The presence of carcinogenic aflatoxins in food and feed is a major issue. In prior studies, afla... more The presence of carcinogenic aflatoxins in food and feed is a major issue. In prior studies, aflatoxin B1 (AfB1) and known primary metabolites were absent from Lesser Mealworm (LMW, Alphitobius diaperinus) reared on contaminated diets. LMW is a promising alternative protein source. The objectives of this stu\dy were to determine whether LMW can be reared on AfB1-contaminated feed in each life-stage, and to gather more insight into potential metabolites formed. Results suggested no adverse effects in terms of survival/growth when three stages of LMW (larvae, pre-pupae, beetles) were exposed to feed containing AfB1 concentrations of 200 and 600 µg/kg for 48 h. Insect and frass samples were analyzed by LC-MS/MS and high-resolution MS to, respectively, quantify concentrations of AfB1 and its major metabolites, and determine secondary metabolites. No AfB1 or major metabolites were quantified in the insect samples. Mass balance calculations showed that up to 40% of spiked AfB1 could be re...
Composting of organic (waste) materials has already been applied for many years in the agroand ho... more Composting of organic (waste) materials has already been applied for many years in the agroand horticulture. During composting, the material is aerated by regularly turning the windrow with a grinder. This strongly stimulates the growth of microorganisms. These microorganisms use organic matter as their energy source. This will heat up the windrow and as a result a considerable part of the organic matter will be lost as heat and CO2, which is emitted into the environment. Another option is fermentation of the organic (waste) materials. This process takes place without aeration and without any extra processing. Following the Agriton method, Ostrea Seashell lime, Edasil Clay minerals and Microferm (Effective Microorganisms) are added to the windrow when the windrow is prepared for fermentation. After this the windrow is closed by putting a plastic foil tightly stretched over the windrow. During a period of 6 to 8 weeks the windrow is fermented. This is called Bokashi; fermented organi...
Proceedings of the British Society of Animal Science, 2003
It is now accepted that the microbial communities living within the gastro-intestinal tract (GIT)... more It is now accepted that the microbial communities living within the gastro-intestinal tract (GIT) can influence pig health, especially at stressful times such as weaning. Careful design of the animal diet is considered to be an easy way to influence the microflora positively. In this work, fermentable carbohydrates were selected after an in vitro test (cumulative gas production- Bosch et al., 2002) for both rate and extent of fermentability. The ingredients were chosen both for their end-products and in terms of their fementation kinetics so as to stimulate fermentation along the entire GIT. They were incorporated into a test diet (TEST), and compared with a control diet (CONT) which contained minimal fermentable carbohydrates. Digesta were analyzed both in terms of microbial species (molecular techniques) and their end-products (e.g. lactic acid), to determine whether fermentation had, in fact, been stimulated by the TEST diet.
Ninety-five female pigs from 20 to 45 kg body weight were used to elucidate the effects of energy... more Ninety-five female pigs from 20 to 45 kg body weight were used to elucidate the effects of energy and protein intake on the amino acid composition of the protein in the carcass, organs and empty body of growing pigs. In a 2 x 15 factorial arrangement, protein intake ranged from 127 to 350 g/d in 15 graduated steps; and the digestible energy allowances were 15.8 and 18.8 MJ/d. Whole-body amino acid contents (g/16 g nitrogen) were (means +/- SEM) lysine 6.64 +/- 0.028, methionine 2.11 +/- 0.012; threonine 3.62 +/- 0.016 and total essential amino acids 42.8 +/- 0.16. The organ fraction contained 14.8 and 15.8% (SEM 0.13) of whole-body protein at the low and high energy levels, respectively. The concentrations of essential amino acids were 41.8 +/- 0.19 and 48.4 +/- 0.13 g/16 g nitrogen in the carcass and organs, respectively. Concentrations of a number of amino acids (in carcass, organ and whole-body protein and in protein deposited between 20 and 45 kg, were affected by protein and/or energy intake. The amino acid pattern of the newly deposited protein was slightly different from that of the empty body protein. The changes in amino acid contents were presumably the result of effects of protein and energy intake on the proportions of muscle and non-muscle carcass tissues and on relative weights of blood and viscera. Consequences of these changes for the amino acid requirements are discussed.
Pre-weaning development of microbial activity has an effect on post-weaning establishment of the ... more Pre-weaning development of microbial activity has an effect on post-weaning establishment of the gastro-intestinal tract (GIT) microbiota. An in vivo study was conducted, to evaluate the effect of age on fermentation end-product profiles during the postcolostrum suckling period, as the variation in composition of mature milk is minimum. Sixteen piglets from two litters (eight per litter) were selected. During the study, piglets had free access to sow's milk, but no creep feed, nor antibiotic treatments. Two piglets from each litter were sacrificed on d 11, 18, 25 and 32 of age. The digesta samples were collected from the beginning and end of the small intestine, caecum and colon. Samples were analyzed for fermentation end-product concentrations. Combining the results from all the GIT sites, it was observed that, total VFA concentration increased with age of the piglets. There was a significant rise in acetic acid concentrations, with a significant decrease in lactic acid concentrations from d11 to d32, while the proportions of SCFA, (acetic acid ∼ 72%, propionic acid ∼ 15% and butyric acid ∼6% of total VFA) and ammonia concentrations remained unchanged. These results clearly suggest that, the microbial activity in terms of fermentation end-product profile skewed from lactic acid to acetic acid as a major product during the post-colostrum suckling period. This may be attributed to lower substrate availability due to increased number of microbes or increased diversity in the microbiota in time.
Abstract Grass hay and prewilted grass silage were supplied to heifers and mature cows at restric... more Abstract Grass hay and prewilted grass silage were supplied to heifers and mature cows at restricted and ad libitum level. Neutral detergent fibre (NDF) contents were 64.5 and 448.5% in dry matter of hay and silage, respectively. Voluntary feed intake decreased with increasing cell wall content, but time spent ruminating increased, and so did transit time of digesta in the lower gut and mean faecal particle size. Rumen motility was most intensive after feeding silage. Relative to ad libitum, at a restricted level of feed intake the time spent ruminating per unit of dry matter or the NDF ingested increased, fractional rates of reticulo-rumen emptying of particles did not change, transit in the lower gut slowed down, and faecal particles became smaller. Variation in voluntary feed intake between individual animals could for a significant part he accounted for by NDF content of the diet and time spent ruminating.
A study was carried out with piglets fed a complete diet containing mainly peas. soybean meal and... more A study was carried out with piglets fed a complete diet containing mainly peas. soybean meal and tapioca. The diet had been processed in four different ways: by pelleting without steam addition (CP), steam pelleting (SP), expander treatment (E) and expander-pelleting (EP). Expander-pelleting clearly increased pellet durability and pellet hardness as compared with CP and SP treatment. The effect on the diet starch gelatinization degree (SGD) was small due to the high SGD of the unprocessed meal. A total tract digestibility experiment with piglets revealed no differences in the apparent digestibility coefficients for dietary protein, dry matter and nitrogen-free extract. The digestibility coefficient for fat was significantly (P < 0.0 1) lower for the expandate compared with the SP diet. Both expander treatments decreased the digestibility of crude fibre (P < 0.10). N-balance (g body N retained day-') m p'g I s was similar for all diets but a trend was observed for a higher N-balance of pigs fed the CP diet. Under the conditions of the present study, the use of high-shear conditioning (expander treatment> prior to pelleting had no favourable effect on the apparent digestibility of nutrients in diets for growing pigs. 0 1997 Elsevier Science B.V.
To quantify the energy value of fermentable starch, 10 groups of 14 pigs were assigned to one of ... more To quantify the energy value of fermentable starch, 10 groups of 14 pigs were assigned to one of two dietary treatments comprising diets containing 45% of either pregelatinized (P) or retrograded (R) corn starch. In both diets, a contrast in natural ¹³C enrichment between the starch and nonstarch components of the diet was created to partition between enzymatic digestion and fermentation of the corn starch. Energy and protein retention were measured using indirect calorimetry after adapting the pigs to the diets for 3 wk. Fecal ¹³C enrichment was higher in the R-fed pigs (P < 0.001) and 43% of the R resisted enzymatic digestion. Energy retained as protein was unaffected and energy retained as fat was 29% lower than in P-fed pigs (P < 0.01). Prior to the morning meal, end products of fermentation substantially contributed to substrate oxidation in the R-fed pigs. During the 3-4 h following both meals, heat production was higher (P < 0.05) in P-fed pigs, but this was not pref...
In a factorial design, animal fat was added incrementally (0, 35, 70 and 105 g/kg) to maize starc... more In a factorial design, animal fat was added incrementally (0, 35, 70 and 105 g/kg) to maize starch (M) or to two sources of fermentable carbohydrates (260 g purified cellulose (C) per kg or 270 g soya-bean hulls (S) per kg). The 12 experimental diets were formulated by replacing maize starch in the control diet with fat, cellulose and soya-bean hulls of equivalent estimated net energy. Ninety-six castrated males were given these diets according to net energy. Apparent digestibilities of crude protein, crude lipid, crude fibre and nitrogen-free extract were measured and were compared with those expected from the separate ingredients. Net energy conversion ratio (nECR) was also measured. Results showed that in the C and the S diets prediction of the apparent digestibility of nutrients was worse than in the M diets (significant effect of source of carbohydrate). Prediction of apparent digestibility of crude protein and crude lipid improved as the added fat increased (significant effect...
... In human nutrition, prebiotics (mainly fermentable carbohydrates), must, by defi-nition [11],... more ... In human nutrition, prebiotics (mainly fermentable carbohydrates), must, by defi-nition [11], be undegradable by mammalian enzymes, and are therefore ... might happen in terms of fermentation in the GIT (Bauer et al., submitted) if those products were added to the animal diet. ...
Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 2006
An experiment was conducted to examine differences in the in vitro fermentability of four carbohy... more An experiment was conducted to examine differences in the in vitro fermentability of four carbohydrate-rich feed ingredients and two weaning piglet diets with and without these ingredients, using both the ileal contents and the faeces of unweaned piglets as inocula. In the first part of the experiment, cumulative gas production was measured over time, using faecal inocula mixed from nine
Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 2005
The in vitro cumulative gas production technique can be used to assess microbial activity of a co... more The in vitro cumulative gas production technique can be used to assess microbial activity of a complex community, in relation to fermentation of a particular energy source. Therefore, in combination with an in vivo study to examine the effects of two different diets for weaning piglets, microbial activities of faeces were compared from animals on the two different diets. The two diets were: CHO diet [containing added fermentable carbohydrates, including sugarbeet pulp (SBP) and wheat starch (WST)], and control diet without any added fermentable carbohydrates. Neither diet contained antibiotics or extra added copper. Twenty-four piglets were selected from 12 litters (two per litter), weaned at 4 weeks of age (neither creep feeding nor any antibiotic treatment before and during the study), and introduced to one of the two diets. After 9 days on the diet, faecal samples were collected from selected animals, and tested for their activity in terms of gas production kinetics, and end-products such as volatile fatty acids, ammonia and dry matter disappearance of the two test substrates SBP and WST. The bacterial diversity was also analysed before and after in vitro fermentation using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analysis of amplified 16S rRNA genes. There were differences both in kinetics and end-products of the substrates. More interestingly, significant differences were detected between inocula, although mainly in terms of fermentation kinetics of the two substrates. With the CHO inoculum, SBP was fermented faster than with the control, while this effect was reversed for WST. Significantly higher diversity, as measured by DGGE fingerprint analysis, was detected in the microbial community enrichment on SBP as compared with WST at the end of fermentation. The difference between the kinetics of SBP compared with WST fermentation by faecal microbiota from the CHO diet fed piglets suggests better adaptation to SBP fermentation than to WST fermentation. The WST fermentation was more unexpected, given that a significant amount of starch is known to be fermentable by the small intestinal microbiota. It was concluded that the microbial community composition and activity in the GIT may be changed in response to diet, and that this change can be detected in vitro.
were conducted to investigate the effects of steam processing on the nutritional improvement of f... more were conducted to investigate the effects of steam processing on the nutritional improvement of full-fat soya beans. In a kinetic study, soya beans were toasted at 102, 120 and 134°C for various durations (19 temperature/time combinations [~/r]). The raw and processed soya beans were measured for their functional lectins, trypsin inhibitor activity @IA), urease activity (UA) and protein dispersibility index (PDI). The raw soya beans contained 7638 p.g g-' functional lectins, 23.44 mg g-' TIA, 2.22 UA (ApH) and 85.7% PDI. These criteria all decreased as the heating time increased. Of all criteria measured, the level of functional lectins was found to be most effectively inactivated by high temperature.
The presence of carcinogenic aflatoxins in food and feed is a major issue. In prior studies, afla... more The presence of carcinogenic aflatoxins in food and feed is a major issue. In prior studies, aflatoxin B1 (AfB1) and known primary metabolites were absent from Lesser Mealworm (LMW, Alphitobius diaperinus) reared on contaminated diets. LMW is a promising alternative protein source. The objectives of this stu\dy were to determine whether LMW can be reared on AfB1-contaminated feed in each life-stage, and to gather more insight into potential metabolites formed. Results suggested no adverse effects in terms of survival/growth when three stages of LMW (larvae, pre-pupae, beetles) were exposed to feed containing AfB1 concentrations of 200 and 600 µg/kg for 48 h. Insect and frass samples were analyzed by LC-MS/MS and high-resolution MS to, respectively, quantify concentrations of AfB1 and its major metabolites, and determine secondary metabolites. No AfB1 or major metabolites were quantified in the insect samples. Mass balance calculations showed that up to 40% of spiked AfB1 could be re...
Composting of organic (waste) materials has already been applied for many years in the agroand ho... more Composting of organic (waste) materials has already been applied for many years in the agroand horticulture. During composting, the material is aerated by regularly turning the windrow with a grinder. This strongly stimulates the growth of microorganisms. These microorganisms use organic matter as their energy source. This will heat up the windrow and as a result a considerable part of the organic matter will be lost as heat and CO2, which is emitted into the environment. Another option is fermentation of the organic (waste) materials. This process takes place without aeration and without any extra processing. Following the Agriton method, Ostrea Seashell lime, Edasil Clay minerals and Microferm (Effective Microorganisms) are added to the windrow when the windrow is prepared for fermentation. After this the windrow is closed by putting a plastic foil tightly stretched over the windrow. During a period of 6 to 8 weeks the windrow is fermented. This is called Bokashi; fermented organi...
Proceedings of the British Society of Animal Science, 2003
It is now accepted that the microbial communities living within the gastro-intestinal tract (GIT)... more It is now accepted that the microbial communities living within the gastro-intestinal tract (GIT) can influence pig health, especially at stressful times such as weaning. Careful design of the animal diet is considered to be an easy way to influence the microflora positively. In this work, fermentable carbohydrates were selected after an in vitro test (cumulative gas production- Bosch et al., 2002) for both rate and extent of fermentability. The ingredients were chosen both for their end-products and in terms of their fementation kinetics so as to stimulate fermentation along the entire GIT. They were incorporated into a test diet (TEST), and compared with a control diet (CONT) which contained minimal fermentable carbohydrates. Digesta were analyzed both in terms of microbial species (molecular techniques) and their end-products (e.g. lactic acid), to determine whether fermentation had, in fact, been stimulated by the TEST diet.
Ninety-five female pigs from 20 to 45 kg body weight were used to elucidate the effects of energy... more Ninety-five female pigs from 20 to 45 kg body weight were used to elucidate the effects of energy and protein intake on the amino acid composition of the protein in the carcass, organs and empty body of growing pigs. In a 2 x 15 factorial arrangement, protein intake ranged from 127 to 350 g/d in 15 graduated steps; and the digestible energy allowances were 15.8 and 18.8 MJ/d. Whole-body amino acid contents (g/16 g nitrogen) were (means +/- SEM) lysine 6.64 +/- 0.028, methionine 2.11 +/- 0.012; threonine 3.62 +/- 0.016 and total essential amino acids 42.8 +/- 0.16. The organ fraction contained 14.8 and 15.8% (SEM 0.13) of whole-body protein at the low and high energy levels, respectively. The concentrations of essential amino acids were 41.8 +/- 0.19 and 48.4 +/- 0.13 g/16 g nitrogen in the carcass and organs, respectively. Concentrations of a number of amino acids (in carcass, organ and whole-body protein and in protein deposited between 20 and 45 kg, were affected by protein and/or energy intake. The amino acid pattern of the newly deposited protein was slightly different from that of the empty body protein. The changes in amino acid contents were presumably the result of effects of protein and energy intake on the proportions of muscle and non-muscle carcass tissues and on relative weights of blood and viscera. Consequences of these changes for the amino acid requirements are discussed.
Pre-weaning development of microbial activity has an effect on post-weaning establishment of the ... more Pre-weaning development of microbial activity has an effect on post-weaning establishment of the gastro-intestinal tract (GIT) microbiota. An in vivo study was conducted, to evaluate the effect of age on fermentation end-product profiles during the postcolostrum suckling period, as the variation in composition of mature milk is minimum. Sixteen piglets from two litters (eight per litter) were selected. During the study, piglets had free access to sow's milk, but no creep feed, nor antibiotic treatments. Two piglets from each litter were sacrificed on d 11, 18, 25 and 32 of age. The digesta samples were collected from the beginning and end of the small intestine, caecum and colon. Samples were analyzed for fermentation end-product concentrations. Combining the results from all the GIT sites, it was observed that, total VFA concentration increased with age of the piglets. There was a significant rise in acetic acid concentrations, with a significant decrease in lactic acid concentrations from d11 to d32, while the proportions of SCFA, (acetic acid ∼ 72%, propionic acid ∼ 15% and butyric acid ∼6% of total VFA) and ammonia concentrations remained unchanged. These results clearly suggest that, the microbial activity in terms of fermentation end-product profile skewed from lactic acid to acetic acid as a major product during the post-colostrum suckling period. This may be attributed to lower substrate availability due to increased number of microbes or increased diversity in the microbiota in time.
Abstract Grass hay and prewilted grass silage were supplied to heifers and mature cows at restric... more Abstract Grass hay and prewilted grass silage were supplied to heifers and mature cows at restricted and ad libitum level. Neutral detergent fibre (NDF) contents were 64.5 and 448.5% in dry matter of hay and silage, respectively. Voluntary feed intake decreased with increasing cell wall content, but time spent ruminating increased, and so did transit time of digesta in the lower gut and mean faecal particle size. Rumen motility was most intensive after feeding silage. Relative to ad libitum, at a restricted level of feed intake the time spent ruminating per unit of dry matter or the NDF ingested increased, fractional rates of reticulo-rumen emptying of particles did not change, transit in the lower gut slowed down, and faecal particles became smaller. Variation in voluntary feed intake between individual animals could for a significant part he accounted for by NDF content of the diet and time spent ruminating.
A study was carried out with piglets fed a complete diet containing mainly peas. soybean meal and... more A study was carried out with piglets fed a complete diet containing mainly peas. soybean meal and tapioca. The diet had been processed in four different ways: by pelleting without steam addition (CP), steam pelleting (SP), expander treatment (E) and expander-pelleting (EP). Expander-pelleting clearly increased pellet durability and pellet hardness as compared with CP and SP treatment. The effect on the diet starch gelatinization degree (SGD) was small due to the high SGD of the unprocessed meal. A total tract digestibility experiment with piglets revealed no differences in the apparent digestibility coefficients for dietary protein, dry matter and nitrogen-free extract. The digestibility coefficient for fat was significantly (P < 0.0 1) lower for the expandate compared with the SP diet. Both expander treatments decreased the digestibility of crude fibre (P < 0.10). N-balance (g body N retained day-') m p'g I s was similar for all diets but a trend was observed for a higher N-balance of pigs fed the CP diet. Under the conditions of the present study, the use of high-shear conditioning (expander treatment> prior to pelleting had no favourable effect on the apparent digestibility of nutrients in diets for growing pigs. 0 1997 Elsevier Science B.V.
To quantify the energy value of fermentable starch, 10 groups of 14 pigs were assigned to one of ... more To quantify the energy value of fermentable starch, 10 groups of 14 pigs were assigned to one of two dietary treatments comprising diets containing 45% of either pregelatinized (P) or retrograded (R) corn starch. In both diets, a contrast in natural ¹³C enrichment between the starch and nonstarch components of the diet was created to partition between enzymatic digestion and fermentation of the corn starch. Energy and protein retention were measured using indirect calorimetry after adapting the pigs to the diets for 3 wk. Fecal ¹³C enrichment was higher in the R-fed pigs (P < 0.001) and 43% of the R resisted enzymatic digestion. Energy retained as protein was unaffected and energy retained as fat was 29% lower than in P-fed pigs (P < 0.01). Prior to the morning meal, end products of fermentation substantially contributed to substrate oxidation in the R-fed pigs. During the 3-4 h following both meals, heat production was higher (P < 0.05) in P-fed pigs, but this was not pref...
In a factorial design, animal fat was added incrementally (0, 35, 70 and 105 g/kg) to maize starc... more In a factorial design, animal fat was added incrementally (0, 35, 70 and 105 g/kg) to maize starch (M) or to two sources of fermentable carbohydrates (260 g purified cellulose (C) per kg or 270 g soya-bean hulls (S) per kg). The 12 experimental diets were formulated by replacing maize starch in the control diet with fat, cellulose and soya-bean hulls of equivalent estimated net energy. Ninety-six castrated males were given these diets according to net energy. Apparent digestibilities of crude protein, crude lipid, crude fibre and nitrogen-free extract were measured and were compared with those expected from the separate ingredients. Net energy conversion ratio (nECR) was also measured. Results showed that in the C and the S diets prediction of the apparent digestibility of nutrients was worse than in the M diets (significant effect of source of carbohydrate). Prediction of apparent digestibility of crude protein and crude lipid improved as the added fat increased (significant effect...
... In human nutrition, prebiotics (mainly fermentable carbohydrates), must, by defi-nition [11],... more ... In human nutrition, prebiotics (mainly fermentable carbohydrates), must, by defi-nition [11], be undegradable by mammalian enzymes, and are therefore ... might happen in terms of fermentation in the GIT (Bauer et al., submitted) if those products were added to the animal diet. ...
Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 2006
An experiment was conducted to examine differences in the in vitro fermentability of four carbohy... more An experiment was conducted to examine differences in the in vitro fermentability of four carbohydrate-rich feed ingredients and two weaning piglet diets with and without these ingredients, using both the ileal contents and the faeces of unweaned piglets as inocula. In the first part of the experiment, cumulative gas production was measured over time, using faecal inocula mixed from nine
Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 2005
The in vitro cumulative gas production technique can be used to assess microbial activity of a co... more The in vitro cumulative gas production technique can be used to assess microbial activity of a complex community, in relation to fermentation of a particular energy source. Therefore, in combination with an in vivo study to examine the effects of two different diets for weaning piglets, microbial activities of faeces were compared from animals on the two different diets. The two diets were: CHO diet [containing added fermentable carbohydrates, including sugarbeet pulp (SBP) and wheat starch (WST)], and control diet without any added fermentable carbohydrates. Neither diet contained antibiotics or extra added copper. Twenty-four piglets were selected from 12 litters (two per litter), weaned at 4 weeks of age (neither creep feeding nor any antibiotic treatment before and during the study), and introduced to one of the two diets. After 9 days on the diet, faecal samples were collected from selected animals, and tested for their activity in terms of gas production kinetics, and end-products such as volatile fatty acids, ammonia and dry matter disappearance of the two test substrates SBP and WST. The bacterial diversity was also analysed before and after in vitro fermentation using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analysis of amplified 16S rRNA genes. There were differences both in kinetics and end-products of the substrates. More interestingly, significant differences were detected between inocula, although mainly in terms of fermentation kinetics of the two substrates. With the CHO inoculum, SBP was fermented faster than with the control, while this effect was reversed for WST. Significantly higher diversity, as measured by DGGE fingerprint analysis, was detected in the microbial community enrichment on SBP as compared with WST at the end of fermentation. The difference between the kinetics of SBP compared with WST fermentation by faecal microbiota from the CHO diet fed piglets suggests better adaptation to SBP fermentation than to WST fermentation. The WST fermentation was more unexpected, given that a significant amount of starch is known to be fermentable by the small intestinal microbiota. It was concluded that the microbial community composition and activity in the GIT may be changed in response to diet, and that this change can be detected in vitro.
were conducted to investigate the effects of steam processing on the nutritional improvement of f... more were conducted to investigate the effects of steam processing on the nutritional improvement of full-fat soya beans. In a kinetic study, soya beans were toasted at 102, 120 and 134°C for various durations (19 temperature/time combinations [~/r]). The raw and processed soya beans were measured for their functional lectins, trypsin inhibitor activity @IA), urease activity (UA) and protein dispersibility index (PDI). The raw soya beans contained 7638 p.g g-' functional lectins, 23.44 mg g-' TIA, 2.22 UA (ApH) and 85.7% PDI. These criteria all decreased as the heating time increased. Of all criteria measured, the level of functional lectins was found to be most effectively inactivated by high temperature.
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Papers by Marlou Bosch