While population growth is widely acknowledged as an important driver of land cover change, the r... more While population growth is widely acknowledged as an important driver of land cover change, the role of unplanned human settlements is not adequately recognised. Many such settlements occur in the semiarid lands of Kenya, which in the past had relatively lower human populations, but significant wildlife populations. Over the last four decades, the Chyulu Hills, adjacent to the Tsavo and Chyulu National Parks, have experienced rapid land cover changes associated with migrant squatter settlements. We used the Chyulu Hills to advance our understanding of the nature of land cover change under squatter settlements. We evaluated land cover change from aerial photographs and satellite images within a Geographic Information System (GIS) and combined it with landscape metrics and community surveys. Community perceptions of land cover change revealed comparable trajectories in major land cover types derived from the GIS analysis. Landscape metrics showed fragmentation of native vegetation fol...
ABSTRACT Migration is a major household survival option for both the rich and the poor in many de... more ABSTRACT Migration is a major household survival option for both the rich and the poor in many developing countries. In rural Kenya, access to land for the poor is fundamental to their survival, with lack of access often resulting in migration. The Chyulu Hills settlements are in a remote region bordering two protected areas, the Tsavo and the Chyulu Hills National Parks. They have a complex history of squatter occupation and secondary migrations, which often end in violent evictions and land expropriation to settle more ...
While population growth is widely acknowledged as an important driver of land cover change, the r... more While population growth is widely acknowledged as an important driver of land cover change, the role of unplanned human settlements is not adequately recognised. Many such settlements occur in the semiarid lands of Kenya, which in the past had relatively lower human populations, but significant wildlife populations. Over the last four decades, the Chyulu Hills, adjacent to the Tsavo and Chyulu National Parks, have experienced rapid land cover changes associated with migrant squatter settlements. We used the Chyulu Hills to advance our understanding of the nature of land cover change under squatter settlements. We evaluated land cover change from aerial photographs and satellite images within a Geographic Information System (GIS) and combined it with landscape metrics and community surveys. Community perceptions of land cover change revealed comparable trajectories in major land cover types derived from the GIS analysis. Landscape metrics showed fragmentation of native vegetation followed by coalescence to contiguous patches of cultivation as settlements increased. Land cover trajectories under squatter settlements were influenced by historical land policies, protected area management as well as regional power structures. Our findings emphasize the importance of land use histories and community involvement in evaluating and understanding land cover change. Resolution of squatter conflicts should take cognisance of community perceptions, as well as the historical and political land use antecedents. We recommend human and social capacity building of squatters towards non-land-intensive microenterprises, and research and investment in ecotourism.
Squatters form an increasingly important component of rural demographies in many countries. Despi... more Squatters form an increasingly important component of rural demographies in many countries. Despite advances on the role of human populations in the removal of native vegetation and land cover change, the contribution of squatters to this process is not clearly exemplified. To contribute knowledge to this gap, we tested alternative postulates of the role of biophysical, household socioeconomic, access and institutional factors in the variation in remnant vegetation in villages in Chyulu Hills, Kenya, which has a long history of squatter occupation. We addressed this goal by modelling the proportion of remnant vegetation in villages. Using Generalised Linear Models, model averaging and hierarchical partitioning analyses, we selected the best set of models within a 95% confidence interval, and ranked the relative importance of the explanatory factors in the variation in remnant vegetation. Squatter presence and their associated characteristics were the most significant factors. We found that institutional and socioeconomic factors explained the largest proportion of variation in remnant vegetation. Because many squatter settlements are in proximity of protected areas, implications for conservation under changing rural landscapes can be severe. We propose options that recognise squatters' role in change and their incorporation in planning to allow for more targeted interventions in conservation, and in supporting sustainable livelihoods for rural squatters.
ABSTRACT Effective management of any population involves decisions based on the levels of abundan... more ABSTRACT Effective management of any population involves decisions based on the levels of abundance at particular points in time. Hence the choice of an appropriate method to estimate abundance is critical. Deer are not native to Australia and are a declared pest in some states where their numbers must be controlled in environmentally sensitive areas. The aim of this research was to help Australian land managers choose between widely used methods to count deer. We compared population estimates or indices from: distance sampling, aerial surveys, spotlight counts, and faecal pellet counts. For each we estimated the labour input, cost, and precision. The coefficient of variation varied with method and time of year from 8.7 to 36.6%. Total labour input per sampling event varied from 11 to 136 h. Total costs of vehicles and equipment per sampling event varied from AU$913 to $2966. Overall, the spotlight method performed the best at our study site when comparing labour input, total cost and precision. However, choice of the most precise, cost effective method will be site specific and rely on information collected from a pilot study, We provide recommendations to help land managers choose between possible methods in various circumstances.
Conservation biology : the journal of the Society for Conservation Biology, Jan 29, 2015
Community-based conservation programs in developing countries often assume that heteronomous moti... more Community-based conservation programs in developing countries often assume that heteronomous motivation (e.g. extrinsic incentives such as economic rewards and pressure or coercion to act) will motivate local communities to adopt conservation behaviors. However, this may not be as effective or sustainable as autonomous motivations (e.g. an intrinsic desire to act due to inherent enjoyment or self-identification with a behavior and through freedom of choice). This paper analyses the comparative effectiveness of heteronomous versus autonomous approaches to community-based conservation programs, using the example of Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii) conservation in Indonesia. Comparing three case study villages employing differing program designs, we found that heteronomous motivations (e.g. income from tourism) led to a change in self-reported behavior towards orangutan protection. However, they were ineffective in changing self-reported behavior towards forest (i.e. orangutan habitat...
While population growth is widely acknowledged as an important driver of land cover change, the r... more While population growth is widely acknowledged as an important driver of land cover change, the role of unplanned human settlements is not adequately recognised. Many such settlements occur in the semiarid lands of Kenya, which in the past had relatively lower human populations, but significant wildlife populations. Over the last four decades, the Chyulu Hills, adjacent to the Tsavo and Chyulu National Parks, have experienced rapid land cover changes associated with migrant squatter settlements. We used the Chyulu Hills to advance our understanding of the nature of land cover change under squatter settlements. We evaluated land cover change from aerial photographs and satellite images within a Geographic Information System (GIS) and combined it with landscape metrics and community surveys. Community perceptions of land cover change revealed comparable trajectories in major land cover types derived from the GIS analysis. Landscape metrics showed fragmentation of native vegetation fol...
ABSTRACT Migration is a major household survival option for both the rich and the poor in many de... more ABSTRACT Migration is a major household survival option for both the rich and the poor in many developing countries. In rural Kenya, access to land for the poor is fundamental to their survival, with lack of access often resulting in migration. The Chyulu Hills settlements are in a remote region bordering two protected areas, the Tsavo and the Chyulu Hills National Parks. They have a complex history of squatter occupation and secondary migrations, which often end in violent evictions and land expropriation to settle more ...
While population growth is widely acknowledged as an important driver of land cover change, the r... more While population growth is widely acknowledged as an important driver of land cover change, the role of unplanned human settlements is not adequately recognised. Many such settlements occur in the semiarid lands of Kenya, which in the past had relatively lower human populations, but significant wildlife populations. Over the last four decades, the Chyulu Hills, adjacent to the Tsavo and Chyulu National Parks, have experienced rapid land cover changes associated with migrant squatter settlements. We used the Chyulu Hills to advance our understanding of the nature of land cover change under squatter settlements. We evaluated land cover change from aerial photographs and satellite images within a Geographic Information System (GIS) and combined it with landscape metrics and community surveys. Community perceptions of land cover change revealed comparable trajectories in major land cover types derived from the GIS analysis. Landscape metrics showed fragmentation of native vegetation followed by coalescence to contiguous patches of cultivation as settlements increased. Land cover trajectories under squatter settlements were influenced by historical land policies, protected area management as well as regional power structures. Our findings emphasize the importance of land use histories and community involvement in evaluating and understanding land cover change. Resolution of squatter conflicts should take cognisance of community perceptions, as well as the historical and political land use antecedents. We recommend human and social capacity building of squatters towards non-land-intensive microenterprises, and research and investment in ecotourism.
Squatters form an increasingly important component of rural demographies in many countries. Despi... more Squatters form an increasingly important component of rural demographies in many countries. Despite advances on the role of human populations in the removal of native vegetation and land cover change, the contribution of squatters to this process is not clearly exemplified. To contribute knowledge to this gap, we tested alternative postulates of the role of biophysical, household socioeconomic, access and institutional factors in the variation in remnant vegetation in villages in Chyulu Hills, Kenya, which has a long history of squatter occupation. We addressed this goal by modelling the proportion of remnant vegetation in villages. Using Generalised Linear Models, model averaging and hierarchical partitioning analyses, we selected the best set of models within a 95% confidence interval, and ranked the relative importance of the explanatory factors in the variation in remnant vegetation. Squatter presence and their associated characteristics were the most significant factors. We found that institutional and socioeconomic factors explained the largest proportion of variation in remnant vegetation. Because many squatter settlements are in proximity of protected areas, implications for conservation under changing rural landscapes can be severe. We propose options that recognise squatters' role in change and their incorporation in planning to allow for more targeted interventions in conservation, and in supporting sustainable livelihoods for rural squatters.
ABSTRACT Effective management of any population involves decisions based on the levels of abundan... more ABSTRACT Effective management of any population involves decisions based on the levels of abundance at particular points in time. Hence the choice of an appropriate method to estimate abundance is critical. Deer are not native to Australia and are a declared pest in some states where their numbers must be controlled in environmentally sensitive areas. The aim of this research was to help Australian land managers choose between widely used methods to count deer. We compared population estimates or indices from: distance sampling, aerial surveys, spotlight counts, and faecal pellet counts. For each we estimated the labour input, cost, and precision. The coefficient of variation varied with method and time of year from 8.7 to 36.6%. Total labour input per sampling event varied from 11 to 136 h. Total costs of vehicles and equipment per sampling event varied from AU$913 to $2966. Overall, the spotlight method performed the best at our study site when comparing labour input, total cost and precision. However, choice of the most precise, cost effective method will be site specific and rely on information collected from a pilot study, We provide recommendations to help land managers choose between possible methods in various circumstances.
Conservation biology : the journal of the Society for Conservation Biology, Jan 29, 2015
Community-based conservation programs in developing countries often assume that heteronomous moti... more Community-based conservation programs in developing countries often assume that heteronomous motivation (e.g. extrinsic incentives such as economic rewards and pressure or coercion to act) will motivate local communities to adopt conservation behaviors. However, this may not be as effective or sustainable as autonomous motivations (e.g. an intrinsic desire to act due to inherent enjoyment or self-identification with a behavior and through freedom of choice). This paper analyses the comparative effectiveness of heteronomous versus autonomous approaches to community-based conservation programs, using the example of Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii) conservation in Indonesia. Comparing three case study villages employing differing program designs, we found that heteronomous motivations (e.g. income from tourism) led to a change in self-reported behavior towards orangutan protection. However, they were ineffective in changing self-reported behavior towards forest (i.e. orangutan habitat...
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Papers by Greg Baxter