughs are being made in cancer drug discovery and development. However, such breakthroughs come at a high financial cost. At a time when there is increasing pressure on drug pricing, in part because of increased life expectancy, it is more important than ever to drive new therapeutics towards patients as efficiently as possible. In this review we discuss the applications of molecular imaging in oncology drug development, with a focus on its ability to enable better early decision making, to increase efficiency and thereby to lower costs.
Chemistry (Weinheim an der Bergstrasse, Germany), Jan 13, 2016
A new generation of MOnomolecular Imaging Probes (MOMIP) based on a distyryl-BODIPY coupled with ... more A new generation of MOnomolecular Imaging Probes (MOMIP) based on a distyryl-BODIPY coupled with three DOTA macrocycles has been prepared. The MOMIP presents good fluorescence properties and is very stable in serum. The bimodal probe was conjugated to trastuzumab, and optical in-vivo study showed high accumulation of the imaging agent at the tumor site. 111In radiometallation of the bioconjugate was performed in high radiochemical yield, highlighting the potential of this new BODIPY-chelators derivative as a bimodal imaging probe.
Magnetic resonance imaging is a popular and powerful non-invasive imaging technique. Automated an... more Magnetic resonance imaging is a popular and powerful non-invasive imaging technique. Automated analysis has become mandatory to efficiently cope with the large amount of data generated using this modality. However, several artifacts, such as intensity nonuniformity, can degrade the quality of acquired data. Intensity non-uniformity consists in anatomically irrelevant intensity variation throughout data. It can be induced by the choice of the radio-frequency coil, the acquisition pulse sequence and by the nature and geometry of the sample itself. Numerous methods have been proposed to correct this artifact. In this paper, we propose an overview of existing methods. We first sort them according to their location in the acquisition/processing pipeline. Sorting is then refined based on the assumptions those methods rely on. Next, we present the validation protocols used to evaluate these different correction schemes both from a qualitative and a quantitative point of view. Finally, availability and usability of the presented methods is discussed.
: We sought to improve the clinical interpretation of first-pass myocardial magnetic resonance pe... more : We sought to improve the clinical interpretation of first-pass myocardial magnetic resonance perfusion. Parametric analyses of the myocardial distribution of the contrast agent have been proposed. The objective of the present study was to compare the effectiveness of visual analysis and of a parametric approach in an animal model under acquisition conditions as close as possible to clinical reality. : Experiments were conducted in vivo with various kinds of pharmacological stimulation in normal pigs and in pigs with stenosis of the left circumflex coronary artery. First-pass MR images and parametric maps were first assessed by medical experts. MR parameters, the myocardial signal intensity variation DeltaSI, ascending up-slope, and rMBF (blood flow calculated by fast discrete ARMA deconvolution) were then compared with blood flow measurements using radioactive microspheres. : Interobserver agreement was 57% and 81% and accuracy 53% and 81%, for visual and for parametric map analysis, respectively. For deconvolution parameters, a linear relationship y = 371 + 1.27x, r = 0.78 was obtained between rMBF calculated by ARMA and the radioactive microsphere blood flow. Moreover, the fast and robust parametric mapping of rMBF by the discrete ARMA method allows MR evaluation of myocardial perfusion independently of hemodynamic conditions.
L'analyse parametrique de la distribution d'un agent de contraste est proposee pour l'... more L'analyse parametrique de la distribution d'un agent de contraste est proposee pour l'interpretation clinique des etudes de premier passage et la quantification de la perfusion myocardique en IRM. Notre premier objectif concerne la correction de variations spatiales d'intensite des images. Notre second objectif concerne l'application d'une technique robuste de traitement du signal RMN et de deconvolution adaptee au faible rapport signal sur bruit. Les donnees analysees proviennent d’experiences menees in-vivo proche des conditions cliniques pour differents stress pharmacologiques appliques sur des cochons presentant une stenose au niveau de l'artere coronaire circonflexe gauche. Les mesures d'agrement et de precision entre observateurs sont respectivement de 57,1% et 53,1% pour l'analyse visuelle et 81,2% et 81,1% pour l'analyse des cartes parametriques. Une relation lineaire des parametres de perfusion en fonction des mesures de microspheres ...
Journal of nuclear medicine : official publication, Society of Nuclear Medicine, 2015
AKT (a serine/threonine-specific protein kinase) regulates many cellular processes contributing t... more AKT (a serine/threonine-specific protein kinase) regulates many cellular processes contributing to cytotoxic drug resistance. This study's primary objective examined the relationship between GSK2141795, an oral, pan-AKT inhibitor, and FDG-PET markers of glucose metabolism in tumor tissue to determine if FDG-PET could be used to guide personalized dosing of GSK2141795. Biomarker analysis of biopsies was also undertaken. Twelve patients were enrolled in three cohorts; all had dynamic FDG-PET scans and serial pharmacokinetic sampling at baseline, Week 2 (W2) and Week 4 (W4) with tumor biopsies pre-treatment and at W4. Response was evaluated by RECIST v1.1 and GCIG criteria. Biopsy samples were analyzed for mutations and protein expression. GSK2141795 did not significantly influence blood glucose levels. No dose-response relationship was observed between GSK2141795 pharmacokinetics (PK) and FDG-PET pharmacodynamic (PD) measures; however an exposure-response-relationship was seen bet...
Journal of nuclear medicine : official publication, Society of Nuclear Medicine, 2015
AKT (a serine/threonine-specific protein kinase) regulates many cellular processes contributing t... more AKT (a serine/threonine-specific protein kinase) regulates many cellular processes contributing to cytotoxic drug resistance. This study's primary objective examined the relationship between GSK2141795, an oral, pan-AKT inhibitor, and FDG-PET markers of glucose metabolism in tumor tissue to determine if FDG-PET could be used to guide personalized dosing of GSK2141795. Biomarker analysis of biopsies was also undertaken. Twelve patients were enrolled in three cohorts; all had dynamic FDG-PET scans and serial pharmacokinetic sampling at baseline, Week 2 (W2) and Week 4 (W4) with tumor biopsies pre-treatment and at W4. Response was evaluated by RECIST v1.1 and GCIG criteria. Biopsy samples were analyzed for mutations and protein expression. GSK2141795 did not significantly influence blood glucose levels. No dose-response relationship was observed between GSK2141795 pharmacokinetics (PK) and FDG-PET pharmacodynamic (PD) measures; however an exposure-response-relationship was seen bet...
Evaluation of quantitative parameters such as regional Myocardial Blood Flow (rMBF), Blood Volume... more Evaluation of quantitative parameters such as regional Myocardial Blood Flow (rMBF), Blood Volume (rMBV), and Mean Transit Time (rMTT) by MRI is gaining acceptance for clinical applications, but still lacks robust post-processing methods for map generation. Pixel by pixel analysis leads to high variance of the estimates and variance reduction by posterior spatial averaging does not produce satisfactory results. We propose a parametric estimation technique that smoothes the variance of the estimates within parametric homogeneous regions while preserving discontinuities (in the sense that smoothing is not performed across regions with different parametric contents). Our approach lies within the Bayesian framework. It is based on local autoregressive moving average (ARMA) estimation, constrained by an edge-preserving smoothness prior. The prior stems from Markov random fields (MRF) modeling and involves nonquadratic potential functions. The output of the resulting algorithm is a regularized rMBF map. The method is validated on synthetic MR kinetics and tested on firstpass T1 images of an isolated pig heart using an intravascular contrast agent. Comparison of our results with pixel by pixel estimates clearly demonstrate the ability of the proposed approach to improve parametric estimation in terms of variance reduction and discontinuity preservation.
In the present study we investigated the effects of water exchange between intra-and extravascula... more In the present study we investigated the effects of water exchange between intra-and extravascular compartments on absolute quantification of regional myocardial blood flow (rMBF) using a saturation-recovery sequence with a rather long inversion time (TI, 176 ms) and a T 1 -shortening intravascular contrast agent (CMD-A2-Gd-DOTA). Data were acquired in normal and ischemically injured pigs, with radiolabeled microsphere flow measurements used as the gold standard. Five water exchange rates (fast, 6 Hz, 3 Hz, 1 Hz, and no exchange) were tested. The results demonstrate that the fast-exchange approximation may be appropriate for rMBF quantification using the described experimental setting. Relaxation rate change (⌬R 1 ) analysis improved the accuracy of the analysis of rMBF compared to the MR signal. In conclusion, the current protocol could provide sufficient accuracy for estimating rMBF assuming fast exchange and a linear relationship between signal and tissue concentration when quantification of precontrast T 1 is not an option. Magn Reson Med 56:340 -347, 2006.
To investigate whether a magnetic resonance (MR) blood pool contrast agent enables both evaluatio... more To investigate whether a magnetic resonance (MR) blood pool contrast agent enables both evaluation of myocardial perfusion and viability in nonreperfused infarction in pigs. An optimized MR protocol using the blood pool contrast agent P792 (0.026 mmol/kg, twice the clinical dose, Guerbet, France) was investigated to evaluate nonreperfused myocardial infarction in an animal model. P792 was compared with the extracellular contrast agent Gd-DOTA (0.1 mmol/kg). The MRI findings were compared with histomorphometry performed with microspheres to evaluate perfusion and triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) to evaluate viability. Contrast-enhanced MR imaging of the heart was performed on a 1.5-Tesla scanner 2 days after instrumentation in 6 minipigs. A saturation recovery steady-state free precession sequence was used for perfusion imaging and an inversion recovery fast low-angle shot sequence for evaluation of myocardial viability. P792 tended to depict areas of reduced perfusion more accurately than Gd-DOTA (17.2% +/- 11.1% versus 13.7% +/- 8.0%) in comparison to the gold standard of histomorphometry with microspheres (18.2% +/- 9.8%). Moreover, P792, but not Gd-DOTA, depicted ischemic areas for 30 minutes after intravenous injection. The change in myocardial signal intensity during first pass was not significantly different after P792 compared with Gd-DOTA (140.3% +/- 64.4% versus 123.3% +/- 22.5%, P = 0.56). P792 was highly accurate in depicting infarcted areas (11.1% +/- 7.1%) compared with Gd-DOTA (12.1% +/- 8.2%, r = 0.98, P < 0.001) and histomorphometry with TTC (12.2% +/- 8.0%, r = 0.99, P < 0.001). Unlike Gd-DOTA, the blood pool contrast agent P792 allows evaluation of myocardial perfusion for a period of 30 minutes and shows good agreement with histomorphometry. P792 must be examined in further studies to evaluate its potential in evaluating early myocardial lesions and reperfusion. In addition, P792 also allows for evaluation of myocardial viability.
: We sought to improve the clinical interpretation of first-pass myocardial magnetic resonance pe... more : We sought to improve the clinical interpretation of first-pass myocardial magnetic resonance perfusion. Parametric analyses of the myocardial distribution of the contrast agent have been proposed. The objective of the present study was to compare the effectiveness of visual analysis and of a parametric approach in an animal model under acquisition conditions as close as possible to clinical reality. : Experiments were conducted in vivo with various kinds of pharmacological stimulation in normal pigs and in pigs with stenosis of the left circumflex coronary artery. First-pass MR images and parametric maps were first assessed by medical experts. MR parameters, the myocardial signal intensity variation DeltaSI, ascending up-slope, and rMBF (blood flow calculated by fast discrete ARMA deconvolution) were then compared with blood flow measurements using radioactive microspheres. : Interobserver agreement was 57% and 81% and accuracy 53% and 81%, for visual and for parametric map analysis, respectively. For deconvolution parameters, a linear relationship y = 371 + 1.27x, r = 0.78 was obtained between rMBF calculated by ARMA and the radioactive microsphere blood flow. Moreover, the fast and robust parametric mapping of rMBF by the discrete ARMA method allows MR evaluation of myocardial perfusion independently of hemodynamic conditions.
Magnetic resonance imaging is a popular and powerful non-invasive imaging technique. Automated an... more Magnetic resonance imaging is a popular and powerful non-invasive imaging technique. Automated analysis has become mandatory to efficiently cope with the large amount of data generated using this modality. However, several artifacts, such as intensity non-uniformity, can degrade the quality of acquired data. Intensity non-uniformity consists in anatomically irrelevant intensity variation throughout data. It can be induced by the choice of the radio-frequency coil, the acquisition pulse sequence and by the nature and geometry of the sample itself. Numerous methods have been proposed to correct this artifact. In this paper, we propose an overview of existing methods. We first sort them according to their location in the acquisition/processing pipeline. Sorting is then refined based on the assumptions those methods rely on. Next, we present the validation protocols used to evaluate these different correction schemes both from a qualitative and a quantitative point of view. Finally, availability and usability of the presented methods is discussed.
Tremendous breakthroughs are being made in cancer drug discovery and development. However, such b... more Tremendous breakthroughs are being made in cancer drug discovery and development. However, such breakthroughs come at a high financial cost. At a time when there is increasing pressure on drug pricing, in part because of increased life expectancy, it is more important than ever to drive new therapeutics towards patients as efficiently as possible. In this review we discuss the applications of molecular imaging in oncology drug development, with a focus on its ability to enable better early decision making, to increase efficiency and thereby to lower costs.
Chemistry (Weinheim an der Bergstrasse, Germany), Jan 13, 2016
A new generation of MOnomolecular Imaging Probes (MOMIP) based on a distyryl-BODIPY coupled with ... more A new generation of MOnomolecular Imaging Probes (MOMIP) based on a distyryl-BODIPY coupled with three DOTA macrocycles has been prepared. The MOMIP presents good fluorescence properties and is very stable in serum. The bimodal probe was conjugated to trastuzumab, and optical in-vivo study showed high accumulation of the imaging agent at the tumor site. 111In radiometallation of the bioconjugate was performed in high radiochemical yield, highlighting the potential of this new BODIPY-chelators derivative as a bimodal imaging probe.
Magnetic resonance imaging is a popular and powerful non-invasive imaging technique. Automated an... more Magnetic resonance imaging is a popular and powerful non-invasive imaging technique. Automated analysis has become mandatory to efficiently cope with the large amount of data generated using this modality. However, several artifacts, such as intensity nonuniformity, can degrade the quality of acquired data. Intensity non-uniformity consists in anatomically irrelevant intensity variation throughout data. It can be induced by the choice of the radio-frequency coil, the acquisition pulse sequence and by the nature and geometry of the sample itself. Numerous methods have been proposed to correct this artifact. In this paper, we propose an overview of existing methods. We first sort them according to their location in the acquisition/processing pipeline. Sorting is then refined based on the assumptions those methods rely on. Next, we present the validation protocols used to evaluate these different correction schemes both from a qualitative and a quantitative point of view. Finally, availability and usability of the presented methods is discussed.
: We sought to improve the clinical interpretation of first-pass myocardial magnetic resonance pe... more : We sought to improve the clinical interpretation of first-pass myocardial magnetic resonance perfusion. Parametric analyses of the myocardial distribution of the contrast agent have been proposed. The objective of the present study was to compare the effectiveness of visual analysis and of a parametric approach in an animal model under acquisition conditions as close as possible to clinical reality. : Experiments were conducted in vivo with various kinds of pharmacological stimulation in normal pigs and in pigs with stenosis of the left circumflex coronary artery. First-pass MR images and parametric maps were first assessed by medical experts. MR parameters, the myocardial signal intensity variation DeltaSI, ascending up-slope, and rMBF (blood flow calculated by fast discrete ARMA deconvolution) were then compared with blood flow measurements using radioactive microspheres. : Interobserver agreement was 57% and 81% and accuracy 53% and 81%, for visual and for parametric map analysis, respectively. For deconvolution parameters, a linear relationship y = 371 + 1.27x, r = 0.78 was obtained between rMBF calculated by ARMA and the radioactive microsphere blood flow. Moreover, the fast and robust parametric mapping of rMBF by the discrete ARMA method allows MR evaluation of myocardial perfusion independently of hemodynamic conditions.
L'analyse parametrique de la distribution d'un agent de contraste est proposee pour l'... more L'analyse parametrique de la distribution d'un agent de contraste est proposee pour l'interpretation clinique des etudes de premier passage et la quantification de la perfusion myocardique en IRM. Notre premier objectif concerne la correction de variations spatiales d'intensite des images. Notre second objectif concerne l'application d'une technique robuste de traitement du signal RMN et de deconvolution adaptee au faible rapport signal sur bruit. Les donnees analysees proviennent d’experiences menees in-vivo proche des conditions cliniques pour differents stress pharmacologiques appliques sur des cochons presentant une stenose au niveau de l'artere coronaire circonflexe gauche. Les mesures d'agrement et de precision entre observateurs sont respectivement de 57,1% et 53,1% pour l'analyse visuelle et 81,2% et 81,1% pour l'analyse des cartes parametriques. Une relation lineaire des parametres de perfusion en fonction des mesures de microspheres ...
Journal of nuclear medicine : official publication, Society of Nuclear Medicine, 2015
AKT (a serine/threonine-specific protein kinase) regulates many cellular processes contributing t... more AKT (a serine/threonine-specific protein kinase) regulates many cellular processes contributing to cytotoxic drug resistance. This study's primary objective examined the relationship between GSK2141795, an oral, pan-AKT inhibitor, and FDG-PET markers of glucose metabolism in tumor tissue to determine if FDG-PET could be used to guide personalized dosing of GSK2141795. Biomarker analysis of biopsies was also undertaken. Twelve patients were enrolled in three cohorts; all had dynamic FDG-PET scans and serial pharmacokinetic sampling at baseline, Week 2 (W2) and Week 4 (W4) with tumor biopsies pre-treatment and at W4. Response was evaluated by RECIST v1.1 and GCIG criteria. Biopsy samples were analyzed for mutations and protein expression. GSK2141795 did not significantly influence blood glucose levels. No dose-response relationship was observed between GSK2141795 pharmacokinetics (PK) and FDG-PET pharmacodynamic (PD) measures; however an exposure-response-relationship was seen bet...
Journal of nuclear medicine : official publication, Society of Nuclear Medicine, 2015
AKT (a serine/threonine-specific protein kinase) regulates many cellular processes contributing t... more AKT (a serine/threonine-specific protein kinase) regulates many cellular processes contributing to cytotoxic drug resistance. This study's primary objective examined the relationship between GSK2141795, an oral, pan-AKT inhibitor, and FDG-PET markers of glucose metabolism in tumor tissue to determine if FDG-PET could be used to guide personalized dosing of GSK2141795. Biomarker analysis of biopsies was also undertaken. Twelve patients were enrolled in three cohorts; all had dynamic FDG-PET scans and serial pharmacokinetic sampling at baseline, Week 2 (W2) and Week 4 (W4) with tumor biopsies pre-treatment and at W4. Response was evaluated by RECIST v1.1 and GCIG criteria. Biopsy samples were analyzed for mutations and protein expression. GSK2141795 did not significantly influence blood glucose levels. No dose-response relationship was observed between GSK2141795 pharmacokinetics (PK) and FDG-PET pharmacodynamic (PD) measures; however an exposure-response-relationship was seen bet...
Evaluation of quantitative parameters such as regional Myocardial Blood Flow (rMBF), Blood Volume... more Evaluation of quantitative parameters such as regional Myocardial Blood Flow (rMBF), Blood Volume (rMBV), and Mean Transit Time (rMTT) by MRI is gaining acceptance for clinical applications, but still lacks robust post-processing methods for map generation. Pixel by pixel analysis leads to high variance of the estimates and variance reduction by posterior spatial averaging does not produce satisfactory results. We propose a parametric estimation technique that smoothes the variance of the estimates within parametric homogeneous regions while preserving discontinuities (in the sense that smoothing is not performed across regions with different parametric contents). Our approach lies within the Bayesian framework. It is based on local autoregressive moving average (ARMA) estimation, constrained by an edge-preserving smoothness prior. The prior stems from Markov random fields (MRF) modeling and involves nonquadratic potential functions. The output of the resulting algorithm is a regularized rMBF map. The method is validated on synthetic MR kinetics and tested on firstpass T1 images of an isolated pig heart using an intravascular contrast agent. Comparison of our results with pixel by pixel estimates clearly demonstrate the ability of the proposed approach to improve parametric estimation in terms of variance reduction and discontinuity preservation.
In the present study we investigated the effects of water exchange between intra-and extravascula... more In the present study we investigated the effects of water exchange between intra-and extravascular compartments on absolute quantification of regional myocardial blood flow (rMBF) using a saturation-recovery sequence with a rather long inversion time (TI, 176 ms) and a T 1 -shortening intravascular contrast agent (CMD-A2-Gd-DOTA). Data were acquired in normal and ischemically injured pigs, with radiolabeled microsphere flow measurements used as the gold standard. Five water exchange rates (fast, 6 Hz, 3 Hz, 1 Hz, and no exchange) were tested. The results demonstrate that the fast-exchange approximation may be appropriate for rMBF quantification using the described experimental setting. Relaxation rate change (⌬R 1 ) analysis improved the accuracy of the analysis of rMBF compared to the MR signal. In conclusion, the current protocol could provide sufficient accuracy for estimating rMBF assuming fast exchange and a linear relationship between signal and tissue concentration when quantification of precontrast T 1 is not an option. Magn Reson Med 56:340 -347, 2006.
To investigate whether a magnetic resonance (MR) blood pool contrast agent enables both evaluatio... more To investigate whether a magnetic resonance (MR) blood pool contrast agent enables both evaluation of myocardial perfusion and viability in nonreperfused infarction in pigs. An optimized MR protocol using the blood pool contrast agent P792 (0.026 mmol/kg, twice the clinical dose, Guerbet, France) was investigated to evaluate nonreperfused myocardial infarction in an animal model. P792 was compared with the extracellular contrast agent Gd-DOTA (0.1 mmol/kg). The MRI findings were compared with histomorphometry performed with microspheres to evaluate perfusion and triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) to evaluate viability. Contrast-enhanced MR imaging of the heart was performed on a 1.5-Tesla scanner 2 days after instrumentation in 6 minipigs. A saturation recovery steady-state free precession sequence was used for perfusion imaging and an inversion recovery fast low-angle shot sequence for evaluation of myocardial viability. P792 tended to depict areas of reduced perfusion more accurately than Gd-DOTA (17.2% +/- 11.1% versus 13.7% +/- 8.0%) in comparison to the gold standard of histomorphometry with microspheres (18.2% +/- 9.8%). Moreover, P792, but not Gd-DOTA, depicted ischemic areas for 30 minutes after intravenous injection. The change in myocardial signal intensity during first pass was not significantly different after P792 compared with Gd-DOTA (140.3% +/- 64.4% versus 123.3% +/- 22.5%, P = 0.56). P792 was highly accurate in depicting infarcted areas (11.1% +/- 7.1%) compared with Gd-DOTA (12.1% +/- 8.2%, r = 0.98, P < 0.001) and histomorphometry with TTC (12.2% +/- 8.0%, r = 0.99, P < 0.001). Unlike Gd-DOTA, the blood pool contrast agent P792 allows evaluation of myocardial perfusion for a period of 30 minutes and shows good agreement with histomorphometry. P792 must be examined in further studies to evaluate its potential in evaluating early myocardial lesions and reperfusion. In addition, P792 also allows for evaluation of myocardial viability.
: We sought to improve the clinical interpretation of first-pass myocardial magnetic resonance pe... more : We sought to improve the clinical interpretation of first-pass myocardial magnetic resonance perfusion. Parametric analyses of the myocardial distribution of the contrast agent have been proposed. The objective of the present study was to compare the effectiveness of visual analysis and of a parametric approach in an animal model under acquisition conditions as close as possible to clinical reality. : Experiments were conducted in vivo with various kinds of pharmacological stimulation in normal pigs and in pigs with stenosis of the left circumflex coronary artery. First-pass MR images and parametric maps were first assessed by medical experts. MR parameters, the myocardial signal intensity variation DeltaSI, ascending up-slope, and rMBF (blood flow calculated by fast discrete ARMA deconvolution) were then compared with blood flow measurements using radioactive microspheres. : Interobserver agreement was 57% and 81% and accuracy 53% and 81%, for visual and for parametric map analysis, respectively. For deconvolution parameters, a linear relationship y = 371 + 1.27x, r = 0.78 was obtained between rMBF calculated by ARMA and the radioactive microsphere blood flow. Moreover, the fast and robust parametric mapping of rMBF by the discrete ARMA method allows MR evaluation of myocardial perfusion independently of hemodynamic conditions.
Magnetic resonance imaging is a popular and powerful non-invasive imaging technique. Automated an... more Magnetic resonance imaging is a popular and powerful non-invasive imaging technique. Automated analysis has become mandatory to efficiently cope with the large amount of data generated using this modality. However, several artifacts, such as intensity non-uniformity, can degrade the quality of acquired data. Intensity non-uniformity consists in anatomically irrelevant intensity variation throughout data. It can be induced by the choice of the radio-frequency coil, the acquisition pulse sequence and by the nature and geometry of the sample itself. Numerous methods have been proposed to correct this artifact. In this paper, we propose an overview of existing methods. We first sort them according to their location in the acquisition/processing pipeline. Sorting is then refined based on the assumptions those methods rely on. Next, we present the validation protocols used to evaluate these different correction schemes both from a qualitative and a quantitative point of view. Finally, availability and usability of the presented methods is discussed.
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Papers by Sabin Carme