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Ọzara

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Ọzara ma ọ bụ ala ọhịa (na-emekarị n'ọtụtụ) bụ gburugburu ebe obibi dị n'ụwa nke emebeghị nke ọma site na ọrụ mmadụ, ma ọ bụ ala ọ bụla na-adịghị n'ime obodo na-adịghị n'okpuru nnukwu ọrụ ugbo. Okwu a na-ezokarị aka na gburugburu ụwa, n'agbanyeghị na a na-etinye uche na-eto eto na ọzara mmiri. Maapụ ọzara na-adịbeghị anya na-egosi na ọ na-ekpuchi ihe dị ka otu ụzọ n'ụzọ anọ nke elu ụwa, mana ọrụ mmadụ na-eweda ya ngwa ngwa. Ọbụlagodi obere ọzara ka dị n'oké osimiri, ebe naanị 13.2% enweghị ọrụ mmadụ siri ike.

Ụfọdụ gọọmentị na-ewepụta nchebe maka mpaghara ọzara site n'iwu ka ọ bụghị naanị ichekwa ihe dị adị, kamakwa ịkwalite ma kwalite okwu na mmepe ebumpụta ụwa. Enwere ike idobe ihe ndị a na nchekwa, nchekwa nchekwa, oke ohia nke mba, ogige ntụrụndụ mba na ọbụna n'ime obodo mepere emepe n'akụkụ osimiri, olulu mmiri ma ọ bụ n'akụkụ ndị ọzọ na-emepeghị emepe. Ọtụtụ mgbe, a na-ewere mpaghara ndị a dị ka ihe dị mkpa maka nlanarị nke ụfọdụ ụdị, ụdị ndụ dị iche iche, ọmụmụ ihe gbasara gburugburu ebe obibi, nchekwa, ịnọ naanị ya na ntụrụndụ. Ha nwekwara ike ichekwa àgwà mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa akụkọ ihe mere eme ma na-enye ebe obibi maka ahịhịa na anụ ọhịa nke nwere ike isi ike ịmegharị na zoos, arboretums ma ọ bụ ụlọ nyocha.

Oge Ochie na Oge Ụwa Na-emepechabeghị Anya

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Site n'echiche nka anya, ọdịdị na anụ ọhịa abụrụla ihe dị mkpa n'oge dị iche iche nke akụkọ ntolite ụwa. Omenala mbụ nke nka odida obodo mere na usoro ndị eze Tang (618–907). Omenala nke na-anọchi anya ọdịdị dị ka ọ ghọrọ otu n'ime ebumnuche nke eserese ndị China ma bụrụ nnukwu mmetụta na nka Eshia. Ndị na-ese ihe na omenala Shan shui (lit. ugwu-mmiri-foto), mụtara igosi ugwu na osimiri "site n'echiche nke ọdịdị n'ozuzu ya na ndabere nke nghọta ha nke iwu nke okike ... dị ka a ga-asị na a na-ahụ site na anya nnụnụ". Na narị afọ nke 13, Shih Erh Chi tụrụ aro ka ịzere eserese "ihe nkiri na-enweghị ebe ọ bụla mere na-agaghị enweta site na okike".

Maka ihe ka ukwuu n'akụkọ ihe mere eme nke mmadụ, akụkụ ka ukwuu nke ala ụwa bụ ọzara, na nlebara anya mmadụ lekwasịrị anya na ebe obibi. Iwu mbụ a ma ama iji kpuchido akụkụ nke okike sitere na Alaeze Ukwu Babịlọn na Alaeze Ukwu China. Ashoka, Eze Ukwu Mauryan, kọwapụtara iwu mbụ n'ụwa iji chebe osisi na anụ ọhịa n'ime Iwu Ashoka gburugburu narị afọ nke atọ BC. N'ime oge emepechabeghị anya, ndị eze England malitere otu n'ime mbọ ụwa mbụ siri ike iji chekwa ebe okike. Ọchịchọ nke inwe ike ịchụ nta anụ ọhịa n'ebe a na-echekwa ịchụ nta ihe nzuzo kpaliri ha kama ịchọ ichebe ọzara. Ka o sina dị, ka e wee nwee anụmanụ ha ga-achụ nta, ha ga-echebe anụ ọhịa pụọ n'ịchụ nta ihe oriri na ala n'aka ndị obodo na-achịkọta nkụ. Ewebatara usoro ndị yiri ya na mba ndị ọzọ dị na Europe.

Otú ọ dị, n'ọdịnala ndị Europe, n'oge emepechabeghị anya, a naghị ewere ọzara n'ozuzu ya ka ọ bara uru ichebe kama a na-ekpe ya ikpe na-adịghị mma dị ka ebe dị ize ndụ na dịka omume megidere ụwa nke omenala na ndụ nsọpụrụ Chineke. "Ọ bụ ezie na okpukpe ndị mgbe ochie na-atụgharị onwe ha n'ebe ọdịdị dị, na Krisendọm mgbe ochie a dochie anya ntụzịaka a site n'otu n'ime iwu Chineke. A naghịzi ahụ Chineke n'okike; kama nke ahụ, ọdịdị na-akụghị mkpụrụ ghọrọ saịtị nke ajọ omume na ndị mmụọ ọjọọ. Ọ bụ ya. a na-ewere na ọ dara site na ọdịda (natura lapsa), na-aghọ mkpọmkpọ ebe nke anya mmiri nke ụmụ mmadụ ga-ebi ndụ n'ime ya.Ya mere, dịka ọmụmaatụ, ugwu a kọwara [dịka ọmụmaatụ, Thomas Burnet] dị ka mkpọmkpọ ebe nke ụwa dị larịị nke mebiri emebi. Iju Mmiri ahụ, ya na oké osimiri dị ka ihe fọdụrụ nke Iju Mmiri ahụ. “Ọ bụrụ na paradaịs bụ ihe ọma kacha mma mmadụ nwere n’oge mbụ, ọzara, dị ka ihe mgbochi ya, bụ ihe ọjọọ ya kachanụ.".[1]

Narị afọ nke 15 ruo nke 19

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Ndị na-achị achị na-ele ọzara anya dị ka ihe ọjọọ na nguzogide ọ na-emegide ikike ha. Echiche nke ịdị ọcha nke ọzara pụtara na ka ndị na-achị obodo wee nwee ike ibi na North America, ha ga-ebibi ọzara ka ha wee nwee ohere maka obodo ha 'mepere emepe'. E weere ọzara dị ka mgbọrọgwụ nke nsogbu ndị na-achị obodo, n'ihi ya, iji mee ka nsogbu ahụ laa, ọ dị mkpa ibibi ọzara. Otu n'ime nzọụkwụ mbụ na-eme nke a, bụ ikpochapụ osisi iji kpochapụ ala. A na-eji ihe atụ ndị agha na-akọwa ọzara dị ka "onye iro", na mgbasawanye nke ndị ọbịa ka a kọwapụtara dị ka "[na-emeri] ọzara".

N'ihe gbasara ọzara, a na-ele ụmụ amaala America anya dị ka ndị obi tara mmiri. Mmekọrịta dị n'etiti ụmụ amaala America na ala bụ ihe ndị colonists na-aghọtaghị ma ghara ịnwa ịghọta. Mmekọrịta a na-aba uru dị iche n'otú ndị na-achị achị si ele ala ahụ anya nanị n'ihe metụtara otú ọ ga-esi rite uru n'onwe ha site n'ịlụ ọgụ mgbe nile iji tipịa ala na ihe ndị ọzọ dị ndụ n'okpuru. Nkwenye ndị na-achị obodo nwere na ala ahụ bụ naanị ihe a ga-eji mee ihe dabere na echiche Ndị Kraịst. Ọ bụrụ na ọ bụ Chineke Ndị Kraịst kere ụwa na anụmanụ na ihe ọkụkụ maka iji mmadụ mee ihe, mgbe ahụ ihe ndị na-achị achị bụ ihe Chineke nyere ha.

Otú ọ dị, echiche ahụ bụ́ na ihe ndị na-achị Europe hụrụ mgbe ha rutere n’Ebe Ugwu America bụ ihe na-adịghị mma na nke na-enweghị mmadụ bụ ihe na-ezighị ezi n’ihi ịdị adị nke ụmụ amaala America. Ndị America kpụrụ ala ahụ site na omume dịka ọkụ. Ọkụ na-eme ugboro ugboro na n'ụzọ a na-achịkwa. Okirikiri ala a na-ahụ na US taa dị nnọọ iche n'otú ihe si ele tupu ndị ọchịchị abịa. Enwere ike iji ọkụ na-echekwa nri, eriri, na nkata. Otu n'ime isi ọrụ nke ọkụ na-agbakarị bụ igbochi ọkụ na-adịghị achịkwa nke na-aghọwanyewanye.[2]

Echiche nke ọzara nwere uru dị n'ime pụtara na ụwa ọdịda anyanwụ na narị afọ nke iri na itoolu. Ndị Britain na-ese ihe John Constable na J. M. W. Turner tụgharịrị uche ha n'ịchịkọta ịma mma nke ụwa okike na ihe osise ha. Tupu nke ahụ, ihe osise bụ nke okpukpe ma ọ bụ nke mmadụ. Abụ William Wordsworth kọwara ihe ịtụnanya nke ụwa okike, nke a na-elebu anya dị ka ebe egwu. N'ụzọ na-arịwanye elu, iji ihe okike kpọrọ ihe ghọrọ akụkụ nke ọdịbendị ọdịda anyanwụ.[3]

Ka ọ na-erule n'etiti narị afọ nke 19, na Germany, "Nchekwa sayensị", dị ka a na-akpọ ya, kwadoro "iji nke ọma na-eji ihe ndị sitere n'okike eme ihe site na ntinye nke sayensị na nkà na ụzụ". A na-etinye echiche nke njikwa oke ohia dabere na ụzọ German n'akụkụ ndị ọzọ nke ụwa, mana enwere ogo dị iche iche nke ịga nke ọma. N'ime oge nke narị afọ nke 19, a na-ele ọzara anya ọ bụghị ebe egwu kama ebe a ga-ekpori ndụ na ichebe; N'ihi ya, òtù nchekwa ahụ bịara na ọkara ikpeazụ nke narị afọ nke 19. A na-akwatu osimiri, a na-arịkwa ugwu naanị n'ihi ntụrụndụ, ọ bụghị iji chọpụta ọnọdụ mpaghara ha.

N'afọ 1861, mgbe ndị na-ese ihe (ndị na-ese onyinyo) na-eme ihe siri ike, ụlọ ọrụ French Waters and Forests Military Agency guzobere "ebe nchekwa nka" na Fontainebleau State Forest. N'inwe ngụkọta nke 1,097 hekta, a maara ya dị ka ebe nchekwa okike mbụ n'ụwa.

Nchekwa nke oge a

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Nchekwa ụwa ghọrọ nsogbu n'oge mgbasa nke Alaeze Ukwu Britain na Africa na ngwụcha afọ 1940. Ndị Britain guzobere nnukwu ebe nchekwa anụ ọhịa n'ebe ahụ. Dị ka ọ dị na mbụ, mmasị a na nchekwa nwere ebumnuche akụ na ụba: n'ọnọdụ a, nnukwu ịchụ nta. Ka o sina dị, nke a dugara na mmata na-arịwanye elu na 1950s na mmalite 1960s nke mkpa ọ dị ichebe nnukwu oghere maka nchekwa anụ ọhịa n'ụwa niile. World Wildlife Fund (WWF), nke e guzobere na 1961, tolitere ịbụ otu n'ime nnukwu ụlọ ọrụ nchekwa n'ụwa.[3]

Ndị na-echekwa ihe n'oge gara aga kwadoro ka e mepụta usoro iwu nke enwere ike ịtọ ókèala na ọrụ mmadụ iji chekwaa ala okike na nke pụrụ iche maka ntụrụndụ na ojiji nke ọgbọ ndị na-abịa n'ọdịnihu. Mgbanwe a dị omimi n'echiche ọzara ruru n'ókè dị elu na US site na ntinye nke Wilderness Act nke 1964, nke nyere ohere ka a họpụta akụkụ nke US National Forests dị ka "nchebe ọzara". Omume yiri nke ahụ, dị ka Iwu Ọzara Ọwụwa Anyanwụ nke afọ 1975, sochiri.

Ka o sina dị, atụmatụ maka nchekwa ọzara na-aga n'ihu na-abawanye. E nwere ọnụ ọgụgụ na-arịwanye elu nke ọrụ iji chebe oké ọhịa mmiri ozuzo site na atụmatụ nchekwa. E nwekwara nnukwu ọrụ iji chekwaa mpaghara ọzara, dị ka Canada's Boreal Forest Conservation Framework. Usoro ahụ na-akpọ maka nchekwa nke pasent 50 nke square kilomita 6,000 nke oké ọhịa boreal n'ebe ugwu Canada. Na mgbakwunye na World Wildlife Fund, òtù ndị dị ka Wildlife Conservation Society, WILD Foundation, The Nature Conservancy, Conservation International, The Wilderness Society (United States) na ọtụtụ ndị ọzọ na-arụsi ọrụ ike na mbọ nchekwa dị otú ahụ.

Narị afọ nke iri abụọ na otu ahụla obere mgbanwe ọzọ n'echiche na echiche nke ọzara. A ghọtara ugbu a na naanị ịde akara gburugburu otu ala ma kwupụta na ọ bụ ọzara anaghị eme ka ọ bụrụ ọzara. Ala niile nwere njikọ dị mgbagwoju anya na ihe na-eme n'èzí ọzara na-emetụta ihe na-ewere ọnọdụ n'ime ya. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, mmetọ ikuku sitere na Los Angeles na California Central Valley na-emetụta Kern Canyon na Sequoia National Park. Ogige ntụrụndụ ahụ nwere ọtụtụ kilomita nke "ọzara" mana ikuku jupụtara na mmetọ sitere na ndagwurugwu ahụ. Nke a na-ebute mgbagwoju anya nke ihe ọzara bụ n'ezie; isi okwu na echiche ọzara nke narị afọ nke 21.

A view of wilderness in Estonia

Ogige Ntụrụndụ Mba

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Ọzara El Toro n'ime Ọhịa Mba El Yunque na Puerto Rico

Okike nke ogige ntụrụndụ mba, malite na narị afọ nke iri na itoolu, chekwaara ụfọdụ ebe ndị mara mma na ndị a ma ama, mana ịchụso azụmahịa, ụzọ ndụ, na ntụrụndaka jikọtara ya na mmụba nke ọnụ ọgụgụ mmadụ anọgidewo na-ebute mgbanwe mmadụ n'ebe ndị a na-emetụbeghị aka. Ọrụ mmadụ dị otú ahụ na-emetụtakarị osisi na anụmanụ ala. N'ihi ya, iji chebe ebe obibi ndị dị oke egwu ma chekwaa ohere ntụrụndụ na-enweghị mmetụta, e guzobere echiche iwu nke "ọzara" n'ọtụtụ mba, malite na United States (lee n'okpuru).

Ogige Ntụrụndụ mbụ bụ Yellowstone, nke Onye isi ala US Ulysses S. Grant bịanyere aka na ya na 1 Machị 1872.[4] Iwu nraranye ahụ kwupụtara na Yellowstone bụ ala "nke a na-echekwa ma wepụ ya na ebe obibi, obibi, ma ọ bụ ire ere n'okpuru iwu nke United States, ma nyefee ya ma kewaa ya dị ka ogige ntụrụndụ ọha na eze ma ọ bụ ebe na-atọ ụtọ maka uru na obi ụtọ nke ndị mmadụ".[5]

Mgbe e guzobere ogige ntụrụndụ mba n'otu mpaghara, a manyere ndị America bi n'ebe ahụ n'ike ka ndị ọbịa bịara n'ogige ahụ nwee ike ịhụ ọdịdị na-enweghị mmadụ. A na-ahụ ogige ntụrụndụ mba dị ka ebe ụmụ mmadụ na-emetụghị, mgbe n'eziokwu, ụmụ mmadụ dị n'ime oghere ndị a, ruo mgbe ndị na-achị ndị ọbịa batara na-amanye ha n'ala ha iji mepụta ogige ntụrụndụ mba. Echiche a na-enye echiche ahụ otuto na tupu ndị ọbịa abịa, US bụ odida obodo na-enweghị ebe obibi. Nke a na-ehichapụ eziokwu nke ụmụ amaala America, yana mmekọrịta ha na ala na ọrụ ha nwere n'ịkpụzi odida obodo. Mkpochapu dị otú ahụ na-egosi na e nwere mpaghara US bụ ndị na-enweghị akụkọ ihe mere eme, na-ehichapụkwa ịdị adị nke ụmụ amaala America na mmekọrịta ha na ala ahụ. N'ihe banyere Yellowstone, Grand Canyon, na Yosemite, 'ichekwa' ala ndị a nke gọọmentị US bụ ihe mere ka e wepụrụ ndị America bi na mpaghara ahụ n'usoro.[6]

Ọkọ akụkọ ihe mere eme Mark David Spence egosiwo na ikpe nke Glacier National Park na ndị Blackfeet bi n'ebe ahụ bụ ihe atụ zuru oke nke ihichapụ dị otú ahụ.[6] Ndị Blackfeet nwere ikike a họpụtara kpọmkwem na mpaghara ahụ, mana iwu Glacier National Park nke 1910 mere ka ikike ndị ahụ ghara ịdị irè.[6][7] Omume nke 'ichekwa' ala ahụ nwere njikọ kpọmkwem na mwepu nke ndị Blackfeet.[6] Nnọgide na-aga n'ihu nke ndị Blackfeet enyewo akwụkwọ banyere mkpa mpaghara ahụ nye ọtụtụ agbụrụ dị iche iche.[7][6]

Ogige ntụrụndụ nke abụọ n'ụwa, Royal National Park, nke dị naanị kilomita 32 site na ndịda Sydney, Australia, guzobere na 1879.[8]

Echiche US banyere ogige ntụrụndụ mba bịarutere n'oge na-adịghị anya na Canada, bụ nke kere Banff National Park na 1885, n'otu oge ahụ a na-ewu okporo ụzọ ụgbọ okporo ígwè Canada Pacific transcontinental. Ihe okike nke a na ogige ntụrụndụ ndị ọzọ gosipụtara ekele na-eto eto nke anụ ọhịa, kamakwa eziokwu akụ na ụba. Ụzọ ụgbọ oloko chọrọ ịrata ndị mmadụ ịga ebe ọdịda anyanwụ. Ogige ntụrụndụ dị ka Banff na Yellowstone nwetara ihu ọma ka okporo ụzọ ụgbọ oloko na-akpọsa njem gaa "oke ọhịa" nke North America. Mgbe onye nọ n'èzí Teddy Roosevelt ghọrọ onyeisi oche nke United States, ọ malitere ịgbasa usoro ogige ntụrụndụ nke United States, ma guzobe usoro National Forest.

Ka ọ na-erule afọ 1920, iji ụgbọ okporo ígwè gafee North America iji nweta "ọzara" (na-elekarị ya naanị site na windo) aghọwo ihe a ma ama. Nke a dugara n'ịzụ ahịa nke ụfọdụ ogige ntụrụndụ nke Canada site na iwu nnukwu họtel dịka Banff Springs Hotel na Chateau Lake Louise.

N'agbanyeghị aha ha yiri, ogige ntụrụndụ mba dị na England na Wales dị nnọọ iche na ogige ntorobịa mba dị n'ọtụtụ mba ndị ọzọ. N'adịghị ka ọtụtụ mba ndị ọzọ, na England na Wales, nhọpụta dị ka ogige ntụrụndụ mba nwere ike ịgụnye nnukwu ebe obibi na ojiji ala mmadụ nke na-abụkarị akụkụ dị mkpa nke ala, ala dị n'ime ogige ntorobịa na-anọgide n'ụzọ dị ukwuu n'onwe ya. Ogige ntụrụndụ ọ bụla na-arụ ọrụ site na ikike ogige ntụrụngwa nke ya.

Agbalịrịla nkà ihe ọmụma United States gburugburu nchekwa ọzara site na ogige ntụrụndụ mba na mba ndị ọzọ. Agbanyeghị, ndị mmadụ bi na mba ndị ahụ nwere echiche dị iche iche gbara ọzara gburugburu karịa ndị nọ na United States, yabụ, echiche US banyere ọzara nwere ike imebi n'akụkụ ụwa ndị ọzọ. India bi n'ọnụọgụ karịa ma biri kemgbe ogologo oge. Enwere mmekọrịta dị mgbagwoju anya n'etiti obodo ndị ọrụ ugbo na ọzara. Ihe atụ nke a bụ ogige ntụrụndụ Project Tiger na India. Site n'ikwu na ebe ndị mmadụ anaghịzi eji ya eme ihe, ala ahụ na-esi n'aka ndị ogbenye na-akwaga ndị ọgaranya. Inwe ebe nchekwa agụ ga-ekwe omume naanị site n'ịchụpụ ndị ogbenye, ndị na-etinyeghị aka na nhazi mpaghara. Ọnọdụ a na-etinye ezigbo ọzara karịa mmekọrịta dị adị n'etiti ndị mmadụ na ala ha bi na ya. Site n'itinye echiche okike nke alaeze ukwu na mba dị iche iche, a na-etinye ọchịchọ nke iweghachi ọzara karịa ndụ nke ndị bi site n'ịrụ ọrụ ala.[9]

Nchekwa na nchekwa na narị afọ nke 20 United States

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Ka ọ na-erule ná ngwụsị narị afọ nke 19, ọ bịara doo anya na n'ọtụtụ mba, ógbè ọhịa furu efu ma ọ bụ nọrọ n'ihe ize ndụ nke ịpụ n'anya. Nghọta a mere ka a malite ọrụ nchekwa na United States, akụkụ ụfọdụ site na mbọ nke ndị ode akwụkwọ na ndị na-eme ihe ike dịka John Burroughs, Aldo Leopold, na John Muir, na ndị ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị dịka Onye isi ala US Teddy Roosevelt.

Ọdọ Mmiri Cook na Bridger Wilderness, Bridger-Teton National Forest, Wyoming, U.S.

Echiche nke ichebe okike maka ọdịdị okike malitere inweta nkwanye ùgwù na 1930s na ndị edemede America dị ka Aldo Leopold, na-akpọ maka "omume ala" ma na-agba ume ichebe ọzara. Ọ bịara doo anya na oghere ọhịa na-apụ n'anya ngwa ngwa nakwa na ọ dị mkpa ime ihe siri ike iji zọpụta ha. Nchekwa ala ịkpa bụ isi na gburugburu ebe obibi miri emi; nkà ihe ọmụma nke kwenyere na uru sitere n'okike nke ihe niile dị ndụ, n'agbanyeghị uru ha bara maka mkpa mmadụ.[10]

Otu abụọ dị iche iche apụtala n'ime mmegharị gburugburu US na mmalite narị afọ nke 20: ndị nchekwa na ndị nchekwa. Nkwekọrịta mbụ n'etiti ndị nchekwa nchekwa kewara gaa na "ndị na-ahụ maka nchekwa na-enyere aka" emesịa kpọọ ya dị ka ndị nchekwa, na "ndị na-ahụ maka nchekwa mma" ma ọ bụ ndị nchekwa. Onye nnọchite anya nke mbụ bụ Gifford Pinchot, Onye isi mbụ nke United States Forest Service, ha lekwasịrị anya na iji okike eme ihe nke ọma, ebe ndị nchekwa nchekwa na-achọ nchekwa nke okike site na iji. N'ikwu ya n'ụzọ ọzọ, nchekwa na-achọ ịchịkwa ojiji mmadụ ebe nchekwa na-achọ iwepụ mmetụta mmadụ kpam kpam. Nlekọta nke ala ọha na eze US n'ime afọ 1960 na 70s gosipụtara ọhụụ abụọ ndị a, ebe ndị nchekwa na-achịkwa ọrụ ọhịa, na ndị na-echekwa Park Service.[11]

Aha ndị a na-akpọ ala ịkpa

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Mba Nile

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World Conservation Union (IUCN) na-ekewa ọzara na ọkwa abụọ, 1a (ebe nchekwa okike siri ike) na 1b (ebe ọzara).[12]

E nweela arịrịọ n'oge na-adịbeghị anya maka Nkwekọrịta Ihe Nketa Ụwa iji chebe ọzara nke ọma ma tinye okwu ọzara na usoro nhọrọ ha maka Ebe Ihe Nketa Okike[13]

Mba iri anọ na asatọ nwere mpaghara ọzara hiwere site na nhọpụta ndị omebe iwu dị ka saịtị IUCN echekwabara mpaghara ngalaba Category 1b nke na-anaghị agafe na aha IUCN ọzọ. Ha bụ: Australia, Austria, Bahamas, Bangladesh, Bermuda, Bosnia na Herzegovina, Botswana, Canada, Cayman Islands, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cuba, Czech Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Estonia, Finland , French Guiana, Greenland, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Japan, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Marshall Islands, Mexico, Mongolia, Nepal, New Zealand, Norway, Northern Mariana Islands, Portugal, Seychelles, Serbia, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sweden, Tanzania, United States of America, na Zimbabwe. Na mbipụta, enwere mpaghara 2,992 mmiri na terrestrial ọzara edebanye aha na IUCN dịka naanị saịtị ngalaba 1b.

Mba iri abụọ na abụọ ndị ọzọ nwere ebe ọzara. A na-eguzobe ebe ndị a dị n'ọzara site na aha nchịkwa ma ọ bụ mpaghara ọzara n'ime ebe echedoro. Ọ bụ ezie na ndepụta ahụ dị n'elu nwere mba ndị nwere ọzara a họpụtara dị ka saịtị Category 1b, ụfọdụ n'ime mba ndị edepụtara n'okpuru ebe ahụ nwere ebe echedoro nwere ọtụtụ ụdị njikwa gụnyere Category 1b. Ha bụ: Argentina, Bhutan, Brazil, Chile, Honduras, Germany, Italy, Kenya, Malaysia, Namibia, Nepal, Pakistan, Panama, Peru, Philippines, Russian Federation, South Africa, Switzerland, Uganda, Ukraine, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Venezuela, na Zambia.[14]

Germany

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Strategy National German on Diversity Diversity bu n'obi iguzobe ọzara na 2% nke ala ya site na 2020 (7,140 km2). Agbanyeghị, mpaghara ala ịkpa echedoro na Germany ugbu a na-ekpuchi naanị 0.6% nke mkpokọta mbara ala. Na enweghị odida obodo, Germany na-agụ ogige ntụrụndụ mba (IUCN Category II) dị ka mpaghara ọzara. Gọọmenti na-agụta mpaghara niile nke ogige ntụrụndụ mba iri na isii dị ka ọzara. Nke a pụtara, nakwa akụkụ ndị a na-achịkwa na-agụnye na "dị" 0,6%. Obi abụọ adịghị ya, na Germany ga-atụfu ihe mgbaru ọsọ ọnụ ọgụgụ nke dabere na oge ya, mana enwerekwa ụfọdụ ndị nkatọ, nke na-arụtụ aka na omume nhọpụta ọjọọ: Nchọpụta nke gburugburu ebe obibi ọgba aghara, dịka usoro nchekwa ọdịdị ọdịdị dabere na usoro na ebumnuche 2% nwere ike. bụrụ onye tozuru oke site na nhọpụta mpaghara ezubere iche, ọgwụgwọ tupu ọgwụgwọ na iwebata megaherbivores, bụ nke a na-eleghara anya. Ebe ọ bụ na 2019 gọọmentị na-akwado azụmahịa nke ala nke a ga-ahọpụta dị ka ọzara site na 10 Mio. Euro kwa afọ. Opekempe German maka saịtị ndị na-azọ ọkwa ọzara na-abụkarị 10 km2. N'ọnọdụ ụfọdụ (ya bụ swamps) nke kacha nta bụ 5 km2

Finland

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Ógbè Ọzara Tsarmitunturi

E nwere ebe iri na abụọ dị n'ọzara n'ógbè Sami dị n'ebe ugwu Lapland nke Finland. Ebumnuche ha bụ iji chekwaa ọdịdị ọzara nke mpaghara ahụ ma kwalite ndụ ọdịnala nke ndị Sami. Nke a pụtara na dịka ọmụmaatụ na a na-ekwe ka ịkpa anụ reindeer, ịchụ nta na iburu osisi maka iji ya mee ihe n'ụlọ. Dị ka ọnụ ọgụgụ mmadụ dị obere, nke a abụghị nnukwu ihe iyi egwu nye okike. Ịkpa anụ reindeer buru ibu nwere mmetụta na gburugburu ebe obibi, mana ọ nweghị mgbanwe a na-ewebata site na iwu ahụ na mpaghara ọzara. World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) kewara mpaghara ndị ahụ dị ka "ebe a na-echebe VI nke nwere ojiji na-adịgide adịgide nke ihe ndị sitere n'okike".

France

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Kemgbe 1861, ụlọ ọrụ ndị agha French Waters and Forests (Administration des Eaux et Forêts) tinyere nchebe siri ike n'ihe a na-akpọ ebe nchekwa nka na Fontainebleau State Forest. N'inwe ngụkọta nke 1,097 hekta, a maara ya dị ka ebe nchekwa okike mbụ n'ụwa.

Mgbe ahụ na 1950s, Integral Biological Reserves (Réserves Biologiques Intégrales, RBI) raara onwe ya nye evolushọn gburugburu ebe obibi na-enweghị mmadụ, n'adịghị ka Managed Biological reserves (Résers Biologiques Dirigées, RBD) ebe a na-etinye njikwa a kapịrị ọnụ iji chekwaa ụdị ndị na-adịghị ike ma ọ bụ ebe obibi na'ihe ize ndụ.[15]

Integral Biological Reserves na-ewere ọnọdụ na French State Forests ma ọ bụ City Forests ma ya mere National Forests Office na-elekọta ya. N'ime ebe nchekwa ndị dị otú ahụ, a machibidoro ihe ubi niile ma e wezụga mwepụ nke ụdị dị iche iche ma ọ bụ ọrụ nchekwa nke ụzọ iji zere ihe ize ndụ osisi dara maka ndị ọbịa (ụzọ dị ugbu a ma ọ bụ na nsọtụ ebe nchekwa ahụ).

Na ngwụcha afọ 2014, e nwere 60 Integral Biological Reserves na French State Forests maka ngụkọta nke 111,082 hekta na 10 na City Forests maka ngalaba nke 2,835 hekta.[16]

Gris

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  Na Gris, e nwere ụfọdụ ogige ntụrụndụ a na-akpọ "ethniki drimoi" (εθν Isla δρυμοί, oké ọhịa mba) nke nọ n'okpuru nchebe nke gọọmentị Gris. Ogige ntụrụndụ ndị dị otú ahụ gụnyere Olympus, Parnassos na Parnitha National Parks.

New Zealand

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  E nwere mpaghara ọzara asaa na New Zealand dị ka akọwapụtara site na National Parks Act 1980 na Conservation Act 1987 nke dabara nke ọma n'ime nkọwa IUCN. Ebe ndị dị n'ọzara enweghị ike itinye aka na mmadụ ọ bụla ma nwee ike iweghachi ụdị ụmụ amaala n'ime mpaghara ahụ ma ọ bụrụ na ọ kwekọrọ na usoro nchịkwa nchekwa.

Na New Zealand, ebe ndị dị n'ọzara bụ ala ndị dịpụrụ adịpụ nke nwere ọdịdị okike dị elu.[17] Iwu Nchekwa nke 1987 na-egbochi ohere ọ bụla site na ụgbọala na anụ ụlọ, iwu ụzọ na ụlọ, na ihe onwunwe okike niile na-echebe.[18] Ha na-adịkarị ihe karịrị 400 km2 n'ogo.[19]

A na-amata mpaghara ọzara atọ ugbu a, niile dị na West Coast: Adams Wilderness Area, Hooker / Landsborough Wilderness Zone na Paparoa Wilderness Region.[20]

United States

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A họpụtara Great Swamp nke New Jersey, nke ndị bi na ya nyere maka nchebe gọọmentị etiti, dị ka ebe mgbaba mbụ n'ọzara na United States na 1960.

Na United States, Wilderness Area bụ mpaghara ala gọọmentị etiti nke iwu nke Congress wepụrụ. Ọ na-abụkarị ma ọ dịkarịa ala 5,000 acres (ihe dị ka 8 mi2 ma ọ bụ 20 km2) n'ogo.[21] A na-ejedebe ọrụ mmadụ n'ebe ndị dị n'ọzara na ọmụmụ sayensị na ntụrụndụ na-abụghị nke igwe; a na-ekwe ka ịnyịnya ma ụgbọala na ngwá ọrụ, dị ka ụgbọala na ịnyịnya ígwè, abụghị.

United States bụ otu n'ime mba ndị mbụ họpụtara ala dị ka "ọzara" site na Iwu Ọzara nke 1964. Iwu Ọzara bụ akụkụ dị mkpa nke nhọpụta ọzara n'ihi na o mepụtara nkọwa iwu nke ọzara ma guzobe National Wilderness Preservation System. Iwu Ọzara na-akọwa ọzara dị ka "ebe mmadụ na-emetụtaghị ụwa na obodo ya, ebe mmadụ n'onwe ya bụ onye ọbịa na-adịghị anọgide".[22]

Nkọwa ala ịkpa na-enyere aka ichekwa ọnọdụ okike nke ala ahụ ma na-echebe osisi na anụmanụ site na ịmachibido mmepe na inye maka ntụrụndụ na-abụghị nke igwe naanị.

Ebe mbụ a na-echebe n'ọzara na United States bụ Gila National Forest. N'afọ 1922, Aldo Leopold, onye nọ n'ọkwa nke US Forest Service, tụrụ aro usoro nchịkwa ọhụrụ maka Gila National Forest. A nabatara atụmatụ ya na 1924, 750,000 acres nke Gila National Forest ghọrọ Gila Wilderness.[23]

Nnukwu apiti dị na New Jersey bụ ebe mgbaba ọzara izizi ahapụtara na United States. Ekwuru na ọ bụ ebe mgbaba anụ ọhịa na 3 Nọvemba 1960. N'afọ 1966, a kpọpụtara ya dị ka National Natural Landmark na, na 1968, e nyere ya ọkwa ọzara. Ngwongwo dị n'ime apiti ahụ enwetala obere ìgwè ndị bi n'ógbè ahụ, bụ ndị nyere gọọmenti etiti ihe onwunwe ndị ahụ gbakọtara dị ka ogige ntụrụndụ maka nchebe ebighị ebi. Taa ebe mgbaba ahụ ruru acres 7,600 (31 km2) nke dị n'ime kilomita iri atọ na Manhattan.

Ọzara Latir Peak, na New Mexico

Ọ bụ ezie na iwu nke Congress nyere aha ọzara na mbụ maka ala gọọmentị etiti nke nọgidere na-enwe "àgwà mbụ", nke pụtara na ọ tara ahụhụ site na ebe obibi mmadụ ma ọ bụ mmepe, Iwu Ọzara Ọwụwa Anyanwụ nke 1975 gbatịpụrụ nchebe nke NWPS na mpaghara ndị dị na steeti ndị dị n'ebe ọwụwa anyanwụ nke a na-echebeghị maka itinye ya na Iwu Ọzara. Omume a nyere ohere ka a họpụta ala ndị na-erughị ihe mgbochi nke nha, enweghị ụzọ, ma ọ bụ mmetụta mmadụ dị ka ebe ọzara n'okpuru nkwenye na enwere ike iweghachi ha na steeti "isi" site na nchekwa.[24]

A na-ahọpụta ihe dị ka 107,500,000 acres (435,000 km2) dị ka ọzara na United States. Nke a na-akpata 4.82% nke ala niile nke mba ahụ; Otú ọ dị, 54% nke ego ahụ dị na Alaska (ntụrụndụ na mmepe na ọzara Alaska na-abụkarị obere ihe mgbochi), ebe ọ bụ naanị 2.58% nke ala United States dị ala ka ọzara. Ka ọ na-erule afọ 2019, e nwere mpaghara ọzara 803 a họpụtara na United States site na Pelican Island nke Florida na 5 acres (20,000 m2) ruo Wrangell-Saint Elias nke Alaska na 9,078,675 acres (36,740.09 km2).

N'Ebe Ọdịda Anyanwụ Australia, ebe ọzara bụ ebe nwere ogo ọzara nke 12 ma ọ bụ karịa ma na-ezute ọnụ ọgụgụ kacha nta nke 80 km2 na mpaghara okpomọkụ ma ọ bụ 200 km2 na ebe kpọrọ nkụ na ebe okpomọkụ.[25] A na-edepụta mpaghara ọzara n'okpuru ngalaba 62 (1) (a) nke Iwu Nchekwa na Nchịkwa Ala 1984 site n'aka Minista na ala ọ bụla e nyere na Kọmitii Nchekwa nke Western Australia.

Njem mba ụwa

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Ndagwurugwu Monument na Utah, United States

N'ihu nke òtù ọzara mba ụwa bụ The WILD Foundation, onye guzobere ya Ian Player na netwọk ya nke ụmụnne ya nwanyị na ndị mmekọ ya gburugburu ụwa. Onye ọsụ ụzọ World Wilderness Congress na 1977 webatara echiche ọzara dị ka okwu dị mkpa nke mba ụwa, wee malite usoro ịkọwa okwu ahụ na ihe ndị dị ndụ na mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya. Taa, ọtụtụ ìgwè mba ụwa na-aga n'ihu na-arụ ọrụ a bụ ndị ka na-ele World Wilderness Congress anya dị ka ebe mba ụwa maka ọzara na netwọk WILD Foundation maka ngwá ọrụ ọzara na omume. Ntọala WILD na-ebipụtakwa ihe ndị a na-ahụkarị maka ndị ọkachamara n'ọzara na ndị ọzọ na-etinye aka na nsogbu ndị a: Wilderness Management: Stewardship and Protection of Resources and Values, International Journal of Wilderness, A Handbook on International Wilderness Law and Policy and Protecting Wild Nature on Native Lands bụ ọkpụkpụ nke ozi na ngwaọrụ njikwa maka nsogbu ọzara mba ụwa.

Òtù Ọzara Specialist Group n'ime World Commission on Protected Areas (WTF / WCPA) nke International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) na-arụ ọrụ dị mkpa n'ịkọwa ụkpụrụ iwu na njikwa maka ọzara na ọkwa mba ụwa ma bụrụkwa ụlọ dị ọcha maka ozi gbasara nsogbu ọzara.[26] IUCN Protected Areas Classification System na-akọwa ọzara dị ka "Otu nnukwu mpaghara nke ala a na-agbanwebeghị ma ọ bụ nke a gbanwere ntakịrị, na / ma ọ bụ oké osimiri na-ejigide ọdịdị na mmetụta ya, na-enweghị ebe obibi na-adịgide adịgide ma ọ bụ dị ịrịba ama, nke a na-echebe ma na-elekọta iji chekwaa ọnọdụ okike ya (Ụdị 1b). " Ntọala WILD guzobere WTF / WCPA na 2002 ma nọgide na-abụ onye isi oche.

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Ugwu Ahklun na Ọzara Togiak n'ime Togiak National Wildlife Refuge na steeti Alaska nke United States

Mgbalị ndị a na-eme n'oge na-adịbeghị anya iji mee map nke ọzara na-egosi na ihe na-erughị otu ụzọ n'ụzọ anọ (~ 23%) nke ebe ọzara ụwa ka dị ugbu a, nakwa na e nweela mbelata dị egwu na oke ọzara n'ime afọ iri abụọ gara aga.[27][28] Ihe karịrị 3 nde square kilomita (10 pasent) nke ọzara gbanwere ka ọ bụrụ iji ala mmadụ. Oké ọhịa mmiri ozuzo Amazon na Congo tara ahụhụ kachasị. Nrụgide mmadụ na-agbasa n'ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ akụkụ ọ bụla nke mbara ala.[29] Mfu nke ọzara nwere ike inwe mmetụta siri ike maka nchekwa dị iche iche.

Dabere na nnyocha gara aga, Wilderness: Earth's Last Wild Places, nke Conservation International mere, 46% nke ala ụwa bụ ọzara. Maka ebumnuche nke akụkọ a, akọwapụtara "ọzara" dị ka mpaghara nke "nwere 70% ma ọ bụ karịa ahịhịa mbụ ya, na-ekpuchi ma ọ dịkarịa ala 10,000 uare kilomita (3,900 sq mi) ma ga-enwerịrị ihe na-erughị mmadụ ise kwa square kilomita. "[30] Otú ọ dị, akụkọ IUCN / UNEP bipụtara na 2003, chọpụtara na naanị 10.9% nke ala ụwa bụ mpaghara 1 a na-echebe ugbu a, ya bụ, ma ọ bụ ebe nchekwa okike siri ike (5.5%) ma ọ bụ ọzara a na-echekwa (5.4%). Ebe ndị dị otú ahụ ka na-abụ ndị mmadụ na-emetụbeghị aka. N'ezie, e nwere nnukwu ala n'ogige ntụrụndụ mba na ebe ndị ọzọ a na-echebe nke ga-eru eru dị ka ọzara. Otú ọ dị, ọtụtụ ebe echedoro nwere ụfọdụ mgbanwe ma ọ bụ ọrụ mmadụ, yabụ atụmatụ doro anya nke ezigbo ọzara siri ike.

The Wildlife Conservation Society mepụtara akara ụkwụ mmadụ site na iji ọtụtụ ihe ngosi, enweghị nke na-egosi ọhịa: ọnụ ọgụgụ mmadụ, ohere mmadụ site n'okporo ụzọ na osimiri, akụrụngwa mmadụ maka ọrụ ugbo na ebe obibi na ọnụnọ nke ike ụlọ ọrụ (ìhè a na-ahụ anya site na mbara igwe). Ndị otu ahụ na-eme atụmatụ na 26% nke ala ụwa na-adaba na ngalaba nke "Nke ikpeazụ nke ọhịa". Mpaghara kachasị ọhịa n'ụwa gụnyere Arctic Tundra, Siberia Taiga, Amazon rainforest, Tibetan Plateau, Australia Outback na ọzara dịka Sahara, na Gobi.[31] Otú ọ dị, site na 1970s, achọpụtala ọtụtụ geoglyphs n'ala e gburu n'oké ọhịa Amazon, na-eduga na nkwupụta banyere mmepeanya Pre-Columbian.[32][33] BBC's Unnatural Histories kwuru na oké ọhịa Amazon, kama ịbụ ọzara mara mma, mmadụ emeela ya ma ọ dịkarịa ala afọ 11,000 site na omume ndị dị ka ịkọ ọhịa na terra preta.[34]

Pasentị nke ala a họpụtara dị ka ọzara anaghị egosipụta oke nke ụdị dị iche iche ya. N'ime ebe ndị ikpeazụ dị n'ọzara, taiga - nke bụkarị ọzara - na-anọchite anya 11% nke ngụkọta ala na Northern Hemisphere.[35] Oké ọhịa mmiri ozuzo na-anọchite anya pasent 7 nke ala ụwa.[36] Atụmatụ nke ala ịkpa fọdụrụ n'ụwa na-emesi ike ọnụego a na-emepe ala ndị a, na mbelata dị egwu na ụdị dị iche iche dị ka nsonaazụ.

Nkatọ

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Cedar Mountain Wilderness na ugwu Utah, United States.

Echiche America nke ọzara akatọwo ụfọdụ ndị edemede okike. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, William Cronon na-ede na ihe ọ na-akpọ ụkpụrụ omume ma ọ bụ ofufe nke ọzara nwere ike "kụziere anyị ka anyị ghara ileghara ebe na ahụmịhe dị ala anya ma ọ bụ ọbụna leghara ebe ndị dị ala anya", nakwa na "ọzara na-enwekarị ihe ùgwù maka akụkụ ụfọdụ nke okike na-efu ndị ọzọ", na-eji ihe atụ "ọwara dị ike karịa ala dị ala". A na-ahụ nke a n'ụzọ doro anya na ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ ogige ntụrụndụ US niile na-echekwa ọmarịcha ndagwurugwu na ugwu, ọ bụghịkwa ruo n'afọ 1940 ka ala mmiri ghọrọ ogige ntorobịa - Everglades. N'etiti narị afọ nke 20, ogige ntụrụndụ mba malitere ichebe ụdị dị iche iche, ọ bụghị naanị ebe mara mma.

Cronon kwekwaara na agụụ ịchekwa ọzara "na-etinye egwu siri ike maka gburugburu ebe obibi" ma dee na ọ na-enye ndị mmadụ ohere "inye onwe ha ikike izere ibu ọrụ maka ndụ anyị na-eduga n'ezie ... ruo n'ókè anyị bi na mmepeanya obodo ma n'otu oge ahụ mee ka anyị bụrụ na ezigbo ụlọ anyị dị n'ọzara".

Michael Pollan ekwuola na ụkpụrụ omume nke ọzara na-eduga ndị mmadụ n'ịhapụ ebe ndị ọgba aghara ha na-erughị oke. N'akwụkwọ ya Second Nature, Pollan dere na "otu oge ala abụghịzi 'nwa agbọghọ na-amaghị nwoke' a na-edekarị ya dị ka nke dara ada, nke furu efu na okike, nke a na-apụghị ịgbapụta agbapụta". Ihe ịma aka ọzọ na echiche ọdịnala nke ọzara sitere n'aka Robert Winkler n'akwụkwọ ya, Going Wild: Adventures with Birds in the Suburban Wilderness . "N'ịgagharị n'akụkụ ndị na-enweghị ndị mmadụ," Winkler na-ede, "Ahụla m otu anụ ọhịa ahụ, ọgụ maka ndụ, na ịma mma okike nke anyị jikọtara ya na ezigbo ọzara. E meela mgbalị, dị ka na Pennsylvania Scenic Rivers Act, iji mee ka ọdịiche dị n'etiti "ọhịa" na ọkwa dị iche iche nke mmetụta mmadụ: na Iwu ahụ, "osimiri ọhịa" "adịghị ejide", "ọ naghị enwetakarị ma e wezụga site na ụzọ", na mmiri ha na ụsọ mmiri ha bụ "nke mbụ".[37]

Isi iyi ọzọ nke nkatọ bụ na ụkpụrụ maka nhọpụta ọzara bụ ihe na-edoghị anya ma na-emeghe maka nkọwa. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, Iwu Ọzara na-ekwu na ọzara ga-enwerịrị ụzọ. Nkọwa e nyere maka enweghị okporo ụzọ bụ "enweghị okporo ụzọ nke e meziwanyere ma debe ya site n'ụzọ igwe iji hụ na a na-eji ya eme ihe mgbe niile na nke na-aga n'ihu".[38] Otú ọ dị, agbakwunyere nkọwa ndị ọzọ nke, n'ụzọ bụ isi, mere ka ụkpụrụ a ghara ịdị mfe ma meghee maka nkọwa, ụfọdụ na-adọta iji wepụ okporo ụzọ ndị dị ugbu a.

N'ịbụ ndị si n'akụkụ dị iche, ụfọdụ nkatọ sitere na Deep Ecology movement na-arụ ụka megide ijikọta "ọzara" na "ebe obibi ọzara", na-ele okwu nke ikpeazụ anya dị ka oxymoron nke, site n'ikwe ka iwu dị ka ihe mmadụ mepụtara ịkọwa okike, na-eme ka nnwere onwe na nnwere onwe nke nchịkwa mmadụ nke na-akọwa ọzara ghara ịdị.[39] Ezigbo ọzara chọrọ ikike nke ndụ ịgafe ụdị na obere ntinye aka sitere n'aka ụmụ mmadụ dị ka o kwere mee.[40] Layla Abdel-Rahim, onye na-ahụ maka ụmụ mmadụ na onye ọkà mmụta na-ahụkarị n'ọzara, na-ekwu na ọ dị mkpa ịghọta ụkpụrụ ndị na-achịkwa akụ na ụba nke enyemaka na ọdịiche dị iche iche n'ọhịa site n'echiche na-abụghị nke mmadụ.[41]

Ndị ọzọ akatọwo echiche ndị America banyere ọzara dị ka nke gbanyere mkpọrọgwụ na ịdị elu nke ndị ọcha, na-eleghara echiche ndị American Indian anya na gburugburu ebe obibi ma na-ewepu ndị na-acha uhie uhie na akụkọ banyere mmekọrịta mmadụ na gburugburu ebe ahụ. Ọtụtụ ndị na-echekwa ihe, dị ka Madison Grant, tinyekwara aka nke ukwuu na eugenics movement. Grant, onye ya na Onye isi ala Theodore Roosevelt rụkọtara ọrụ iji mepụta Zoo Bronx, dekwara The Passing of the Great Race, akwụkwọ gbasara eugenics nke Adolf Hitler mechara too. A makwaara Grant dị ka onye gosipụtara Ota Benga, nwoke Mbuti si Central Africa, na ngosi ụlọ nkịta nke Bronx Zoo.[42] John Muir, onye ọzọ dị mkpa n'ime usoro nchedo mbụ, zoro aka na ndị Africa America dị ka "na-eme mkpọtụ dị ukwuu ma na-arụ obere ọrụ", ma jiri ụmụ amaala America tụnyere anụmanụ na-adịghị ọcha na-abụghị nke ọzara.[43] Prọfesọ akụkọ ihe mere eme nke gburugburu ebe obibi Miles A. Powell nke Mahadum Nkà na ụzụ Nanyang ekwuola na ọtụtụ n'ime usoro nchedo mbụ nwere njikọ miri emi na ọchịchọ ichekwa agbụrụ Nordic.[44] Prakash Kashwan, prọfesọ sayensị ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị na Mahadum Connecticut bụ onye ọkachamara na iwu gburugburu ebe obibi na ikpe ziri ezi gburugburu ebe obibi, na-ekwu na echiche agbụrụ nke ọtụtụ ndị na-echekwa ihe n'oge mbụ mepụtara akụkọ banyere ọzara nke dugara na iwu "nchekwa nchekwa" nke chụpụrụ ụmụ amaala America n'ala ha. Kashwan atụwo aro omume nchedo nke ga-enye ndị obodo ohere ịnọgide na-eji ala ahụ dị ka ụzọ ziri ezi na nke dị irè karịa nchedo ebe e wusiri ike.[45] Echiche ahụ bụ na ụwa okike bụ nke mpaghara ọzara dịpụrụ adịpụ ka a katọrọ ya dị ka onye na-ahụ maka klas, na onye na-akọwa mmekọrịta gburugburu ebe obibi Dorceta Taylor na-arụ ụka na nke a na-eduga n'inwe ọzara ịghọ ihe ùgwù, dịka ndị na-arụ ọrụ anaghị enwe ike ịkwụ ụgwọ njem gaa n'ebe ọzara. Ọ gara n'ihu na-ekwu na, n'ihi ịda ogbenye na enweghị ohere maka njem nke ịkpa ókè agbụrụ kpatara, echiche a gbanyekwara mkpọrọgwụ na ịkpa ókè.[46]

Ọdịiche nke ọdịdị mmadụ

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Nkatọ ọzọ nke ọzara bụ na ọ na-eme ka dichotomy nke mmadụ na-adịgide. Echiche bụ na ọdịdị na ụmụ mmadụ bụ ihe dị iche iche nwere ike ịchọta azụ na echiche ndị ọchịchị Europe. Nye ndị bi na Europe, ala bụ ihe e ketara eketa na a ga-eji rite uru. Ọ bụ ezie na ndị obodo ahụ hụrụ mmekọrịta ha na ala ahụ n'echiche zuru oke, ha mechara tinye usoro ihe onwunwe Europe. Ndị na-achị achị si Europe hụrụ odida obodo America dị ka anụ ọhịa, obi tara mmiri, ọchịchịrị, [etc.] ma si otú a dị mkpa ka a zụọ ya ka o wee nwee nchebe na ebe obibi. Ozugbo a kpochapụrụ ma dozie ya, e gosipụtara ebe ndị a dị ka "Iden n'onwe ya". N'agbanyeghị nke ahụ, ndị obodo nke ala ndị ahụ hụrụ "ọzara" dị ka nke ahụ mgbe njikọ dị n'etiti mmadụ na okike mebiri. Maka ndị obodo, ntinye aka mmadụ bụ akụkụ nke omume gburugburu ebe obibi ha.

E nwere nkwenkwe nke akụkọ ihe mere eme na ọ bụghị nanị na a ga-azụ ọzara ka e wee chebe ya kamakwa na ọ dịkwa ụmụ mmadụ mkpa ịnọ n'èzí ya. Iji kpochapụ ụfọdụ ebe maka nchekwa, dị ka ogige ntụrụndụ mba, gụnyere iwepụ ndị obodo n'ala ha. Ụfọdụ ndị ode akwụkwọ abịawo kọwaa ụdị nchekwa a dị ka nchekwa-n'ebe dị anya, ebe mmadụ na ọdịdị dị iche iche. Nkwụsị nke ọzọ nke ụdịdị ichekwa nchekwa ahụ, ga-adị nso nchekwa, nke ga-eṅomi omume gburugburu ebe obibi nke ụmụ mmadụ etinyere na nlekọta nke okike.

Ọtụtụ ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị na ndị na-echekwa ihe kwenyere na ọ dịghị ebe ọ bụla n'ụwa nke ụmụ mmadụ na-emetụbeghị aka, ma ọ bụ n'ihi ndị obodo bi n'oge gara aga, ma ọ bụghị site na usoro ụwa dịka mgbanwe ihu igwe ma ọ bụ mmetọ. Ihe omume ndị dị n'akụkụ ụfọdụ nke ọzara, dị ka igbochi ọkụ na nkwụsịtụ nke ịkwaga anụmanụ, na-emetụtakwa ime ime ala ịkpa.

Hụkwa

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Ịgụ ihe ọzọ

[dezie | dezie ebe o si]
Oké ọhịa a nwere ogwu na Ifaty, Madagascar nwere ụdị Adansonia (baobab) dị iche iche, Alluaudia procera (Madagascar ocotillo) na ahịhịa ndị ọzọ.
  • [Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] Ịgagharị n'ime ọhịa.  ISBN 0-7679-0251-3
  • Casson, S. na ndị ọzọ (Ndị Ed. [Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] Ógbè Ndị A Na-echebe Ọzara: Ntuziaka Nchịkwa maka IUCN Nkeji 1b (ọzara) Ógbè Ndị Echebe
  • [Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] Na Okike: Ndị edemede Ukwu na Nnukwu N'èzí.  ISBN 1-58542-173-1
  • Kirchhoff, Thomas/ Vicenzotti, Vera 2014: Nnyocha akụkọ ihe mere eme na nke a haziri ahazi nke nghọta ndị Europe banyere ọzara. Ụkpụrụ gburugburu ebe obibi 23 (4): 443-464.
  • Nash, Roderick Frazier [1967] 2014: Ọzara na Uche America. Mbipụta nke Ise. New Haven & London, Yale University Press / Yale Nota Bene.
  • Oelschlaeger, Max 1991: Echiche nke Ọzara. Site na Prehistory ruo n'oge nke Ecology. New Haven & London, Yale University Press.

Ihe nkiri

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  • 2022: Ọhịa Ọhịa nke David Cebulla

Njikọ mpụga

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  1. ↑ Nash, Roderick Frazier [1967] 2014: Wilderness and the American Mind. Fifth Edition. New Haven & London, Yale University Press / Yale Nota Bene, p. 9
  2. ↑ Stewart, O. C., Lewis, H. T., & Anderson, K. (2002). Forgotten fires: Native Americans and the transient wilderness. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 History of Conservation BC Spaces for Nature. Retrieved: 20 May 2006.
  4. ↑ Mangan, E. Yellowstone, the First National Park Library of Congress, Mapping the National Parks. Retrieved on: 2010-08-12.
  5. ↑ The Magic of Yellowstone. Congressional Acts Pertaining to Yellowstone. Retrieved on 7 December 2011.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Spence (July 1996). "Crown of the Continent, Backbone of the World: The American Wilderness Ideal and Blackfeet Exclusion from Glacier National Park". Environmental History 1 (3): 29–49. DOI:10.2307/3985155. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Kantor, I. (2007). Ethnic Cleansing and America's Creation of National Parks. Public Land & Resources Law Review, 28, 41-64.
  8. ↑ New South Wales National Parks & Wildlife Service, "Parks & Reserves: Royal National Park" Templeeti:Webarchive. Accessed 6 December 2011.
  9. ↑ Guha, Ramachandra. ""Radical American Environmentalism and Wilderness Preservation: A Third World Critique" (1997)." The Future of Nature. New Haven: Yale UP, 2017. 409-32. Web.
  10. ↑ John Barry (2002). International Encyclopedia of Environmental Politics. Routledge. ISBN 9780415202855. 
  11. ↑ Young (1982). Introduction to Forest Science. John Wiley & Sons, 20–21. ISBN 978-0-471-06438--1. 
  12. ↑ Locke (2016). Wilderness protected areas: Management guidelines for IUCN category 1b protected areas. DOI:10.2305/IUCN.CH.2016.PAG.25.en. ISBN 9782831718170. 
  13. ↑ Allan (February 2018). "Gaps and opportunities for the World Heritage Convention to contribute to global wilderness conservation". Conservation Biology 32 (1): 116–126. DOI:10.1111/cobi.12976. PMID 28664996. 
  14. ↑ The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA). IUCN and UNEP-WCMC (2016).
  15. ↑ 1995 & 1998 National Forests Office internal instructions in application of the last paragraph of article L. 212-2 of the French Forest Act
  16. ↑ L'ONF (30 October 2018).
  17. ↑ Wilderness Areas. New Zealand Tramper. Archived from the original on 16 August 2023. Retrieved on 28 November 2018.
  18. ↑ New Zealand Government (1987). Conservation Act 1987 Part 4, Section 20. New Zealand Government. Retrieved on 2008-10-02.
  19. ↑ Molloy. Specially protected areas. Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Ministry for Culture and Heritage.
  20. ↑ New Zealand Gazetteer. linz.govt.nz. Land Information New Zealand.
  21. ↑ United States National Park Service – Wilderness – Fort Pulaski National Monument https://www.nps.gov/fopu/learn/nature/wilderness.htm
  22. ↑ Wilderness Act of 1964. Wilderness.net. Archived from the original on 11 December 2011. Retrieved on 7 December 2011.
  23. ↑ Aldo Leopold. Prominent Figures in Wilderness History. Archived from the original on 29 December 2011. Retrieved on 7 December 2011.
  24. ↑ "The Wilderness Act of 1964". Western North Carolina's Mountain Treasures. Retrieved on 16 June 2010.
  25. ↑ Department of Conservation and Land Management Policy Statement No 62, Identification and management of Wilderness and surrounding areas.
  26. ↑ "Wilderness", IUCN, 2016-02-08. Retrieved on 2017-03-22.
  27. ↑ Allan (2017-12-12). "Temporally inter-comparable maps of terrestrial wilderness and the Last of the Wild" (in en). Scientific Data 4 (1): 170187. DOI:10.1038/sdata.2017.187. ISSN 2052-4463. PMID 29231923. 
  28. ↑ Watson (2016-11-07). "Catastrophic Declines in Wilderness Areas Undermine Global Environment Targets" (in English). Current Biology 26 (21): 2929–2934. DOI:10.1016/j.cub.2016.08.049. ISSN 0960-9822. PMID 27618267. 
  29. ↑ Venter (2016-08-23). "Sixteen years of change in the global terrestrial human footprint and implications for biodiversity conservation" (in en). Nature Communications 7 (1): 12558. DOI:10.1038/ncomms12558. ISSN 2041-1723. PMID 27552116. 
  30. ↑ Conservation International (2002) Global Analysis Finds Nearly Half The Earth Is Still Wilderness. Retrieved on 6 Nov 2017.
  31. ↑ Wildlife Conservation Society. 2005. State of the Wild 2006: A Global Portrait of Wildlife, Wildlands and Oceans. Washington, D.C. Island Press. pp. 16 &17.
  32. ↑ Simon Romero. "Once Hidden by Forest, Carvings in Land Attest to Amazon's Lost World", The New York Times, 14 January 2012.
  33. ↑ Martti Pärssinen (2009). "Pre-Columbian geometric earthworks in the upper Purús: a complex society in western Amazonia". Antiquity 83 (322): 1084–1095. DOI:10.1017/S0003598X00099373. 
  34. ↑ Unnatural Histories – Amazon. BBC Four.
  35. ↑ University of Manitoba Taiga Biological Station. 2004. Frequently answered questions. Retrieved: 2006-07-04.
  36. ↑ Rainforest Foundation US. 2006. Commonly asked questions. Retrieved: 2006-07-04.
  37. ↑ Pennsylvania Scenic Rivers Act (P.L. 1277, Act No. 283 as amended by Act 110, May 7, 1982)
  38. ↑ Durrant (2007). Struggle over Utah's San Rafael Swell: Wilderness, National Conservation Areas, and National Monuments. University of Arizona Press, 43. ISBN 978-0-8165-2669-7. 
  39. ↑ Thomas Birch (1995). in George Sessions: Deep Ecology for the 21st Century. Boston: Shambhala, 345, 339–355. ISBN 978-1-57062-049-2. 
  40. ↑ George Sessions (1995). Deep Ecology for the 21st Century. Boston: Shambhala, 323, 323–330. ISBN 978-1-57062-049-2. 
  41. ↑ Layla AbdelRahim (2015). Children's Literature, Domestication, and Social Foundation: Narratives of Civilization and Wilderness. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-66110-2. 
  42. ↑ Jonathan Spiro (2009). Defending the Master Race : Conservation, Eugenics, and the Legacy of Madison Grant. Burlington: University Press of New England. ISBN 978-1-584-65715-6. 
  43. ↑ Shades of Darkness: Race and Environmental History (11 April 2005). Retrieved on 7 February 2021.
  44. ↑ Miles A. Powell (2016). Vanishing America : Species Extinction, Racial Peril, and the Origins of Conservation. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-97156-1. 
  45. ↑ American environmentalism's racist roots have shaped global thinking about conservation (2 September 2020). Retrieved on 7 February 2021.
  46. ↑ Dorceta E. Taylor (2016). The Rise of the American Conservation Movement: Power, Privilege, and Environmental Protection. Durham: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-7397-1. 

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