CHARTING THE FUTURE:

THE NEED FOR NAVAL HYDROGRAPHY

Lieutenant-Commander M.W. Eelhart

JCSP 39 PCEMI 39
Master of Defence Studies Maîtrise en études de la défense

Disclaimer Avertissement

Opinions expressed remain those of the author and do Les opinons exprimées n’engagent que leurs auteurs et
not represent Department of National Defence or ne reflètent aucunement des politiques du Ministère de
Canadian Forces policy. This paper may not be used la Défense nationale ou des Forces canadiennes. Ce
without written permission. papier ne peut être reproduit sans autorisation écrite.

© Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, as represented by the Minister © Sa Majesté la Reine du Chef du Canada, représentée par le ministre de la
of National Defence, 2013 Défense nationale, 2013.
 CANADIAN FORCES COLLEGE – COLLÈGE DES FORCES CANADIENNES
JCSP 39 – PCEMI 39
2012 – 2013

MASTER OF DEFENCE STUDIES – MAÎTRISE EN ÉTUDES DE LA DÉFENSE

CHARTING THE FUTURE:

THE NEED FOR NAVAL HYDROGRAPHY

By Lieutenant-Commander M.W. Eelhart

Par le capitaine de corvette M.W. Eelhart

“This paper was written by a student “La présente étude a été rédigée par un
attending the Canadian Forces College stagiaire du Collège des Forces
in fulfillment of one of the requirements canadiennes pour satisfaire à l'une des
of the Course of Studies. The paper is a exigences du cours. L'étude est un
scholastic document, and thus contains document qui se rapporte au cours et
facts and opinions, which the author contient donc des faits et des opinions que
alone considered appropriate and seul l'auteur considère appropriés et
correct for the subject. It does not convenables au sujet. Elle ne reflète pas
necessarily reflect the policy or the nécessairement la politique ou l'opinion
opinion of any agency, including the d'un organisme quelconque, y compris le
Government of Canada and the gouvernement du Canada et le ministère
Canadian Department of National de la Défense nationale du Canada. Il est
Defence. This paper may not be défendu de diffuser, de citer ou de
released, quoted or copied, except with reproduire cette étude sans la permission
the express permission of the Canadian expresse du ministère de la Défense
Department of National Defence.” nationale.”

Word Count: 15 047 Compte de mots : 15 047

 i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents i

Abstract ii

Chapter

Introduction 1

1. History of Hydrography 9

2. Aid to Domestic Operations 17

3. Disaster Support 28

4. Support to Military Operations 37

5. Hydrographic Comparisons 48

Conclusion 52

Bibliography 57
 ii

ABSTRACT

Hydrography is the foundation of safely navigating on waterways. The Royal

Canadian Navy has relied on its domestic partners, its allies and commercial means to

supply the products that enables its missions. The navy’s lack of a hydrographic

capability resulted from history and fundamental lack of requirement. Other similar

navies have retained their capability or control of the domestic agencies. Nonetheless, the

Royal Canadian Navy requires a hydrographic capability to support its current and future

operations. Historical requirements for hydrography entail a need for non-locals to safely

navigate coastal areas and often the requirement was filled by navies. There are other

government departments that would gain while the navy developed and practiced this

new capability. In addition, naval hydrography would enable disaster relief and military

specific requirements for hydrography.

Naval hydrography will enable the Royal Canadian Navy in expeditionary

operations. These operations include hyper accurate charts to improve navigational safety

of both submarine and surface operations. With the capability the Royal Canadian Navy

will be able to exploit the water space, and without the capability the Navy will have to

necessarily rely on allies. Naval hydrography is needed both to enable current operations

and as a necessity for future operations.

 1

INTRODUCTION

The Canadian Navy has relied on its domestic partners, allies and commercial

means to supply the hydrographic products that enables naval missions. The navy’s lack

of a hydrographic capability is a product of past decisions and a fundamental lack of

requirement. Other similar navies have retained their capability or retained control of the

domestic agencies. The Royal Canadian Navy requires a hydrographic capability to

support its current and future operations. Historical requirements for hydrography entail a

need for non-locals to safely navigate coastal areas and often the requirement was filled

by navies. There are other government departments that would gain while the navy

developed and practiced this new capability. In addition, naval hydrography would

enable disaster relief and military specific requirements for hydrography.

LITERARY REVIEW

Little academic work exists on the need for naval hydrographic capability. The

available literature falls into three broad categories. First there is the history of various

governmental agencies and how and why they conducted hydrographic surveys. The

second major category is the economic benefit of conducting surveys and improving the

maritime infrastructure. The final major category is the scientific research into the

methods of obtaining hydrographic data and processing that data. There may be no

academic work on this topic because the nations who have this capability have no need to

generate arguments for the capability or the need for the capability might be self-evident.

It could also mean that this is a small and very specialized field of operations. Included in
 2

this category are modern accounts of activities such as reports on action during the

response to Hurricane Katrina1

The historical literature is often cited as either a narrative of why nations or

organization came to being and the demands for their services. This work includes

histories of both the Royal Navy and their demand to protect their sailors. There are

numerous individual ship officer accounts of their voyages. Some of these include both

chart artifacts and descriptions of the landscape. From these accounts, it can be inferred

what the survey ships were interested in. The reason for the surveys and the continued

need for future operations are safe coastal navigation areas, locations of potential

landings sites and strategic harbours and anchorages. The main Canadian work published

through the auspices of the Canadian nautical Research Society, is a collection of essays

entitled Charting Northern Waters.2 The book describes the origins of the Canadian

Hydrographic Service and demand in Canada for commercial navigational safety from

the establishment of New France until modern times. The book focus is on the technical

challenges of charting in Canadian waters including in ice-bound areas.

The second set of writing concerning the economic benefits of charting is mostly

written, sponsored or endorsed by the International Hydrographic Organization. The

organization’s mandate is to improve safety at sea by charting the world’s oceans. The

organization aids coastal nation states to develop their own hydrographic capability in

order to improve the overall state of navigation. It provides a compelling case for the

economic benefits of charting so that economically challenged hydrographic offices can

1
United States Navy. “Fleet Survey Team Response” accessed March 8, 2013.
http://www.public.navy.mil/fltfor/cnmoc/Documents/NAVO/FST.pdf.
2
William Glover, Charting Northern Waters: Essays for the Centenary of the Canadian Hydrographic
Service (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2004).
 3

more effectively lobby their own governments for funds. The overriding publication

supporting the case is IHO publication M-2.3 It also creates supporting regional

hydrographic conferences in an effort to improve the skills of hydrographers. IHO also

sets out the standards for data collection, hydrographic competence and chart depiction

criteria. National hydrographic offices are not bound by the regulations but often adhere

to them.

The final class of writing encompasses the technical advancements in

hydrographic surveying. The work is academic in nature for the most part but this

technical academic work is often not germane to developing a capacity for a navy.

Included in this class are works that describe new methods of signal processing to

determine more information about the water column and the geological classification of

the sea floor. It also describes new methods of processing the data for purposes outside of

commercial navigation including mineral extraction and biomass data. Processing does

include new methods to automate the data flow to generate new products which can

include military application.

As a result of no academic work on the subject either for or against the need for a

hydrographic capability many arguments must be inferred. The requirement for a naval

hydrographic capability is a logical extension of the demand using historical

requirements, current demand and envisioned future naval requirements.

3
International Hydrographic Organization, The Need for Hydrographic Services (Monaco: IHO, 2011).
 4

INTRODUCTION

Historically, hydrography was used to prevent horrible losses and allow non-local

experts to safely proceed from port to port. The historical requirements of naval

hydrography and the development of the Hydrographic service in Canada show that in he

past there was a need to prevent loss to ships and sailors in the navigational rivers and

commercial shipping routes. The leading cause of death for sailors was shipwrecking

caused by inaccurate positioning and poor charts. As a result, both commercial

companies such as the East India Trading Company and government departments

commissioned charts to be created as they traveled. Good quality charts became valuable

commodities and assets. Although commercial demands predominated governments and

naval forces used the charts for other purposes. Governments employed charts to assert

sovereignty by showing that they controlled certain sea areas. Often the survey ships

were the only contact that the locals would have with the controlling government for

years. Naval forces used the charts to not only improve their positional information but

also as an intelligence aid. They used charts to support operations including landings, but

also for more mundane reason such as knowing where fresh water sources might be

exploited in less friendly areas of the world. As a result, most hydrography organizations

were developed by, and remain, part of the Navy.

Why does the Royal Canadian Navy not have a hydrographic capability? Three

main historical reasons account for why the RCN does not currently have a hydrographic

capability. The minister responsible for transportation in the St. Lawrence Seaway

created a civilian hydrographic service in order to better chart the changing, erratic

conditions of the river. He felt that he could use this new service to create a Canadian
 5

naval militia. His ambitious plan was overtaken by events but the result was that a

civilian agency was created from the outset to chart waters in Canada. The second major

reason was that the Royal Canadian Navy was heavily integrated into the Royal Navy and

received support for some activities through them. This activity includes hydrography

during both world wars. This support carried on after the war and was expanded to

include support for operations with other allies. As a result the Royal Navy never felt that

it was deficient in hydrography because it always relied on allies or commercial means to

support operations. In other words there never was a capability deficiency that the Navy

needed to rectify.

Since the Royal Canadian Navy did not develop its own capability it has relied on

civilian partners to fill the requirements of the service. The Navy requires the capability

to support the implied tasks of other departments such as the Environment Canada, the

Canadian Coast Guard and the Canadian Hydrographic Service. The implied tasks come

from the Canada Defence First Strategy which has the defense of Canada and Canadian

sovereignty as two of the pillars that the Canadian Forces must support. Defence of

Canada means that the Canadian Forces must to go anywhere in Canada. The Royal

Canadian Navy assumes unacceptable levels of risk when patrolling and navigating in

poor and unsurveyed waters and this risk can only be mitigated by hydrographic surveys.

Although the RCN does not have the mandate to survey in Canada, it can support the

Canadian Hydrographic Service (CHS) in assigned tasks. Also, although CHS is

responsive to user’s needs, often civilian priority areas and the Royal Canadian Navy’s

priorities are not the same. If the RCN had their own capability, it could survey their own

priority areas to naval standards, compliant but exceeding civilian standards, and supply
 6

the data to CHS so as to not take or subsume their mandate. To improve charting for

naval purposes and to improve sovereignty as required by its foundation strategy

document, the Navy should logically have a hydrographic capability.

The argument may be made that the RCN already has a hydrographic capability

resident in each coast’s hydrographic offices and the Route Survey section. The route

survey section uses side scan sonar systems to depict the bottom floor. From that picture,

objects may be investigated or a change detection algorithm may be used to discover new

objects. Could not this section take the skills and equipment and put them to use for

hydrographic means? The simple answer is that few of the skills and equipment and none

of data collected can be utilized in a hydrographic manner as it is collected for another

purpose with different standards and equipment. The data collected often has very gross

horizontal precision and is not at the standard required for hydrography. Second, there is

often non-existent or very poor vertical data. Essentially, hydrography resolves the depth

of water is in a given location. Route survey equipment uses sides scan data that cannot

achieve the precision required of the current hydrographic standards. Side scan

equipment is optimized for providing the most accurate and detailed picture for change

detection for the specific task of searching for mines and ground objects. Although there

is hybrid side scan hydrographic equipment that can achieve the functionality for both

data sets, the RCN does not have that type of equipment. In the critical task of object

detection few compromises should be risked so a hybrid system would not be ideal.

However, some skills required for route survey can be used for hydrography. The data

evaluation and the exacting lines of ship driving are skills that do translate into

hydrography.
 7

The Coastal Hydrographic Service Offices (HSOs) primary task is to provide

government ships with legal navigation products. Most of these products are

commercially obtained and the hydrographic offices act as an informed distribution

center. There is a small capability to create specialized products but the data used is

superficial or an overlay. The offices are not qualified or capable of collecting

hydrographic data and producing products. Recently some capability of reprocessing

existing CHS data into specialized military products for both submarines and surface

ships has improved the operational and navigational safety, but they have neither the

authority nor the capability of producing legal navigational products. As a result the

HSOs do not have the requisite skill to produce navigational products.

In aiding CHS in its domestic mandate, the Navy could similarly aid both the

Canadian Coast Guard (CCG) and Environment Canada. CCGs tasks include search and

rescue and aids to Navigation. As with the RCN patrolling areas that are outside available

charts, search and rescue events sometimes occur where there is no chart. As seen with

the Clipper Adventurer grounding in the Arctic, a survey had to be completed prior to the

Coast Guard ship being able to provide assistance. Similarly, the RCN could be called on

to provide assistance and then have no way of providing that assistance. Another service

that could be aided by hydrography is the placement and servicing of navigational aids. It

is unlikely that the RCN would be required to help the Coast Guard in this task. The

Navy does have its own specialized navigational aids such as buoys and special sound

range markers to service. Likewise, Environment Canada requires surveys to ascertain

extent in pollution events. These specialized surveys of the littoral areas are critical to

their assessing if an event has taken place and to what extent has the pollution spread or
 8

is likely to spread. These types of surveys which investigate the littoral zone and in

deeper water the bottom composition have military applications. This area is where the

two departments might collaborate and aid each other, if only the Navy had the ability to

do so. The Navy would gain in expertise that could then be applied in areas that the other

government departments are unwilling or unable to go. As a result, the RCN cannot

greatly aid the other government departments, but it could if it had a hydrographic

capability.

The RCN requires a naval hydrographic capability in support of both potential

and real operational requirements. Hydrography would allow the navy to operate in areas

outside of Canada that could be potentially surveyed, thereby increasing operating areas,

but also possibly aiding the coastal state in building up its own infrastructure.

Oceanographers could benefit from better integration and overlapping efforts for a more

accurate depiction of the ocean floor which would then improve efficiency and

effectiveness in submarine hunting and tracking. With a hydrographic capability,

amphibious operations of all sizes would be enabled into areas where there is poor,

inadequate or no data. Without hydrographic capability the areas of assault could be

unpredictable or risky. The submarine community requires a naval hydrography

capability to both enhance the safety of navigation but also to improve its operational

capability. Naval hydrography would be able to support the specialized submarine

requirements that commercial means do not meet. In addition, the specialized processing

required for the types of products that submarines require including detailed wreck, deep

water shoals and dense bathymetry contours. These military specific products would

enable the submarine to operate more effectively, but only if the survey and processing
 9

has been completed. As result, naval hydrography supports the potential requirements

and current requirements that cannot be met by any other means.

 10

1. HISTORY OF HYDROGRAPGY

For a long period of time, the significant losses at sea resulted from grounding in

uncertain conditions. Naval admiralties became more concerned about the type of losses

that ship were sustaining and started to develop remedies to address some of these

concerns. The evolution of hydrography was as a direct result in trying to accomplish

both military and commercial tasks. Charting became increasing important as commercial

shipping traffic went trans-oceanic. Modern hydrography in Canada was developed as a

result of a need to improve commercial shipping infrastructure and military needs and

will be demonstrated by examining the Royal Navy’s demand for charting and the

resulting development of a Canadian Hydrographic Service (CHS). The commercial

demands for hydrography were to decrease the risks associated with the shipping. The

military demands were also to improve navigational ability and improve the freedom of

movement. The Navy required detailed coastal descriptions to enable landing for

invasion, and simple restoring of vital goods such as fresh water. Some of the by-

products of producing charts on unclaimed lands were an improvement of the sovereignty

claims. All these historic requirements for hydrography ensured Canada developed its

own hydrographic capacity but not a naval hydrographic capability.

Hydrography as a science was developed to mitigate some of the risks associated

with travel at sea. That unpredictability is exacerbated at sea by terrifyingly unpredictable

weather conditions that seemly want to destroy or delay any mariner. The possibility of

floundering and drowning after a ship is splintered adds to the risk of seafaring. Any

mitigation of any of these risks would be a welcome improvement not only for insures of

any maritime venture, but also for the mariners themselves. Hydrography for
 11

improvement of safety of navigation became a viable and lucrative occupation for any

competent person early in production of charts. A leading source of commercial

improvement came from the East India Trading Company.4 Their wide ranging ships

would return with world-wide observations which would then be incorporated into their

charts. These charts became so valuable that the company was able to leverage them to

improve its competitive advantage and held them closely as company secrets.5 Other

commercial publishers of charts could become wealthy even with products of dubious

accuracy. Improvement to the safety of the ships was felt to be immeasurable and worth

the price. What resulted from the commercial ventures was a dramatic improvement both

in the number and quality of charts available but also improvement in hydrographic

science. Early periods of hydrography were dominated by commercial demands and led

to an improved products and processes, but those commercial secrets demanded that

navies secure the environment for their governments.

The military uses of hydrography caused the Royal Navy to develop its own

hydrographic capability. This hydrographic capability created specialized naval officers

and ships tasked with the tedious mission of collecting data. Hydrographic officers had

specialist training or learned on mission. They then would be assigned to a ship that

would be either exploring or transiting to an area of importance with minimal charts for

direct data collection. Eventually, the Admiralty would become more systematic in its

acquisition of data for portrayal and dissemination.6 Based on a priority list, the revisit

time for some areas of only minimal interest might never occur. It would be common for
4
Jerry Brotton, “Mapping the World: Possession and Plunder” directed by Annabel Hobley, aired 7
February 2011 (London: BBC, 2010), DVD.
5
Ibid.
6
William Glover. Charting Northern Waters: Essays for the Centenary of the Canadian Hydrographic
Service. (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2004): 53.
 12

charts to have been created and used for many years. There are charts in Canada that have

not updated for almost 100 and some data originates from the original surveys.7 Since

oceans and rivers change, the data becomes increasingly suspect but amazingly most of

the data is of high quality. So as the Royal Navy deemed they were not able to rely on

commercial and existing charts there was a need to acquire the hydrographic data

themselves but they surveyed on their own priority basis.

The Royal Navy saw a military and strategic advantage to conduct hydrographic

surveys. The surveys enabled operations to occur more safely and to support operations

ashore. After crossing the ocean, accurate depictions allowed the ships to more accurately

determine their position. This ability helped the ships to better and more quickly arrive at

assigned destinations. Charting also improved the sea room that a ship could operate. It

enabled ship’s captains to exploit areas that other navies might think impassable. In

addition, the Royal Navy would also know where ships could not go and would therefore

not have to defend against. This advantage would also enable them to exploit shoals and

other known dangers to their advantage and potentially run enemy vessels aground.

Regardless of the possibilities of tactical advantage, the major positive strategic impact

was the lessening of the losses of vessels due to grounding on shoals. The clear safety

advantages that were gained also contributed to the other needs that a naval presence

would require.

The Royal Navy was able to use hydrography to enable operations supported by

the naval forces. There is often a requirement for navies to affect operations ashore.

These operations would include landings and shore bombardment. Accurate charts helped

7
Ibid, 63.
 13

landing operations by enabling larger vessels to approach the shoreline before launching

their landing craft. The boats themselves are able to more safely proceed ashore. In

addition to having to land marines ashore, a more accurate chart allows ships to provide

better gun support to a battling force. The support would include bombarding shore

facilities where elevation and positioning would be vitally important. Finally, the Royal

navy used hydrography to aid the ships in gaining fresh water. An accurate survey plotted

all of the position of streams where a ship may potentially gather fresh water. Supplies

could often make the difference in how long a ship could maintain station near an enemy

coastline. Without the locations of the vitally important fresh water already charted ships

assumed higher risk as they sailed near the shoreline. The enemy would be able to locate

the ship and potentially cause harm from the sea. These historic reasons for hydrography

point to future uses of the capability. Modern naval hydrography may benefit from the

historic demands. These requirements forced the Royal Navy to develop their

hydrographic capability in order to support their operations.

The primary reason that the Royal Navy embarked on creating better charts led to

other effects. The Royal Navy was able to use hydrography to improve the territorial

claims and further assertion of sovereignty. Establishment of territorial claims was often

enforced but the accurate depiction reinforced those claims. Charting also allowed the

nation to exert their claim over an area. This ability was evident in the Northwest area of

the inner passage of Vancouver Island where the initial surveys were conducted by the

Spanish but the British were able to assert control after their own surveys.8 The second

effect was most surveys enabled the government to show the flag and establish a presence

8
William Glover. Charting Northern Waters: Essays for the Centenary of the Canadian Hydrographic
Service. (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2004): 54.
 14

in areas that may have not been visited by government agents. The extended presence of

a government vessel conducting detailed coastal survey would show the local population

that the government was exerting control in the area and improving the maritime

infrastructure of the area. Although these events are secondary effects of the

hydrographic survey, governments gained tangible long term advantages.

Canada developed its hydrographic capability by creating a civilian agency, The

Canadian Hydrographic Service (CHS), to support shipping in the St. Lawrence. The

Royal Navy was the natural British government agency to carry out the surveys for

Britain; however the Canadian version was not created as a natural extension of naval

capabilities. The Department of Marine was created to ensure safe navigation of shipping

through rivers and internal water and around complex land forms into the major shipping

ports. As a result, a hydrographic service was created from the civilian agency associated

with the pilotage authority and not as an extension of the Navy.9 The service was

designed to regularly survey the dynamic river conditions. As the service gained

capability and experience the mandate was extended to the rest of the navigable waters of

Canada. Their main mission was to improve the safe navigation of Canadian waters for

commercial purposes. Neither a reason nor a mandate to produce products for military

purposes or to venture into international or foreign waters existed as their focus was on

internal waters. The hydrographic service in Canada was also not created as an extension

of the Navy because CHS predates the Royal Canadian Navy who was formed in 1910

and CHS was created in 1904.10 The minister of Marine and Fisheries, Hon. Raymond

9
Ibid, 74.
10
William Glover. Charting Northern Waters: Essays for the Centenary of the Canadian Hydrographic
Service. (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2004) 74.
 15

Prefontaine, responsible for creation of the hydrographic service was ambitious and was

trying to use the service to create a standing Canadian navy, but his ambitions were never

realized.11 Whereas most hydrographic services were created as an extension of the navy,

the Canadian service was created out of civilian agency to support the economic

development of Canada instead of purely military demands.

The hydrographic capability of the RCN was never developed as a result of initial

demand and support provided by allies. As a result of the initial development of the CHS,

the Canadian capability for hydrographic work was never developed in the RCN. The

demand for the service from the government was entirely domestic and the civilian

service was capable of meeting that demand. When the navy was created it had other

priorities and demands for its small numbers of ships and sailors with a large area to

cover and as such could not assume a mandate that was now entrenched in another

departmental prerogative and protected by statutes. So at its outset the RCN could not

delve into the affairs of the hydrographic survey in Canada.

The RCN throughout its history never generated the capability because the

demand was being filled by allies and domestic agencies. In the three major conflicts

Navy participated in, World War I, World War II, and the Korean War, the allies were

able to take on the expeditionary hydrographic demands to support the missions. As a

result, the RCN found neither need nor priority to create its own capability. Furthermore,

the British Hydrographic Office was able to provide both commercial and military

products during non-conflict periods. The RCN did realize that a central agency was

required to distribute and maintain the hydrographic and navigational products for the

11
Ibid, 89.
 16

Navy. As a result, Coastal Hydrographic Service Offices (HSOs) were created to meet

that need. The HSO solution of using commercial navigation products produced by the

Canadian Hydrographic Service for domestic use and United Kingdom and American

hydrographic offices met the RCN needs for world-wide coverage. Since the RCN

hydrographic demand was mostly met by commercial means and there is no articulated

demand for a hydrographic capability, one has not been created. Due to the creation of

the civilian hydrographic capability in Canada, and lack of military specific demand from

the RCN, naval hydrography was never properly developed but despite historic causes

the RCN requires naval hydrography to enable current and future operations.

Hydrographic capabilities have evolved from being a safety of navigation tool for

decreasing the number of groundings experienced by shipping to integrated products for

both commercial and military use. The Royal Navy used hydrography to improve naval

ability for freedom of action, and to enable some its missions. The UKHO evolved to

provide world-wide commercial support and at the same time provide military specific

products. The Canadian hydrographic capability has developed from a need to provide

support to shipping in the St Lawrence and has since provided hydrographic mandate to

chart and maintain the charts for navigation throughout Canada’s oceans, lakes and

rivers. The Royal Canadian Navy has not developed an expeditionary capability because

commercial solutions have been adequate for their needs. Events where commercial

requirements have not been sufficient have been covered off by the allied capability. The

result has been the RCN has not yet developed its own organic capability to acquire

hydrographic data and use it for military means because it has not yet needed it. The

historical lack of requirement is no longer valid as current operations both domestically

 17

and outside of Canada require more than civilian departments can deliver. Most nations

have not had this issue because historically the capability grew out of or was absorbed by

navies in other nations the CHS was created strictly for civilian reasons.
 18

2. AID TO DOMESTIC OPERATIONS

Hydrography has grown from a need to prevent groundings and losses of ships,

sailors, and cargo in order to improve the commerce of the nations. A Naval

Hydrographic capability could aid Environment Canada (EC) in pollution control,

Canadian Coast Guard (CCG) in safety of navigation and Canadian Hydrographic

Service (CHS) in data collection. Aiding the other government departments in their tasks

would help the Navy in the execution of their tasks. Environment Canada has the task of

monitoring and preventing pollution at sea and its effects on land. To enable this task,

Environment Canada requires an accurate depiction of the land and the maritime

environment, including the sea floor and the water-land interface. An implied task of

every agent of government is pollution monitoring, control and reporting, so the Navy

would be indirectly required to aid. The Department of Fisheries and Oceans has two

directorates that are directly responsible for the safety of navigation and hydrography, the

Canadian Coast Guard (CCG) and the Canadian Hydrographic Service (CHS). The CCG

has responsibility to maintain the navigational routes and for maritime search and rescue.

The CHS has the responsibility of maintaining and improving navigational charts. These

tasks overlap with the tasks of the Navy. The RCN is directly tasked with the aid of

rescue at sea; they also routinely use the navigational passages and have a vested interest

in keeping Canadian ports open and safe. Both these tasks are predicated by the

requirement of good navigational charts. All these tasks could be aided by naval

hydrography.

The Navy has implied tasks that overlap with Environment Canada’s

responsibilities and as such is obliged to aid in their task. Although not directly
 19

mentioned in the Canada Defense First Strategy, pollution control is every government

department’s responsibility to report and prevent.12 Part of the prevention plan is to have

an accurate depiction of the Canadian shoreline and the bottom composition of the sea

bed. In addition to having an accurate picture of the shoreline, having an accurate survey

of the littoral space would aid the Canadian Forces. They would be able to practice the

collection of the data to enable an operation in Canada to be used expeditionally. Some

may argue that the RCN already has this ability in the Route Survey section its

inadequacy will be dealt with in another section. Naval hydrography could aid in creating

an accurate navigational surveys in Canada would aid in Environment Canada in their

pollution prevention role while exercising the capability in Canada.

The Canadian Coast Guard requires accurate surveys in their tasks and these tasks

are similar to the Royal Canadian Navy. The CCG’s main roles are maritime search and

rescue and maintenance the navigational routes into Canada.13 In their search and rescue

role, they attempt to have ships positioned to be able to respond throughout the vast

Canadian waterways. Occasionally, the CCG have requested the aid of the RCN because

of the proximity of the ships involved or need for specialized naval capability. The

Navy’s response to the Swiss Air disaster augmented naval divers due to their large

numbers, specialized ability and proximity to a large naval base.14 However, search and

rescue events occasionally occur in waters that have not been surveyed, or inadequately

surveyed for ships to respond. The grounding of the Arctic Explorer grounding in largely

12
Department of Defence. Canada First Defence Strategy. (Ottawa: Canada Communication Group, 2005):
3.
13
Department of Fisheries and Oceans. “Canadian Coast Guard: Mission,” last access on 27 March 2013,
http://www.ccg-gcc.gc.ca/eng/CCG/Who_We_Are.
14
Transport Safety Board of Canada. Aviation Investigation Report, In-Flight Fire Leading to Collision
with Water, Swissair Transport Limited, (Ottawa: Transportation Safety Board, 2001): 90.
 20

unsurveyed waters demonstrated that even areas near communities and transited by local

contain dangerous shoals.15 Only small and expendable vessels would be able to get close

enough to a stricken vessel. This option might not even be infeasible if weather was the

cause of the event and the small vessels are unable to approach the vessel. In such a

situation, air rescue would also be risky. The other approach would be to conduct a

hydrographic survey while approaching the stricken vessel. This would be time

consuming difficult to conduct the survey in poor weather. The first two approaches are

not necessarily mutually exclusive as both rescue by small boats and surveying may be

conducted concurrently. The preference in these scenarios would be to have adequate

coverage before an event occurs. This contemporary scenario highlights the risk that

ships engaging in search and rescue in unsurveyed waters of which Canada has large

area. The only method of mitigating this risk is to have an organic hydrographic

capability. Regardless of the method of arriving at a vessel, having a naval hydrographic

capability to respond to stricken vessel in an emergency situation is beneficial to the RCN

and Canada.

Naval hydrography would also aid the CCG in the maintenance of navigational

aids. The CCG maintains navigational aids such as lighthouses, buoys, ranges and

markers which improves the navigational safety of all mariners.16 Currently the RCN

currently only aids the coast guard by occasionally reports of navigational aids that are

not functioning or out of position. The Navy has been forced to rely on other agencies,

contractors when laying or servicing the markers. There is no guarantee of precision

15
Dave Shipley, “Arctic Rescue,” accessed on 27 March 2013,
http://www.unb.ca/difference/arcticrescue.html.
16
Department of Fisheries and Oceans. “Canadian Coast Guard: Aids to Navigation,” last access on 27
March 2013, http://www.ccg-gcc.gc.ca/eng/Ccg/atn_Home.
 21

when the navy conducts these tasks themselves because of lack of equipment and

expertise. The RCN would gain from placing hydrographically precise navigation

markers as a cost savings and the ability to place markers themselves in very remote

areas that they are operating in anyway. In the Arctic, navigation markers are few as the

cost of placement is high and the net benefit of placement for the betterment of

navigation is small. However, there are locations and areas that the navy is greatly

invested and would benefit from some navigation aids both domestically and

expeditionally. Also there are occasions and areas where civilian placement is impossible

due to the risk involved. Such areas include high threats to navigation, namely mine

swept channels where the risks of placing the navigation markers are large but also very

beneficial. It would also then be as critical to place them as precisely as possible,

requiring hydrographically quantifiable precision. One of the ways to prepare for such

placement would be to practice in areas of lower risk with the aid of an expert agency, the

CCG. This practice would have the added benefit of aiding the maritime infrastructure of

Canada. Thus, naval hydrography enables precise placement of navigation markers in

Canada.

CHS would gain the most from the Navy having a hydrographic capability. They

would gain from the new hydrographical data, they would gain in any specialized

processing that the RCN conducts for military purposes, and they would gain alternate

platforms that they could use for data collection. When the Navy creates a hydrographic

capability, any data in Canada should belong to CHS. The CHS is responsible for

Canadian government-owned hydrographic data.17 There are already agreements in place

17
Oceans Acts, R.S.C., c.31, s.43 (1996).
 22

for collaboration and cooperation on mutually beneficial hydrographic data collection.18

One argument against sharing the specialized data collected for military purposes is

potential operational security that may be required for such data but the agreements

respect each department’s special and sensitive needs for any data collected.19 Another

argument against sharing is the data demanded by the Navy is often of a higher quality

than required by the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) for normal

navigation.20 Regardless of data requirements, CHS would benefit from any type of data

collection as long as it is to IHO minimum standards. If a data collection plan proposed

by either party it may be in each other’s interest to obtain a standard that is beneficial to

both parties. It would also be useful to fill in any data gaps that may exist and may

require either party to slightly alter their survey plan. Any data collection conducted by a

naval hydrographic capability in domestic waters would benefit CHS.

CHS would also benefit from any processing the Navy conducted for their own

tasks. Although the products may be different and the processing conducted to another

standard, the production streams would likely have some overlap and therefore the

processed data would mutually benefit.21 Also hydrographic data storage paradigm has

shifted from product specific to generalized data from which multiple products can be

created. The multiple products from one source means that CHS, and the military, would

greatly benefit from any data processed to the correct format. CARIS systems used by

18
Department of Defence. Memorandum of Understanding between Department of Defence and
Department of Fisheries and Oceans regarding the Provision of Service. (Ottawa: Canada
Communication Group, 2011):6.
19
Ibid, Annex F Amendment 2, 2.
20
Ministry of Defence, Submarine Dived Navigation: Concept of Operations v 1.0. (London: Ministry of
Defence, 2011): 5.
21
Department of Defence. Memorandum of Understanding between Department of Defence and
Department of Fisheries and Oceans regarding the Provision of Service. (Ottawa: Canada
Communication Group, 2011):6.
 23

both agencies are optimized for this processing.22 Unfortunately bringing data into the

CHS system does not obligate them to create new products. CHS creates products

dependent on a priority scheme that may not benefit the Navy. The data, however, would

be verified against existing data sets to ensure that there are not any great safety

discrepancies. Also since the data set would be in their data base, other users would be

able to use the data for other products not just navigation charts. Finally, CHS will

eventually incorporate the data set into the chart when a new edition of a product is

warranted. So CHS would be able to benefit from any data set collected to their standards

and any collector, including the Navy, would eventually benefit from CHS having the

data.

The RCN would benefit from creation of a hydrographic capability and

collaboration with CHS domestically by leveraging their expertise in data collection, data

storage and data representation or chart creation. This collaboration would enable the

Navy to apply skills outside CHS’ mandate. CHS would also be able to impart valuable

lessons on methods and operating procedures as well as equipment procurement advice

for data collection. Hydrographers are very specialized in their skill set. Very few people

in Canada outside of CHS have the requisite qualifications because there are few

institutions in Canada deliver training to the level required for the IHO. Any individual or

organization wanting to train in hydrography would be forced to send candidates to a

foreign university or a foreign naval training plan. CHS is capable of providing advice on

22
CARIS, “Bathy DataBASE,” accessed on 27 Mar 2013,
http://www.caris.com/downloads/brochures/BathyDataBase-en.pdf.
 24

training and they have an integrated on-the-job training program in their organization.23

The RCN would be able to leverage both their training plan and the program that CHS

employees partake. This type of training would be a significant investment in an

individual as it often requires years of practice. One flaw in a standard training course is

that hydrographers are trained in data acquisition and cartographers are trained in data

portrayal and the Navy would require both to produce their own products. The advantage

of the CHS system is that they produce employees that can do both.24 CHS will be able to

provide the RCN valuable advice as what training would best fit.

CHS is the Canadian government’s experts on hydrography and as such they

would be best placed to advise on equipment procurement. If the Navy is to generate a

hydrographic capability, it would need both expertise and equipment. It would be cost

prohibitive to experiment and conduct extensive testing for a naval equipment package.

What type of an equipment solution that fits the Navy needs is debatable; but, CHS is

capable of providing advice. They would be able to provide objective advice on what

systems would be able to better integrate with CHS systems. They would also be able to

ensure that whatever system the Navy procures would meet IHO standards and therefore

would generate navigationally legal data. There are two potential issues on having

another government agency procure equipment for the Navy. First, they might not

provide the most cost effective systems that meet the requirement, and advise purchasing

the best system available since it is not their budget. Second, they may advise the Navy to

procure an untried system and use the Navy to test a system that CHS is interested in

23
Department of Fisheries and Oceans, “Training Multi-Disciplinary Hydrographers at the Canadian
Hydrographic Service,” accessed on 8 March 2013, http://www.dfo-
mpo.gc.ca/science/publications/article/2011/08-23-11-eng.html.
24
Ibid.
 25

procuring. The only way to protect the Navy from potential CHS abuse is to have its own

educated oversight and requirements cell to ensure that the Navy gets what it needs and

not what CHS wants. Regardless of potential CHS abuse, they still are the Canadian

experts and therefore best placed to provide advice on what the Navy should procure.

After data has been collected, CHS could advise the Navy on both data storage

and portrayal. Having a collection of data is useless to end users. The data must be

discoverable and it must be able to be portrayed or created into products demanded by

users. CHS has a robust process to clean, store and portray the data. There are several

options that the Navy could pursue and CHS could advise the Navy in how to setup an

appropriate system. First, the navy could process the data themselves, second CHS could

possibly process the data that the Navy has collected or third, data processing could be

conducted by a contractor. If CHS helps the Navy to create a process, then the Navy

would need more people. The number of people would depend on how much data was

being collected and the desired processing rate. Although CHS has excellent processing

capability, if CHS processed the data for the Navy, there are potential issues. First CHS

already has difficulty in processing the data that they already have so if more data is

being processed then CHS would want more resources. Second, CHS has its own priority

system and naval data may be in areas that have a lower priority for them. Third, CHS

may not want to store or process the data obtained outside Canadian waters. Fourth, the

Navy may collect data that is of a sensitive nature either due to the source or the area in

which it was collected meaning CHS would be incapable of processing. So CHS may not

be the solution for storage or processing. If the RCN used a contractor to process the data,

it would face a couple of issues as well. Contractors would have similar issues about the
 26

sensitivity of data being processed; however, the overall cost may be effective. The

solution may be to a mix of the solutions between self-processing, CHS processing or

having a contractor process dependent on priority and data type. Regardless on method of

processing, CHS would be able to aid the Navy in creating a data flow for processing

hydrographic data. They would also advise on what type of work and what contractors

could be used. In creation of a naval hydrographic capability in the Navy, CHS would be

able to aid the Navy in creation of the processing system.

CHS would benefit from data sharing, but also increase the hydrographic capacity

in the Canadian Government as CHS is struggling to meet its stated objectives. There

would be a large amount of effort to have CHS experts help the RCN in training,

equipment, and experience. The Navy would be very reliant on CHS during the start-up

phases of introducing this new capability. The major payoff for CHS would be more

platforms collecting data in remote areas. The largest gain would be any data collection

that occurs in the Arctic which is an area that is very expensive to get private contractors

to provide platforms. This area lacks in modern data and is increasingly important to

naval operations.25 Lack of data in the Arctic severely limits potential patrol areas. So

although CHS has the domestic lead in hydrography, it would be mutually beneficial to

both departments to work together to improve the capability on Naval ships. Although it

would be outside of the mandate of the RCN to directly conduct surveys, collaborative

surveys would aid everyone safety.

25
Department of National Defence, Leadmark: The Navy’s Strategy for 2020 (Ottawa: DND Canada,
2002), 2
 27

Hydrographic capability allows the Navy to meet the requirements of the Canada

First Defense Strategy with enabling the defense of Canada and support to operations

outside of Canada. 26 Hydrographic surveying is among the historical methods of

ensuring sovereignty. If a nation can more accurately describe their own territory they

would be able to exert control over it. Surveying is also a method to demonstrate

ownership of remote and isolated regions. In addition, creating surveys of an area is the

maritime version of improving the infrastructure of an area. Secondly, hydrographic

surveying enables operation outside of Canada whether that is in direct support of

operations or in strategic capacity building of nation. So while it may be beneficial if the

Navy aided the other government department it would also be in direct support of its task

in the Canada First Defense Strategy.

As the navy does not have the lead for domestic for hydrographic data collection

there are a number of departments that would benefit from a naval capability.

Environment Canada would benefit from an improved picture of the water depth in its

role for pollution control. The Navy would gain as a responsible department taking

reasonable steps to prevent and report pollution violations. The CCG would benefit by

having improved navigation charts for Search and Rescue and the ability for the Navy to

help with Navigational aids. The Navy would also gain from the improved charts for

search and rescue and they would learn how to precisely place their own navigational

aids. The greatest interdepartmental aid would be with CHS. They would gain from the

increased data that the Navy would obtain. CHS would obtain data in areas that are not

necessarily their priority, but would likely be in areas that they would need modern data.

26
Department of National Defence, Canada First Defence Strategy (Ottawa: DND Canada, 2006): 7.
 28

The Navy would gain from the relationship in the expertise for hydrographic equipment

procurement. CHS would be able to provide advice on the data processing work flows

and data storage that would best enable sharing. The Navy would be able to gain from the

training systems that CHS has in place for both their hydrographers and for their

cartographers. This collaboration with other government departments may seem to be

duplicating work, but the navy is the only department which can assume risk for domestic

operations and is the only department which regularly acts for the government outside of

Canada. The navy lacks the skills to conduct hydrographic operations and can most easily

achieve them by close cooperation with other governemental experts. Also when the

RCN gains this capability it would be prudent to practice and exercise this capability in a

manner that is useful to the rest of Canada. Other government departments would gain by

the Navy directly aids their tasks. Canada would benefit economically as improved

navigational charts are a major part of the infrastructure required for marine shipping and

resource extraction.
 29

3. DISASTER SUPPORT

Supporting others in times of great need is among of the characteristics that define

a person or a nation. Naval hydrography is critical in aiding coastal nations that have

been afflicted by hurricanes, earthquakes and tsunamis. The nature of the support is in the

immediate opening of ports and coastal approaches to ships bringing aid with the long

term goal being the re-establishment of the maritime infrastructure. Recent events over

the last decade have proven the need for a hydrographic capability. Events include

Hurricane Katrina which devastated the New Orleans region in 2005, the earthquake in

Haiti in 2009, and the Japanese earthquake and the tsunami of 2011 with each causing

widespread destruction along the coastlines. All these horrible situations caused

widespread human suffering with which the world struggled to help. Immediate response

was hampered by the lack of airports facilities or their limited availability. Despite the air

response that most nations were able to provide, longer and more substantial aid would

come via sea due to the amount of supply that ships can provide. In large affected areas

such as Haiti or in Japan, it becomes more difficult to support more remote areas as they

tend to be further away from the airports and roadways connecting the towns and villages

are often destroyed. For such reasons, world response becomes more efficient and

effective if substantial aid arrives by sea. The only way to verify the safety of the

seaborne routes is to have a hydrographic survey completed. Without the survey, ships

risk grounding causing issues vice solving them.

Hurricane Katrina caused massive devastation to the New Orleans region

overwhelming local emergency response. Aid was slow in arriving and not focused on
 30

the needy.27 Efforts were ineffective due to a lack of understanding on how much

suffering was occurring. Support was complicated due to the levees in the town failing

and large swaths of the city being flooded by the ocean and the Mississippi river. Thus

the scope of the aid required was underestimated. Due to the widespread destruction

leading into the city, the quickest response to the area was by tactical helicopters. The

best sustained effort was by ships that were able to approach the coastline, but within

limits. Harbour facilities were destroyed and any seaborne support would have to come

from ships anchored a significant distance and support would have to be brought by

landing craft and smaller boats.28 The type of support would then be limited to what

could be transported. One of the main advantages of ship support is the vast amount of

supplies that can be transported, but if the supplies cannot be brought directly to the

shore, then that advantage is partially negated. Ships were unable to dock and off load

supplies because the facilities were destroyed, and the approaches to the harbour were

unnavigable.29 The devastation was exacerbated by an inability to provide meaningful

support.

Immediate hydrographic surveys of the New Orleans area helped mitigate the

length of the suffering. Since the hurricane caused the water levels to significantly rise,

large amounts of debris and silt deposited throughout the Mississippi delta. In addition to

the unknown amount of silt, the waterways were altered. Since the levees had been

breached in several areas, the flooded areas would not have been surveyed for water

27
Executive Office of the President of the United States Office of Homeland Security. The Federal
Response to Hurricane Katrina Lessons Learned, (Washington, DC Government Printing Office,
2006) accessed on 13 February 2013 http://library.stmarytx.edu/acadlib/edocs/katrinawh.pdf. :48.
28
Ibid, 34.
29
Ibid, 34.
 31

navigation.30 It is unlikely that larger vessels with significant drafts would be able to

enter flooded areas; even small craft would be susceptible to damage caused by

grounding on objects. All these events caused significant risks to navigating ships. A

hydrographic survey would allow larger ships to approach the city so that they may be

able to dock or at least shorten the distance that the landing craft would have to travel.

The disadvantage to rapid surveying of the affected areas is that as the water from the

hurricane recedes, the areas would have to be resurveyed to verify the accuracy of the

information. In the end, hydrography would enable to disaster relief ships to approach the

city to more effectively provide aid and the United States Navy provided support by

rescuing victims and supplying communities with necessities.

The American fleet survey teams provided support to the disaster relief effort.

The teams were able to provide rapid hydrographic surveys of the area so that ships could

safely operate in the areas.31 They were able to create corridors of safe transit zones and

then create a more detailed survey in support of the relief efforts. One of the main

reasons for the rapid support for this effort was the non-domestic fleet support teams are

based at the Stennis Space Center in Mississippi. As a result, the response to reopen the

port and the local anchorages was immediate and effective. Although any domestic

survey capability could have responded to the Hurricane, foreign aid into the area

proceeding by sea would have been hampered by the inability to proceed close to the

affected areas. Even though United States Navy hydrographic response was rapid and

effective, their priority may not have been the most effective in enabling non US support.

30
Ibid, 6
31
Debbie Ethridge. “NOAA Ship Thomas Jefferson Aids Hurricane Katrina Relief Efforts,” NOAA
Magazine, 15 October 2005. http://www.magazine.noaa.gov/stories/mag181b.htm.
 32

Regardless, the RCN could have enabled its own support of the response if it was able to

survey for its own ends. Canadians are infrequently affected by hurricanes and the

destruction caused rarely requires hydrographic responses, but Canada can be expected to

respond to hurricane events worldwide in the future and a hydrographic capability is

critical to that aid. The widespread coastal damage would also have meant that if aid was

required away from the major centers then any seaborne support would have to have its

own survey. American response to the disaster shows that a hydrographic capability

responsive to disaster events enabled the relief effort.

The earthquake in Haiti in 2010 caused widespread devastation to an already

struggling country. The country suffered a 7.0 level quake centered near the capitol of

Port au Prince.32 The immediate destruction of most of buildings left many trapped by the

rubble. The situation was further exacerbated by the total immolation of most of the basic

services including sewage, water and shelter. There was already an international mission

on the island run by United Nations who was supporting the local government, but the

main headquarters was destroyed killing the head of the mission.33 Immediate response

was centered on the capitol and supported by the airport. Most of the islands road

communication network was destroyed by the earthquake which made it difficult or

impossible to provide assistance to outlying communities as the support had to arrive by

airlift into the capitol and then distributed.34 The lack of aid delivered to communities

32
CNN, “Try to prevent the ‘Absolute Catastrophic’ Situation in Haiti” CNN World, 10 January 2010,
accessed on 13 Feb 2013,
http://www.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/americas/01/14/haiti.relief.efforts/index.html?hpt=T1
33
United Nations, “Earthquake in Haiti: Facts and Figures,: accessed on March 8, 2013,
http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/minustah/memoriam.shtml.
34
Ned Potter. “Haiti’s Earthquake Relief Begins: Thousands Feared Dead,” ABC News 13 Jan 2010,
accessed on 8 March 2013, http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/HaitiEarthquake/haiti-earthquake-
relief-efforts-begin-thousands-feared-dead/story?id=9547609.
 33

without airfields demonstrates some concerns about relying on airlift only to provide

support. The only methods would be to try to repair some of the road network or find

another method of supplying aid. The earthquake was devastating to an already

struggling country and aid was centered initially on the capitol.

Aid to the equally devastated country side could only be delivered by methods

other than airlift into the capitol city. The methods would include transporting aid from

the neighboring country, Dominican Republic who was also dealing with the effects of

the earthquake. Helicopters could provide support into the country and support could be

provided to the coastal communities by sea. The coastal communities had most of their

infrastructure destroyed including maritime infrastructure making receiving large aid

ships impossible. In addition, it would be unsafe for vessels of any size to approach a

shoreline affected by an earthquake until another survey was completed or the ships

would in in risk of grounding. Also major support would have to arrive into the capitol

city by sea as the airlift could not support the requirements of the population. An

earthquake would not cause debris to litter the navigational passages but shifts in the

seafloor could have occurred and could have drastically altered the waterway. Support to

disaster relief would require a new survey before meaningful aid could be delivered by

sea.

Support to the relief effort included deployment of the American Fleet Survey

Teams. Their aim was to open corridors to ports and areas where support would be

delivered by sea. Their priority was the capitol region as that was the location of both the

widest devastation and largest populations needing aid. Their ships included a mobile
 34

hydrographic capacity and a salvage ship to remove any debris. They then proceeded to

other areas to support the efforts of other nations providing aid. Haiti still requires its own

hydrographic capability to enable their economy but the emergency work that the United

States Navy provided mitigated the disaster. Earthquakes outside of Canada cause

damage that may require a hydrographic response. Canada can learn and replicate the US

response to this disaster in the methods and capability that they provided. With a

hydrographic capability, Canada could contribute in similar ways. Their efforts enabled

support groups to provide much needed aid and certainly reduced the suffering of the

Haitian people.35

The Japanese 9.03 earthquake and the resulting tsunami in 2011 also caused

widespread destruction along mostly remote northern towns. The tsunami was at its

height 40m and traveled up to 10km inland in some areas.36 The tsunami resulted in more

damage and casualties than the actual earthquake. There were numerous buildings

destroyed and damaged, and the road and rail infrastructure linking these communities

was severely disabled.37 The human and economic toll was one of the worst in recorded

human history. There were many complicating events including nuclear meltdowns at the

local power plant. Numerous commercial and fishing ports were damaged and closed

following the tsunami.38 The domestic and international humanitarian response was rapid

but the widespread nature of the event meant that aid was uneven in distribution. Since

35
Brian Connan. “Hydrographic Response to Haiti Earthquake” http://www.hydro-
international.com/issues/articles/id1192-Hydrographic_Response_to_Haiti_Earthquake.html 13
Feb 2013.
36
Roland Burke. “Japan earthquake: Tsunami hits North East.” BBC World News 11March 2011.
37
Ibid.
38
John Ydstie. “Japan’s Fishing Industry Crushed by Tsunami.” NPR 29 March 2011.
 35

this was a coastal disaster the easiest method of providing massive aid to the affected

communities was by sea or air.

The Japanese hydrographic response was required because of large amounts of

debris, silting, and the seafloor shifting. Japan has a robust hydrographic capability to

service its own coastline to improve navigational routing. Their hydrographic teams

worked diligently to open the coastal communities as rapidly and as safely as possible.39

They focused on creating a route into the port and not on surveying the entire waterfront.

They had the ability to open their own ports and did not require foreign assistance was a

fortunate circumstance because their own vessels were not destroyed in the tsunami. The

Japanese efforts prompted them to propose to the International Hydrographic

Organization that in the event of a disaster affecting a coastal community then the

International Community would be obliged to aid.40 Their proposal recognized the need

for timely hydrographic surveys to reopen the communities safely to the marine traffic.

Again having the ability to provide a hydrographic response to a disaster is a precursor to

providing effective long term aid. Earthquakes and tsunamis are a significant threat to the

West Coast of British Columbia. Communities in BC would be affected in similar fashion

to those in Japan and the Japanese response is a valuable lesson for other coastal nations.

The Japanese hydrographic organization was able to reduce suffering by enabling aid to

be safely delivered to the affected communities.

To support disaster support operations requires the RCN to have a hydrographic

capability. The RCN requires the capability to support the foreign and domestic relief
39
Arata Sengoku and Jun Saegusa. “Hydrography after Huge Earthquakes.”Hydro-International 15, no. 5
(September October 2011): http://www.hydro-international.com/issues/articles/id1293-
Hydrography_After_Huge_Earthquakes.html.
40
International Hydrographic Organization. IHO Response to Disasters. (Monaco: IHO, 2005).
 36

efforts in coastal communities. Domestically the capability would enable the Navy to

support the efforts of the CHS in the event that they would be overwhelmed by the need

or they are unable to proceed to the affected areas. Expeditionally, the RCN would be the

only government department that would be equipped to support. It is not inconceivable

that CHS could support an operation but currently there is no mechanism or facility for

them to participate. Part of the mandate defined in the Canada First Defense Act is to

support operations in the areas demanded by the Canadian Government.41 The

government has focused on the Americas region and operations in that region would

likely require disaster support in the future from either hurricane or earthquakes. It is

likely that the government will demand that the Canadian Forces support disaster relief

operation. In order to enable that support, the RCN requires a hydrographic capability to

safely open the affected areas to marine traffic. The navy requires the capability to

support disaster relief.

Natural disasters will continue to affect populations along the coastal regions in

devastating ways. As populations get denser along the coastal areas the impact of those

disasters will become greater. The USN supported the relief to gulf region affected by

Hurricane Katarina and the earthquake in Haiti by having ships and mobile teams deploy

to the region and safely to allow access to the ports and the affected regions. The

Japanese were able to open their own communities from their own national capabilities

after the earthquake and resulting tsunami. All these events affected a large region and

adversely affected the land communication systems. Loss of the communication network

41
Department of Defence. Canada First Defence Strategy. (Ottawa: Canada Communication Group, 2005):
3.
 37

meant that immediate relief and support could only arrive via the air or via the sea. Air

relief would only be able to support the immediate area surrounding viable airfields and

the amount of supplies and equipment that could arrive is limited to the type of aircraft

available. Relief from sea would be more substantial but require safely opening the port.

As a result, the hydrographic capability is required to support the sustained relief

operations. The RCN requires the capability to open marine access to affected areas as an

expedient to providing aid. Without hydrography the RCN would be unable to safely

bring substantial aid ashore. Without the organic hydrographic support the RCN would

have to rely on other agencies. The RCN is the best government department to provide

that expeditionary relief and support enabled by hydrography.

 38

4. SUPPORT TO MILITARY OPERATIONS

Hydrographic capabilities over time have evolved for safe surface navigation.

Military hydrographic requirements require greater precision than that which is required

for surface navigation and particular to specific operations. A naval hydrographic

capability critically enables military operations by improving oceanography, rapid

assessment of the environment for operations, and to fulfill the unique requirements

demand by submarine littoral operations. To meet emerging requirements and obligation

to Canadian Allies there is equipment, processing and training deficiency in the RCN.

Hydrography enables operations in both scope and freedom of maneouvre for when the

RCN goes inshore, it needs some ability to exploit the sea space and interface with the

land environment. The more command understands about the water space, the more he is

able to exploit the limits without taking excessive risk. Hydrography adds to the

information superiority by enabling operations the enemy cannot respond to. Current

capabilities in the RCN include a route survey and oceanography section. Hydrography

can help enable operations by improving understanding of the ocean. Although

oceanography is a separate discipline from hydrography, there are mutual technologies

and data that both users can exploit. Route survey is concerned with identifying sea

mines and establishing a safe passage though the infected water spaces. Future operations

such as amphibious submarine operations require detailed knowledge of the littoral water

space.

There is a deficiency between what capability the RCN has and what it needs to

complete its tasks requiring the development of a hydrographic capability. The RCN

hydrographic capability includes side scan sonars, and echo sounders recording devices.
 39

The side scan sonars are operated by the Route Survey sections. They were developed to

provide a method for naval ships, MCDVs, to accurately depict the ocean floor in an

attempt to discover sea and ground mines. The systems were designed as a critical angle

tow fish which flies within close proximity of the ocean floor.42 This system is

susceptible to seafloor collisions when there is a rapid decrease in the depth of water. The

preferred operating area of these devices is in well surveyed waters so that seafloor

elevation changes are predictable to the operators. The images captured by these devices

are very fine as they were designed to detect mine like objects placed on the seafloor. The

operators can then compare the previous images to determine if new objects have been

placed.43 Side scan survey equipment, unless it is a hybrid device, does not give accurate

positional or depth data and is therefore of negligible use to hydrography. The tow fish is

pulled by a cable at a difficult to ascertain angle and cannot verify its position relative to

a survey quality GPS on ship. As a result the horizontal and vertical data is not within

tolerances for hydrographic work.44 Therefore, the side scan sonars operated by the RCN

cannot be used for hydrographic purposes in most circumstances.

The other piece of equipment that navies operate with potential use for

hydrography is the ship echo sounder. For centuries hydrographic ships used a line

weighted by lead to determine the depth and obtained spot soundings with reliability. An

echo sounder is used for similar purposes. To be effective, RCN echo sounders would

have to be modified to be able to log data. To be accurate enough for survey quality, the

42
Department of Defence. “Canada Invests in Sonar Technology for the Royal Canadian Navy.” news
release, 2 November 2012, http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/news-nouvelles/news-nouvelles-eng.asp?id=4483.
43
Department of Defence. CFCD 126: Standard Operating Procedures for Mine Countermeasures and
Underwater System Payloads and Equipment. (Ottawa: Canada Communication Group, 2006): 4-1.
44
International Hydrographic Organization. Manual of Hydrography. (Monaco: IHO, 2005): 10.
 40

data logging device would have to have same time sampling of the pitch and roll of the

ship in addition to a GPS stamp for horizontal positioning. So although ships could

currently log the positional and depth, it would not achieve the requirements for actual

survey work.45 Also the echo sounders equipped on naval ships are optimized for surface

navigation and missing the automatic features essential for accurate depth. One could

have an operator constantly adjust the echo sounder in order to obtain good data, that

method is inefficient and prone to human error. Finally, use of echo sounders as

hydrographic devices would be ad hoc, ineffective and not meet the IHO standards for

surface navigation. Also echo sounder use would also not meet the military requirement

of an IHO special order survey.46 Therefore the data would be of limited use and it would

also require the ship to survey on strict lines to achieve any area coverage. What is being

attempted for naval operations is the use of a data logging device called OLYX which is

designed to be used as a crowd sourcing hydrographic device.47 This device would be

useful in areas where there is moderate traffic but poor coverage, such as areas

frequented by fishing vessels. Each vessel would contribute to the survey over time. This

crowd sourcing method is a cost effective for improving the navigation picture that might

prove effective in the Arctic. The issue with it is that the vessels would not be following

any survey plan and improvements in the survey could be exasperatingly slow and not

methodical. The RCN hull mounted echo sounder is inefficient and ineffective as a

hydrographic tool.

45
Ibid: 10.
46
Ibid: 10.
47
Department of Defence. Memorandum of Understanding between Department of Defence and
Department of Fisheries and Oceans regarding the Provision of Service. (Ottawa: Canada
Communication Group, 2011): Annex F Amendment 2 page 1.
 41

The Navy has two methods of obtaining hydrographic data, but these methods are

insufficient for the requirements of allies. The NATO Rapid Environmental Assessment,

REA, asks nations to state what type of data is available in a given operational area in the

event that a NATO Naval operation could take place.48 If there is insufficient data and

operation still needs to occur, then the nations are expected to provide methods of

obtaining the required data. Canada would be unable to meet either of these requirements.

The RCN has no method to obtain data in an expeditionary realm and in addition to this it

has no foreign data that it could contribute to the alliance. Although the point of the

alliance is to share capability, Canada has nothing to offer. As a result, during any

expeditionary operation Canadian naval units are at the mercy of how much data other

nations are willing to share. If Canada either joins a non-NATO mission or conducts

operations for national reasons then there is a significant gap in products available. The

RCN has a capability deficiency between what it can contribute to NATO operations and

what would be expected meaning that the RCN may be denied military specific product

and forced to rely on suboptimal commercial sources.

There is gap in naval product demands in domestic operating areas. Although,

CHS is willing to share most data in Canada, there are often large gaps in the data types

that are available. These data gaps affect both training and operations. Since CHS works

on a priority system for data acquisition focusing on major shipping areas these are often

not the areas that are of interest to the RCN. These areas are typically practice areas and

littoral zones that are near the practice zones. The Navy often tries to choose areas that

48
Brian G Whitehouse, and Paris Vachon, Andrew Thomas, Robert Quinn, Wayne Renaud. “Rapid
Environmental Survey of the Maritime Battlespace,” Canadian Military Journal, (Spring 2006):
66.
 42

are near bases but away from high traffic areas and these areas are rarely CHS priority

areas. The Navy could pay for the areas that are of interest to them, but these areas would

be excellent hydrographic practice areas to hone skills prior to obtaining data outside the

domestic context. The Navy does not have the ability to contribute hydrographic data or

products to NATO as required by the REA. The Navy has no direct ability to improve the

products in areas where they practice. The result is that the Navy requires a hydrographic

capability to support military operations and improve both the ability to produce military

catered charts and operate with the enhanced product.

In addition to lacking the ability to aid allies in producing data and products for

catered operations, demand for military specific products has different data demands

from civilian surface navigation. The prime applications for naval hydrography are for

oceanography and littoral and submarine operations. Oceanography is the branch of Earth

science that studies the ocean. It covers a wide range of topics, including marine

organisms and ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid

dynamics; plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor; and fluxes of various chemical

substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries. The

military applications for oceanography extend to understanding the environment in which

ships operate. A critical part of effective understanding of how the ocean operates is the

physical depiction of the sea floor. Hydrographic processing techniques can also

determine the bottom type. As a result, hydrography builds the general oceanographic

picture. Oceanographers require more data to complete the picture and aid the military

operations. So while hydrography would be able to support oceanography, it can more

directly support military operations.

 43

After the support requirements, naval hydrography would also be able to support

surface navigation. In areas of the world where surveys are poor, there will still be a

requirement to operate. Currently operations are occurring in the Caribbean where ships

are tracking and boarding vessels suspected of running drugs.49 There are areas where the

operational commander would like ships to operate but since surveys in the area are poor

would entail unreasonable risk. These areas can include waterways outside of the

territorial waters which would make it legal to survey without infringing on the

sovereignty of the coastal nation. In addition to the aiding surface navigation operations,

hydrographic surveys would be one area where the navy could help a coastal nation with

infrastructure. The surveying of navigational approaches to ports is an enabler for that

port to open. An open port would be able to aid the harbour city in becoming more

economically viable as few commercial ships would approach an unsurveyed port.50

Without an organic capability of obtaining hydrographic data, the navy would not be able

to contribute to opening areas of operation and the navy would not be able to help a

coastal nation in improving the potential economic viability. As a result, the navy

requires hydrographic capability to accomplish any of these potential tasks. After helping

improve the operating area of the naval forces, hydrography would directly aid in military

operations such as amphibious landings.

Naval hydrography is used to enable effective amphibious operations. Although

Canada does not have the capability to conduct amphibious operations on a large scale,

the RCN can conduct small boat operations for basic insertion and extraction. The RCN
49
Paul Forget. “Law Enforcement Detachments and the Canadian Navy: A New Counter-Drug Capability”
Canadian Naval Review 7, no. 2 (Summer 2011): 4.
50
International Hydrographic Organization. The Need for Hydrographic Services. (Monaco: IHO, 2011):
10.
 44

could also use this capability to support amphibious operations if the capability was ever

acquired. Naval hydrography is critical to support these operations because knowing the

depths of water in the littoral space of enemy waters is crucial in both the planning and

execution of an assault. The presence of shoals and slope data of the beaches or landing

sites would be able to prevent the boats from grounding away from the objective beaches.

Having the ability to survey the area prior to an insertion or extraction would aid in

minimizing that risk. Often the countries where the amphibious operations occur have

poor littoral surface charts and the risk of insertion would be increased and compounded

by the presence of sea mines. Also if ship’s boats are being used to conduct the operation,

only a limited number of boats are available meaning that loss of a single boat could

seriously affect the mission and operational capability of the ship. This situation means

that the risk due to grounding will be higher than a normal amphibious operation. Naval

hydrography would be used to help minimize the risk and support further operations.

Although naval hydrography would be used to support a possible capability, the

submarine community requires the capability immediately.

The greatest need for naval hydrography comes from the submarine community.

Navigation under water is determined by numerous factors. Submarines have a

requirement to understand the environment in 3 dimensions. When a submarine transits

underwater their positional accuracy degrades overtime because of the lack of precise

updated positional information from any source including GPS. As a result a submarine

generates an expanding area of probability where it could exist based on their last known

position and their movement. In littoral areas this area becomes rapidly dangerous as it

begins to include shoaling areas. In June 2011, HMCS CORNERBROOK ran aground in
 45

Nootka Sound while conducting littoral operations. While the Board of Inquiry found the

human error to be the cause, it highlights that navigating underwater in confined waters is

dangerous.51 To mitigate and the risk, this area of probability can be reduced by several

methods. The most accurate method for a submarine to re-establish its position would be

to surface and obtain an exact GPS position. The next couple of methods of reducing the

area of probability is either to visually sight a known object and get its true bearing, or

determine the distance based on its height.52 All these methods expose the submarine to

detection as they would need to have a mast above the surface in addition to being near

the surface and in a water column known to the submarine hunting units. In the open

ocean a submarine position is less critical as there are often less navigational dangers

which may affect the submarine but there is never any certainty until an accurate survey

is completed. In littoral waters near the coast, having a precise position is critical for safe

navigation. The most effective method of reducing the expanding positional error without

being detected is to have hyper accurate bottom contour charts.

Bottom contour charts allow the submarine to remain underwater and still reduce

the expanding positional area and minimize the risk of grounding. By knowing the total

depth of water column and comparing that depth against a chart, a submarine will be able

to eliminate depth areas where there is no match. This awareness can only be

accomplished if there is sufficient hydrographic data and the data has been processed for

submarine operations. The difference between surface navigational charts and submarine

51
Royal Canadian Navy, “HMCS CORNER BROOK Grounding Incident: Board of Inquiry Complete,“
accessed on 6 April 2013, http://www.navy.forces.gc.ca/marpac/4/4-w_eng.asp?id=1158.
 46

prepared charts is the number and frequency of contours displayed. The IHO has

minimum standards for the number and type of contours required to be displayed on

charts but they become less frequent after 20m.53 A surface navigational chart may also

have a 50m and a 100m contour. However, the type of data collected becomes less

precise after 20m even with the most accurate type of survey methods.54 This is not an

indictment of the hydrographic community; they simply have a focus on surface

navigation with ship of draughts less than 20m. An underwater submarine routinely

navigates in in water where their draught can be assumed to be more than 50m. This

disparity creates specific hydrographic requirements for submarines that exceed that of

surface navigation. As a result, the data and the processing focused on surface navigation

and therefore is insufficient for submarine navigation.

Naval hydrography would therefore bridge the gap from what is required for

surface navigation and what a submariner requires to safely navigate. Naval hydrography

would be required to obtain similar data as that which is required for surface ships to a

much greater depth. Although the technology exists to obtain this type of data, new

standards and procedures would have to be adopted.55 A submarine chart would be

required to be processed to a different standard. The chart would likely have to have a

depth contour every 2m. In addition, the existence of these charts in littoral water would

be an indicator that submarines operate in the area, so charts would have to be classified

especially if the charts are outside of Canadian territorial waters. The main use of

specialized charts inside of Canada would be to train the submarine crews both in the use
53
International Hydrographic Organization. Regulations of the IHO for International Charts and Chart
Specifications of the IHO. (Monaco: IHO, 2012): Annex B, 3.
54
International Hydrographic Organization. Manual of Hydrography. (Monaco: IHO, 2005): 10.
55
United Kingdom. Ministry of Defence, Submarine Dived Navigation: Concept of Operations v 1.0.
(London: Ministry of Defence, 2011): 25.
 47

of the charts and in bottom contour navigation. Hydrographic Service Offices have

already created a small set of these charts both to fill a need demanded by the submarine

community and as proof that the office could create the product. The main issue on

creating more products is lack of adequate data in the areas demanded by the submarine

community. As soon as the submarines start to deploy away from Canada, they will start

demanding better charts. The only way to acquire the data that they would require would

be if the RCN acquired it themselves. The best way to support their needs would be if the

RCN had a hydrographic capability. Without the capability submarines would be

assuming higher risk navigating especially outside of Canadian waters. As a result the

submarine community will require naval hydrography to produce products to enhance

their capabilities and reduce the risk of their operations.

Naval hydrography would fill the deficiency between what data and products are

available for commercial consumption and specific uses demanded by the military. The

gaps in what is available and what is required include data for oceanographers, ability to

improve the surface navigational picture, aid to coastal nations, and support to

amphibious operations and submarine operations. To fill this deficiency, the RCN has a

very limited and deficient ability to collect the data and produce the products that are

required for the consumption of the navy. The RCN’s ability is limited by lack of

equipment and the lack of expertise in acquiring data. The HSOs have some expertise in

preparing and processing the data but its capacity is limited. In addition to being unable

to acquire data for Canadian use, the RCN will be unable to share in any of the data that

our allies acquire as we will have nothing to offer them in support. The allies may be able

to aid in providing expertise, but having the data to share is the critical in the exchange.
 48

With a lack of data to share, the RCN may not be able to participate in data sharing

during critical operations or operations that may be important to only Canada, but not our

allies. Having a naval hydrographic capability would enable support data requirements

demanded by oceanographers. A hydrographic capability would be able to support any

amphibious operations that may be required even if the operation is small, such as

required for a ship’s boat, or on a larger scale as demanded from a more robust assault.

The main beneficiary of naval hydrography would be the submarine community. They

would be able to vastly improve their capability by improving the areas that they could

operate and do so more safely. Naval hydrography would be the only method of

providing the data and the processing to the submarine force because of the unique data

requirements and the specialized processing required. The demands of non-domestic

littoral areas that submarines would be operating would only be able to be filled by a

naval hydrographic capability. The security required based on of where the submarine

could operate could only be assured by having the military control the entire process. The

requirement to support the submarine is real and immediate and it would greatly reduce

the risk to the boats for navigation and would at the same time improve their operational

performance. Thus the requirement for development of a naval hydrography capability is

both real and necessary.

 49

5. HYDROGRAPHIC COMPARISIONS

Most coastal nations have naval hydrographic capabilities. The RCN requires its

own hydrographic capability in order to conduct current operations and to meet future

requirements. By comparing what capabilities that allies have will show a similar

capacity and capability that the RCN should acquire to meet this need. The United States

navy (USN) and the Royal Navy (RN), have a robust capability to meet their national

requirements especially for their nuclear submarine operations. The Royal Australian

Navy (RAN) is responsible for the national hydrographic requirements and also fills the

military operational requirements. They also have a submarine fleet which requires

specialty products. The Royal New Zealand Navy does not have a submarine fleet to

support, but their navy has retained a hydrographic capability to support specific naval

operations.

The USN is responsible for all hydrographic demands for their deployed forces.

They have significant capability to acquire data and provide the charts in a variety of user

demanded formats. They have hydrographic ships capable of both deep water and inshore

surveys.56 They hydrographic ships carry launches which allow them to multiply the area

that a single ship can cover in a single day. The US Forces also have Light Detection and

Ranging (LIDAR) mounted on aircraft to allowing rapid surveying of shallow water.

They also have “fly away” kits which allow for a portable multi-beam system to be

mounted on virtually any small boat. The kits allow for a very rapid survey to be

completed almost anywhere in the world. This system was employed in Haiti after the

56
Delgado R.R. “Fleet Survey Team: Providing Operational Hydrography to the U.S. Forces”
http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA527615 Feb 12
 50

earthquake to attempt to rapidly open the capitol city.57 They conduct surveys of waters

as part of the nation building, to enable future amphibious operations, and to allow their

submarine fleet to safely navigate under water. All of this capability does not include any

of the federal resources that maintain the domestic navigable waters. The USN has a very

robust hydrographic capability to enable and sustain their maritime fleet that would be

beyond the resources and demands of the RCN.

The Royal Navy has historically conducted the majority of the initial surveys

throughout the world and as such continues to maintain a fleet. They have a maritime

nation whose wealth depended on the safe movement of trade between nations. The

UKHO and the RN, provide data for products that service their operational needs

including amphibious landing charts and specialize navigational products. On the civilian

side, their current focuses have been to chart waters of coastal nations whom they some

governance responsibility. They also survey places that require some capacity building to

improve the overall navigational safety. As a result the UKHO services the worldwide

maritime needs of commercial shipping.58 To meet their operational and commercial

demands the RN has hydrographic ships including an ice class vessel. The RN and the

UKHO demands are greater than the demands of the RCN and therefore the RCN would

require a less robust capability.

The Royal Australian Navy is responsible for the both the domestic hydrographic

demands and to support the military demands of their navy. The RAN has hydrographic

vessels to meet their domestic and expeditionary requirements. The RAN is a regional

57
Ibid.
58
United Kingdom Hydrographic Office, “Admiralty Vector Chart Service Overview” accessed on 8
March 2013, http://www.ukho.gov.uk/productsandservices/electroniccharts/pages/avcs.aspx.
 51

power who maintains a balance of both security requirements and improvements in

navigational safety.59 Part of the improvements in navigational safety is the capacity

building that the RAN does for hydrographic improvements of nations in the region. The

Australians use their hydrographic service in ways similar to the other nations in terms of

how the navy is supported. All the previous three nations have submarines which require

hydrography different than what is required for surface vessels. Submarine operations are

enabled by charting of different level of accuracy. Thus the Australian model is sufficient

to meet both their domestic and expeditionary demands but is not appropriate for the

RCN to model.

The Royal New Zealand Navy has a more modest hydrographic service that still

meets their demands. They have hydrographic ships in their navy which meets the

demands of their surface fleet.60 Their naval hydrographer’s expertise is not focused but

defused throughout their navy with the most senior officer acting as the national

authority. As a result their navy can maintain both the capability and the expertise with

having to focus any of their scant human resources on the problem. Their navy also does

not have submarines which mean that their demands will be less intensive than the other

nations. Regardless, The Royal New Zealand Navy is able to meet the demand of their

force and of their nation.

In examining allies’ naval hydrographic capability, Canada’s lack of capability

becomes starker. Although a dedicated hydrographic department complete with ships and

59
Australia, Department of Defence. ”Australian Hydrographic Office: Roles and Responsibilities.” Last
accessed on 5 February 2013,
http://www.hydro.gov.au/factsheets/WFS_Roles_And_Responsibilities.pdf.
60
Hannah, John and Peter Knight. “Hydrography in New Zealand: A New Economic Approach,”
Hydrographic Society of New Zealand, accessed on 8 Parch 2013,
http://www.hydrographicsociety.org.nz/reports/report_hydro.htm
 52

a robust training program would fill the requirement, it would far exceed the demand

from the RCN. A more modest capability, similar to what RNZN has, would likely fill

the requirement. With allies to model the level of capability required and used to enable

operations, the RCN can better understand the level of service that it might require to

support current and future operations. With this capability, the RCN would also be able to

better support allies contributing to enabling military operations.

 53

CONCLUSION

Canada is a large coastal state with vast maritime interests and hydrography is a

recognized part of sea power. Royal Canadian Navy requires naval hydrography to

enable and complete their missions; a modest capability is required to meet these needs.

An examination of what other allies have to achieve their missions. Although the Royal

Navy and United States Navy have significantly larger forces and a historic precedence

demands their hydrographic capability is similarly larger. In a similar sized ally, Australia

has a robust capability and even a smaller nation such as New Zealand has a reasonable

capability.

The RCN requires a hydrographic capability which can be broken into three parts:

an equipment requirement to obtain the data, an expertise requirement to verify the data

and a portrayal requirement to utilize the data that is obtained. Although most nations

have hydrographic ships that are focused on that mission, the RCN demand does not need

dedicated ships. The equipment demands of the RCN merely require that data can obtain

to support the other government departments in Canada, to meet the expeditionary

requirements of the surface fleet in disaster response and data requirements for submarine

navigation. As a result, the minimum demand envisions installing the capability on the

ship that was deploying or responding to the crisis. The easiest method to obtain this

capability requirement could be met by either having specialty launches, small boats with

a multi-beam sonar installed in the hull, or to have a pole mounted sonar system mounted

to a ship. The advantages of the small boat would be that it could be flown in to a ship in

an emergency or it could sail with the ship from its home port. If it came as a self-

contained module then the set-up requirements would be minimal and it could operate on
 54

its own allowing the mother ship to carry on with other missions. The main disadvantages

would be that most RCN ships have limited boat carrying capacities and having a

dedicated launch would mean that it would not be suited to other tasks like landing

operations. Having a pole mounted multi-beam sonar system would be more portable but

would require more set-up on a ship including testing. The ship would then also be

limited in operations when conducting a survey which may not be the most effective use

of that resource. After the equipment is obtained, the RCN still requires trained personnel

to operate the systems.

The RCN requires hydrographic expertise when collecting and assessing any data

collected. Most navies have dedicated specialists of hydrographic officers who are trained

and employed solely in the task of data acquisition. They also form the nucleus of an

expertise of officers who can prioritize the hydrographic survey demands to fulfill the

requirements of their navies. In addition, these officers can assess equipment and

resource demands for navies. The RCN currently has very few officers who have either

the training or the expertise to even attempt becoming a hydrographer. There is no career

path nor are there many positions that a hydrographer could fill. In order to train

hydrographers the training varies between a master’s program and technical course. Both

are strenuous technical programs which enable candidates to fulfill the requirements of a

hydrographer. Most hydrographers will need to consolidate their skill set with either

executing a survey or assisting another hydrographer. It would likely be best if the RCN

allowed navigators to become hydrographers and post them to roles where they could

complete education. Afterward, they would become standby officers, able to fill the role

in the event of a crisis or a mission where a survey is required to enable a mission. This is
 55

very similar to how the RNZN, another small navy, operates its hydrographic capability.

To enable the critical hydrographic, the RCN requires hydrographic personal.

After the data has been acquired and verified, RCN requires a process to display,

portray and access the data. The coastal Hydrographic Service Organizations do an

admirable job with limited resources to process what data is available to them. The HSOs

have no authority to create a safe navigation product and if new data comes from the

RCN they will quickly become swamped. To support the operations, a reach back

capability for analysis and processing would be required to send the partially processed

data for portrayal and inclusion in military products. The data would be useless unless an

operator can make use of it in the future and dependent on the crisis may require a very

quick response time. Most of the allies operate with a similar system where agencies have

an ability to produce products for the navy on newly procured data. Regardless, the RCN

requires hydrographic equipment, hydrographers and cartographers to enable the entire

process to happen.

Hydrographic organizations were created to prevent ships from grounding in areas

where the sailors were not the local expert. The early casualties for this preventable

situation became deplorable and expensive. After the science started producing charts,

navies and governments soon realized the use and power of the product. Hydrographic

products were then used to enable a variety of operations and at the same time enforce

and improve the sovereignty of nations. The Canadian Hydrographic Service has evolved

out of a demand for domestic safety of navigation and as a result the RCN has not

developed or needed a hydrographic capability.

 56

If the RCN had a hydrographic capability it could aid the other government

departments in their mandates. A hydrographic capability would aid Environment Canada

in their understanding of the physical world and their demand for pollution protection.

The Canadian Coast Guard would be aided in how they maintain the navigational aids in

the water. The real advantage would be to the Canadian Hydrographic Service who has

the mandate to maintain the navigable waters for shipping and transit. They would benefit

from having platforms that are collecting data, and from any processing from the data for

military means. The naval hydrographic capability would gain in expertise from

conducting the hydrographic surveys. The navy would gain from the long expertise that

each department has garnered over the recent past. The economy of Canada would

benefit from the improved picture provided by the new capability.

A naval hydrographic capability would enable Canada’s missions in aid for

disaster support. The support would enable maritime relief in devastated coastal regions.

Nations have been affected by hurricanes, earthquakes and tsunamis. The maritime and

land infrastructure have been damaged to the extent that the best sustained support arrives

from the ocean. To enable that support new surveys must be completed to ensure that the

shipping is safe to enter the area. Both American and Japanese surveys were critical in

the support to the affected areas. In addition to requiring the surveys for disaster relief the

surveys are critical in re-establishing the affect economic infrastructure. Both of these

tasks are critical if Canada intends on providing support. An expeditionary capability is

best suited as a naval hydrographic capability.

The greatest demand for naval hydrography is to fulfill the operational

deficiencies in current and for future operations. Oceanographers would benefit from the
 57

data by improving knowledge of the ocean and thereby improve both their analytic

capability and predictive power for military operations. Future amphibious operations

require the capability. The greatest current needs are to enable patrols in the Arctic in

sovereignty defence and support to the submarine community. The Arctic has poor and

incomplete charts which restricts the movement in protection of Canada’s waters.

Submarine operations would be enhanced by specialized charts enabling them to more

safely achieve their missions. The need for naval hydrographic capability to provide the

data in military priority areas, the sensitivity of the data obtained and to obtain data

expeditionary. Without the capability future naval operations would be risky, impossible

or unsustainable.

Although many nations have fulfilled their naval hydrographic needs in different

methods, Canada solution may unique. The equipment, training and personal package

requirements are an area for further study. The capability is required or the RCN will find

itself unnecessarily impotent in the exploitation of the water space. It will not be able to

effectively conduct operations and the RCN will be unable to contribute to allies. Without

the capability the RCN is standing into danger.

 58

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