ABSTRACT Background and Purpose: Commercial sexual exploitation (CSE, i.e., prostitution and sex ... more ABSTRACT Background and Purpose: Commercial sexual exploitation (CSE, i.e., prostitution and sex trafficking) of women and girls is a global phenomenon reflecting not only violence against women but also gross violation of human rights. According to the International Labor Organization 2012 report, the total number of individuals who are forcibly sexually exploited across the globe is estimated at 4.5 million, with 98% being women and 21% less than 18 years of age. India is one of the major source, transit and destination countries for this form of exploitation. Very little is known about the exit pattern of victims from CSE due to the transient nature of this population and the perennial stigma attached to being in the sex trade. This study explores the entry and exit patterns of victims of CSE in India. The questions studied are: (i) what is the pattern of entry among women/girls into CSE, (ii) what are the patterns of exiting among women/girls from CSE, and (iii) how do the victims of CSE respond to the services currently being offered to them. Methods: A survey design was used to gather data from 163 women who were currently in, exiting, or had already exited the sex trade and were receiving, or had received, services from 10 different agencies spread across 5 major cities in India. After the agencies granted permission to access clientele who were interested in the study, the researcher administered a survey questionnaire in two Indian languages, in an interview format, due to the low level of literacy in India. The questionnaire consisted of standardized measures, generally used with traumatized populations, in Likert scale format along with close ended, open ended and multiple-choice questions. For the purpose of analysis, frequency distributions, factor analysis, cluster analysis, and analysis of variance were conducted. Results: The mean age of entry of victims into CSE was 21 years with 42% being between 10 to 18 years at the time of induction. On average, the victims identified between 3 and 4 reasons as causing their entry into the sex trade, with economic conditions, peer pressure, neglect by family, poverty, and being cheated and sold, cited most often. Factor analysis revealed six dimensions to the exit process as determined by stages of change. These dimensions showed differential relationships to social support, substance use, mental health problems, impact of adverse childhood experiences, and status in the sex trade. Additionally, a significant association was found between level of service satisfaction among the victims and types of services they received from different agencies. Conclusions and Implications: The knowledge gained from this study would assist in developing a preliminary exit model which could be tested in other cultures, and in developing or modifying the services currently offered to better meet the needs of the victims of CSE during their specific stage in the exit process, empowering them to regain their life and reduce the possibility of being re-trafficked back into the sex trade.
ABSTRACT Girls in India continue to be sexually abused/exploited under the veil of traditional pr... more ABSTRACT Girls in India continue to be sexually abused/exploited under the veil of traditional practices such as Devadasi dedication despite the existence of legislation meant to protect them from child sexual abuse. This study recounts the experiences of 30 Devadasi girls who were dedicated, initiated into sexual activity, and involved in commercial sexual activity as children. It underscores the need to address this practice as a criminal offense to be prosecuted under the legislation. Efforts must be made to explicitly connect Devadasi dedication and child sexual abuse in the minds of the public, law enforcement agencies and government officials.
Involvement of women in commercial sexual activity (CSA) has always been viewed from a moralistic... more Involvement of women in commercial sexual activity (CSA) has always been viewed from a moralistic point of view in India, with legislations attempting to rescue and rehabilitate them. Some, however, look at this involvement as legitimate work. Agencies engaged in service provision align themselves to these differing ideologies. This article examines the organizational frameworks and ideologies of agencies engaged in service provision to women in or exiting from CSA, along with assessing women’s level of satisfaction and the duration of services received from these agencies. In doing so, 40 service providers from nine agencies across five major cities in India were interviewed, and 163 women receiving services from these agencies participated in a survey. The findings revealed that agencies differed based on their guiding principles, factors determining services, structure, involvement of peers/survivors, and decision-making process. The level of satisfaction with services, and durat...
The implementation of trauma-informed care is a transformational organizational change, incorpora... more The implementation of trauma-informed care is a transformational organizational change, incorporating all levels of staff and fundamentally changing the hierarchical structure of the organization . Using the principles of , this study explored the impacts of trauma-informed care implementation on staff and how staff experience the principles of trauma informed care: safety, trustworthiness, choice, collaboration, and empowerment. Findings suggest that different levels of staff experience trauma-informed care implementation differently. Findings also suggest that more exploration is needed on the factoral structure of trauma-informed care.
Commercial sexual exploitation (CSE), a global social justice issue, reflects gross violation of ... more Commercial sexual exploitation (CSE), a global social justice issue, reflects gross violation of basic human rights and extreme violence against women. Little research exists on interventions and approaches enabling women to successfully exit from, and rebuild their lives after involvement in, CSE. In this article, we investigate and compare strategies and interventions adopted in the United States (U.S.) and India for commercially sexually exploited women. A transcultural analysis of interventions that prevent entry into CSE and curb the demand for commercial sex, reduce the harm in CSE, and facilitate exit and transition post-exit are presented. The article emphasizes the lack of evidence in the literature on existing interventions, along with the need to evaluate the efficacy of these interventions within different cultural contexts. Research of this nature can promote international dialogue and disseminate information beneficial to combat CSE, a social evil that dehumanizes countless women and girls within varied settings.
International sex trafficking and domestic prostitution are each forms of commercial sexual explo... more International sex trafficking and domestic prostitution are each forms of commercial sexual exploitation (CSE), and CSE typically encompasses a gauntlet of victimization and violence for its victims. Girls and women subjected to CSE are not only damaged during their involvement in the sex industry, but they typically suffer maltreatment and related factors before they enter into it and again as they endeavor to leave it. In this article we review the common risk factors associated with entry into the sex trade industry, the traumas commonly experienced while in the industry and their psychological sequelae, and the challenges surrounding, and longer-term impact of, endeavoring to exit the industry. We describe the complex conditions present at each of these three stages (pre-entry, post-entry, and peri-/post-exit) and how they result in challenges in treating this population. As rates of commercial sexual exploitation increase both nationally and worldwide, there is an urgent need to identify effective interventions for victims and to address the conditions that foster and support CSE.
Exiting commercial sexual exploitation (CSE) is a difficult and prolonged process. This study exa... more Exiting commercial sexual exploitation (CSE) is a difficult and prolonged process. This study examines the predictors of readiness to exit CSE, using the stages of change model as an underlying framework, among women in India (n=163) and the U.S. (n=87). Constructs such as years of schooling, residence, unemployment, age of entry, causes of entry, types of exploitation, addictions, presence of perpetrator, culture -individualistic and collectivistic, stigma, social support, empowerment, and current involvement in CSE were assessed. Results of a multi-group analysis indicated significant differences in the relationships between readiness to change and the predictor measures. For the Indian sample, years of schooling, economic conditions/abuse/runaway behavior as reasons for entry, individualistic and collectivistic culture approaches, and stigma were associated with readiness to change. For the U.S. sample, living by oneself, abuse/runaway behavior as reasons for entry, indoor experiences of exploitation, substance abuse problems, collectivist cultural approach, social support, and current involvement in CSE were associated with readiness to change. However, some similarities were also found. The findings suggest that service provision must focus on addressing the constructs that increase the readiness to exit, while also being culturally competent.
Examining the involvement of women in commercial sexual exploitation (CSE), and the process of ex... more Examining the involvement of women in commercial sexual exploitation (CSE), and the process of exit, as stages of change, from a non-western perspective, is an attempt to expand and build knowledge base about the exit process. This study included 163 women in, exiting or already exited CSE from five places in India-Bangalore, Mumbai, Kolkata, Goa, and Delhi. Forty-two percent of these women had entered as minors, and poor economic condition was a major driving force, with the women having an average stay of 10 years in the sex industry. Transtheoretical or Stages of Change model was used to guide the understanding of exit process. An exploratory factor analysis identified four stages of change-denial, hopeful, actively working, and perseverance-as the best fitting model for this population. Most of the women who exited (70%) highlighted the role of social welfare agencies in facilitating change towards exit. This article promotes an inclusive approach of placing individuals at different stages along the continuum of exit, and providing more finessed stage-specific services that facilitate exit from CSE, rather than adopting a one-size-fits-all approach that treats all women in or exiting CSE as a homogenous group.
A trauma-informed care (TIC) curriculum was integrated into a school of social work master's leve... more A trauma-informed care (TIC) curriculum was integrated into a school of social work master's level program. Measures assessed the impact of the curriculum on first and advanced-year students' knowledge, attitude, self-efficacy, and behavioral intention at the beginning and end of a semester. Initial comparisons show advanced-year students as having more knowledge about TIC, more positive attitudes toward TIC, higher levels of self-efficacy to use TIC approaches, and greater likelihood to engage in TIC behaviors than first-year students. However, by the end of the semester, the latter were equivalent with advanced students on all measures. Results suggest the first-year curriculum provides sufficient background in TIC approaches to allow for significant gains across all areas assessed. However, integration of the TIC perspective within advanced courses needs further assessment.
This article explores the challenges (barriers and needs) in exit from commercial sexual exploita... more This article explores the challenges (barriers and needs) in exit from commercial sexual exploitation and its implications on service provision across different cultures, using data gathered from 55 service providers in India and the United States. The findings provide an insight into the societal nuances of the exit phenomenon, where the similarities reflect the ubiquitous nature of exploitation and the differences reflect the distinct cultural outlook within each society. The learning would initiate development/modification of interventions that are culturally sensitive and appropriate while sharing knowledge of best practices, thereby helping to make a real impact in the lives of those affected.
ABSTRACT Background and Purpose: Commercial sexual exploitation (CSE, i.e., prostitution and sex ... more ABSTRACT Background and Purpose: Commercial sexual exploitation (CSE, i.e., prostitution and sex trafficking) of women and girls is a global phenomenon reflecting not only violence against women but also gross violation of human rights. According to the International Labor Organization 2012 report, the total number of individuals who are forcibly sexually exploited across the globe is estimated at 4.5 million, with 98% being women and 21% less than 18 years of age. India is one of the major source, transit and destination countries for this form of exploitation. Very little is known about the exit pattern of victims from CSE due to the transient nature of this population and the perennial stigma attached to being in the sex trade. This study explores the entry and exit patterns of victims of CSE in India. The questions studied are: (i) what is the pattern of entry among women/girls into CSE, (ii) what are the patterns of exiting among women/girls from CSE, and (iii) how do the victims of CSE respond to the services currently being offered to them. Methods: A survey design was used to gather data from 163 women who were currently in, exiting, or had already exited the sex trade and were receiving, or had received, services from 10 different agencies spread across 5 major cities in India. After the agencies granted permission to access clientele who were interested in the study, the researcher administered a survey questionnaire in two Indian languages, in an interview format, due to the low level of literacy in India. The questionnaire consisted of standardized measures, generally used with traumatized populations, in Likert scale format along with close ended, open ended and multiple-choice questions. For the purpose of analysis, frequency distributions, factor analysis, cluster analysis, and analysis of variance were conducted. Results: The mean age of entry of victims into CSE was 21 years with 42% being between 10 to 18 years at the time of induction. On average, the victims identified between 3 and 4 reasons as causing their entry into the sex trade, with economic conditions, peer pressure, neglect by family, poverty, and being cheated and sold, cited most often. Factor analysis revealed six dimensions to the exit process as determined by stages of change. These dimensions showed differential relationships to social support, substance use, mental health problems, impact of adverse childhood experiences, and status in the sex trade. Additionally, a significant association was found between level of service satisfaction among the victims and types of services they received from different agencies. Conclusions and Implications: The knowledge gained from this study would assist in developing a preliminary exit model which could be tested in other cultures, and in developing or modifying the services currently offered to better meet the needs of the victims of CSE during their specific stage in the exit process, empowering them to regain their life and reduce the possibility of being re-trafficked back into the sex trade.
ABSTRACT Girls in India continue to be sexually abused/exploited under the veil of traditional pr... more ABSTRACT Girls in India continue to be sexually abused/exploited under the veil of traditional practices such as Devadasi dedication despite the existence of legislation meant to protect them from child sexual abuse. This study recounts the experiences of 30 Devadasi girls who were dedicated, initiated into sexual activity, and involved in commercial sexual activity as children. It underscores the need to address this practice as a criminal offense to be prosecuted under the legislation. Efforts must be made to explicitly connect Devadasi dedication and child sexual abuse in the minds of the public, law enforcement agencies and government officials.
Involvement of women in commercial sexual activity (CSA) has always been viewed from a moralistic... more Involvement of women in commercial sexual activity (CSA) has always been viewed from a moralistic point of view in India, with legislations attempting to rescue and rehabilitate them. Some, however, look at this involvement as legitimate work. Agencies engaged in service provision align themselves to these differing ideologies. This article examines the organizational frameworks and ideologies of agencies engaged in service provision to women in or exiting from CSA, along with assessing women’s level of satisfaction and the duration of services received from these agencies. In doing so, 40 service providers from nine agencies across five major cities in India were interviewed, and 163 women receiving services from these agencies participated in a survey. The findings revealed that agencies differed based on their guiding principles, factors determining services, structure, involvement of peers/survivors, and decision-making process. The level of satisfaction with services, and durat...
The implementation of trauma-informed care is a transformational organizational change, incorpora... more The implementation of trauma-informed care is a transformational organizational change, incorporating all levels of staff and fundamentally changing the hierarchical structure of the organization . Using the principles of , this study explored the impacts of trauma-informed care implementation on staff and how staff experience the principles of trauma informed care: safety, trustworthiness, choice, collaboration, and empowerment. Findings suggest that different levels of staff experience trauma-informed care implementation differently. Findings also suggest that more exploration is needed on the factoral structure of trauma-informed care.
Commercial sexual exploitation (CSE), a global social justice issue, reflects gross violation of ... more Commercial sexual exploitation (CSE), a global social justice issue, reflects gross violation of basic human rights and extreme violence against women. Little research exists on interventions and approaches enabling women to successfully exit from, and rebuild their lives after involvement in, CSE. In this article, we investigate and compare strategies and interventions adopted in the United States (U.S.) and India for commercially sexually exploited women. A transcultural analysis of interventions that prevent entry into CSE and curb the demand for commercial sex, reduce the harm in CSE, and facilitate exit and transition post-exit are presented. The article emphasizes the lack of evidence in the literature on existing interventions, along with the need to evaluate the efficacy of these interventions within different cultural contexts. Research of this nature can promote international dialogue and disseminate information beneficial to combat CSE, a social evil that dehumanizes countless women and girls within varied settings.
International sex trafficking and domestic prostitution are each forms of commercial sexual explo... more International sex trafficking and domestic prostitution are each forms of commercial sexual exploitation (CSE), and CSE typically encompasses a gauntlet of victimization and violence for its victims. Girls and women subjected to CSE are not only damaged during their involvement in the sex industry, but they typically suffer maltreatment and related factors before they enter into it and again as they endeavor to leave it. In this article we review the common risk factors associated with entry into the sex trade industry, the traumas commonly experienced while in the industry and their psychological sequelae, and the challenges surrounding, and longer-term impact of, endeavoring to exit the industry. We describe the complex conditions present at each of these three stages (pre-entry, post-entry, and peri-/post-exit) and how they result in challenges in treating this population. As rates of commercial sexual exploitation increase both nationally and worldwide, there is an urgent need to identify effective interventions for victims and to address the conditions that foster and support CSE.
Exiting commercial sexual exploitation (CSE) is a difficult and prolonged process. This study exa... more Exiting commercial sexual exploitation (CSE) is a difficult and prolonged process. This study examines the predictors of readiness to exit CSE, using the stages of change model as an underlying framework, among women in India (n=163) and the U.S. (n=87). Constructs such as years of schooling, residence, unemployment, age of entry, causes of entry, types of exploitation, addictions, presence of perpetrator, culture -individualistic and collectivistic, stigma, social support, empowerment, and current involvement in CSE were assessed. Results of a multi-group analysis indicated significant differences in the relationships between readiness to change and the predictor measures. For the Indian sample, years of schooling, economic conditions/abuse/runaway behavior as reasons for entry, individualistic and collectivistic culture approaches, and stigma were associated with readiness to change. For the U.S. sample, living by oneself, abuse/runaway behavior as reasons for entry, indoor experiences of exploitation, substance abuse problems, collectivist cultural approach, social support, and current involvement in CSE were associated with readiness to change. However, some similarities were also found. The findings suggest that service provision must focus on addressing the constructs that increase the readiness to exit, while also being culturally competent.
Examining the involvement of women in commercial sexual exploitation (CSE), and the process of ex... more Examining the involvement of women in commercial sexual exploitation (CSE), and the process of exit, as stages of change, from a non-western perspective, is an attempt to expand and build knowledge base about the exit process. This study included 163 women in, exiting or already exited CSE from five places in India-Bangalore, Mumbai, Kolkata, Goa, and Delhi. Forty-two percent of these women had entered as minors, and poor economic condition was a major driving force, with the women having an average stay of 10 years in the sex industry. Transtheoretical or Stages of Change model was used to guide the understanding of exit process. An exploratory factor analysis identified four stages of change-denial, hopeful, actively working, and perseverance-as the best fitting model for this population. Most of the women who exited (70%) highlighted the role of social welfare agencies in facilitating change towards exit. This article promotes an inclusive approach of placing individuals at different stages along the continuum of exit, and providing more finessed stage-specific services that facilitate exit from CSE, rather than adopting a one-size-fits-all approach that treats all women in or exiting CSE as a homogenous group.
A trauma-informed care (TIC) curriculum was integrated into a school of social work master's leve... more A trauma-informed care (TIC) curriculum was integrated into a school of social work master's level program. Measures assessed the impact of the curriculum on first and advanced-year students' knowledge, attitude, self-efficacy, and behavioral intention at the beginning and end of a semester. Initial comparisons show advanced-year students as having more knowledge about TIC, more positive attitudes toward TIC, higher levels of self-efficacy to use TIC approaches, and greater likelihood to engage in TIC behaviors than first-year students. However, by the end of the semester, the latter were equivalent with advanced students on all measures. Results suggest the first-year curriculum provides sufficient background in TIC approaches to allow for significant gains across all areas assessed. However, integration of the TIC perspective within advanced courses needs further assessment.
This article explores the challenges (barriers and needs) in exit from commercial sexual exploita... more This article explores the challenges (barriers and needs) in exit from commercial sexual exploitation and its implications on service provision across different cultures, using data gathered from 55 service providers in India and the United States. The findings provide an insight into the societal nuances of the exit phenomenon, where the similarities reflect the ubiquitous nature of exploitation and the differences reflect the distinct cultural outlook within each society. The learning would initiate development/modification of interventions that are culturally sensitive and appropriate while sharing knowledge of best practices, thereby helping to make a real impact in the lives of those affected.
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