Hese de Doctorat De: Juliette AYCHET
Hese de Doctorat De: Juliette AYCHET
Hese de Doctorat De: Juliette AYCHET
L'UNIVERSITE DE RENNES 1
Par
Juliette AYCHET
Directrice de thèse
Catherine Blois-Heulin Professeure,
UMR 6552
Co-directeur de thèse
Alban Lemasson Professeur, Directeur d’unité
UMR 6552
« Sans vos gestes, j’ignorerais tout du secret lumineux de votre âme. »
José Ortega y Gasset
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Remerciements
Cette thèse est le fruit de trois années de travail d’équipe, et n’aurait pu voir le jour sans la
contribution et le soutien de nombreuses personnes. Je tiens à adresser mes plus sincères remerciements :
À Catherine Blois-Heulin et à Alban Lemasson, mes directeurs de thèse, pour m’avoir confié
ce projet, et m’avoir guidée avec optimisme tout au long de sa réalisation. Je les remercie pour toutes
les connaissances qu’ils ont partagées avec moi et pour les discussions enrichissantes que nous avons
eues. Enfin, je suis reconnaissante pour la confiance qu’ils m’ont accordée, et les opportunités qu’ils
m’ont offertes de collaborations internationales, d’encadrement de projets scientifiques d’étudiants et
d’enseignement à l’Université de Rennes.
À Adrien Meguerditchian et Jérôme Micheletta pour m’avoir fait l’honneur d’être les
rapporteurs de cette thèse, et également à Marie Bourjade et Martine Hausberger pour avoir accepté
de siéger dans mon jury en tant qu’examinatrices.
À Valérie Dufour et David Val-Laillet, pour avoir accepté de faire partie de mon comité de
thèse, pour leurs encouragements et leurs conseils, notamment sur l’organisation et la planification de
ce travail.
To Elisabetta Palagi with whom it is a pleasure to collaborate, for having accepted to share her
expertise on facial expressions with us, for the stimulating discussions we had and for her optimistic and
supportive attitude.
To Anne Schel for our collaboration, for having given me the opportunity to be part of the
analysis of mangabey intentional gestures, and for her positive attitude as well.
À Arnaud Rossard et Philippe Bec, avec Marine Mergen, pour l’excellent travail qu’ils font
avec les singes de la Station Biologique de Paimpont, et sans qui aucun des présents travaux n’auraient
pu voir le jour. Merci à Arnaud pour tout ce qu’il m’a appris, pour sa bonne humeur et toute l’aide et le
temps qu’il m’a accordé pour la réalisation de mes expériences. Merci à Philippe pour son expertise
technique, pour la conception de ce magnifique dispositif expérimental, pour son humour et les
discussions très intéressantes que nous avons eues.
À Pablo Pezzino, Noémie Monchy et Lise Le Vern, les étudiants que j’ai eu le plaisir
d’encadrer et qui ont contribué à la réalisation de mes travaux de thèse. J’ai aimé travailler avec chacun
d’eux, je les remercie pour leur motivation, pour leur travail sérieux et les bons moments que nous avons
partagés.
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À l’équipe enseignante de l’UFR SVE (Université de Rennes 1), pour leur accueil et leurs
conseils m’ayant permis d’acquérir les compétences et l’expérience nécessaires pour enseigner dans le
supérieur.
À Anne Cloarec, Katie Collier, ainsi qu’à Thomas et Catherine Aychet, pour leurs patientes
relectures du bon anglais et bon français de mes articles et du présent manuscrit.
À Daniel Cluzeau, Régis Supper, Hélène Cartaud et Catherine Racineux, pour m’avoir
accueillie chaleureusement à la Station Biologique de Paimpont, ainsi qu’à tout le service commun et
l’ensemble des stationnautes d’EthoS et d’Ecobio, qui contribuent à faire de ce lieu un endroit paisible
où il est agréable de travailler.
À l’ensemble de mes collègues d’EthoS pour leur accueil au sein de l’unité. Je remercie en
particulier les stagiaires et permanents de la Station avec qui j’ai partagé mes midis, pour les discussions
et les rires, les jeux de société, les bons repas à la Fée Gourmande, les encouragements… Merci à
Marine, Séverine, Clémence, Céline, Estelle, Aziliz, Katie, Lola, Flore, Julien, Hélène, Nicolas,
Manon, Luca, et tous les autres !
To my dear Serenella, for how warmly she welcomed me when I arrived in Paimpont, for all
the beautiful moments we shared in France and in Italy, and for all the ones to come! I am so glad to
have you as my friend, and I thank you so much to have made my first year of PhD such a happy
experience.
À Loïc, mon compère dans cette folle épopée, mon binôme de TP, mon bro. Pour les fous rires,
les posti, les dessins de bon goût, les jeux, les bêtises, et tous les autres souvenirs importants. Ces trois
années n’auraient certainement pas été les mêmes sans ta précieuse présence. Merci de savoir être un si
bon ami, cœur avec les doigts.
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À mes compagnons de bureau, qui sont devenus bien plus : à Noémie, a.k.a. Hélène Micro, ce
cœur pur à l’optimisme sans faille, avec qui j’aime refaire le monde et inventer des bêtises ; à Mathilde,
la grande sœur du bureau, pour les moments de rires mais aussi de galère, pour ses précieux conseils et
ses vannes bien placées ; à Pablo, a.k.a. Pedro Gonzales, la souris la plus rapide de Lorient, pour son
dynamisme à toute épreuve, sa créativité, et sa capacité à transformer chaque situation en bon souvenir ;
à Amélie, dog-teur Catala, pour ses conseils et les moments partagés à jouer, mais surtout à danser avec
des clochettes aux pieds. J’ai une pensée pour l’ensemble des doctorants d’EthoS, et je leur suis
reconnaissante pour leur esprit positif, pour les soirées passées ensemble, pour leur solidarité. Et puis
pour Harold parce qu’il trouve le moyen de s’incruster jusque dans ces remerciements.
Aux copains qui ont embelli ce séjour breton. Merci à ma petite Margaux d’être si attentionnée
et merci pour les jolies soirées et promenades à ses côtés. Merci aussi aux Burgondes Pierre, Grégoire
et Popo, pour les très bons repas, les gougères, et les sessions de jeu !
À Audondon, Grégoire, Clara, Julie et Estelle, les doctorants du Muséum avec qui j’ai vécu
de loin chaque étape de cette expérience de thèse. Pour les soirées, le soutien moral, le partage des
moments de doute et de bobos, mais aussi de petites et grandes victoires. We did it!
À tous mes amis loin des yeux mais indéniablement près du cœur : à ma poulette Marion, à
Maxime, Robin, Leslie, Méryl, à copine Elise, Laureline, à Alexis et Bastien, à la team des Yvelinois
qui m’ont fort manqué …
À mes parents, mon frère, ma grand-mère chérie et ma marraine la fée, ainsi qu’à toute
ma famille, pour leur soutien inconditionnel et pour leur amour, que je ressens à tout instant. Une pensée
toute particulière à mon tonton Armand, à qui j’aimais parler des jolis singes, et à qui je pense chaque
jour.
À mon Bertrand, pour sa présence douce, ses encouragements et la force qu’il m’a donnée tout
au long de cette aventure. Merci est un bien faible mot pour exprimer à quel point je me sens chanceuse
de partager ta vie.
Pour terminer, merci à mon Berlioz, et à tous les « amis non-humains » avec qui j’ai partagé
des moments heureux durant ces trois années : à Gertrude et Odile-Canard, à Pom’, à Üsspouff et Piwi,
à Marley, à Guy et Sam, à Pélisse et Titilivaha, à Ragnar, à Johnny et Odile, à Diabolo, Zen, Gazelle,
Firmin et Saturnin, et tant d’autres. Enfin, bien sûr, merci aux merveilleux singes de Paimpont, que j’ai
eu tant de joie à connaître et à observer.
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Sommaire
Chapitre I – Introduction……………………………………………………..13
4. Problématiques de la thèse…………………………………………………………..43
4.1. Questions de recherche………………………………………………………………………..43
4.2. Espèce étudiée……………………………………………………………………………...…44
4.3. Objectifs de la thèse…………………………………………………………………………...46
1. Sujets d’étude………………………………………………………………………...51
1.1. Présentation de l’espèce……………………………………………………………………….51
1.2. Population captive étudiée…………………………………………………………………….54
2. Approche observationnelle………………………………………………………….56
2.1. Collecte de données……………………………………………………………………………56
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2.2. Description des gestes et des expressions faciales……………………………………………..56
2.3. Analyse de l’intentionnalité des signaux………………………………………………………57
2.4. Analyse de la latéralité gestuelle………………………………………………………………58
2.5. Description des combinaisons de signaux……………………………………………………..58
2.6. Analyses du contexte et des facteurs sociodémographiques…………………………………...60
3. Approche expérimentale…………………………………………………………….61
3.1. Paradigme de quémande alimentaire…………………………………………………………..61
3.2. Principe et mise au point du dispositif expérimental…………………………………………...62
Analyses complémentaires…………………………………………………………………215
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SOMMAIRE
1. Principaux résultats………………………………………………………………..243
5. Principales perspectives……………………………………………………………259
6. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………..260
Chapitre IX – Annexes…………………………………………………….…295
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Chapitre I
Introduction
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CHAPITRE I - INTRODUCTION
Ce travail de thèse s’inscrit dans l’étude des origines évolutives du langage, abordée à travers la
caractérisation de la communication des primates non-humains. Nous présenterons ici les approches
comparatives adoptées dans le cadre de la recherche des origines du langage, ainsi que les principales
théories dont ces approches ont découlé.
Le langage est un système de communication spécifique à l’humain (Homo sapiens), par lequel un
individu encode et transmet intentionnellement des informations sur ses propres pensées et émotions,
des indications sur des éléments extérieurs de l’environnement, ou demande une action de la part d’un
autre individu (e.g. Hewes et al. 1973; Vauclair et Cochet 2013; Fitch 2017). Il n’existe pas actuellement
de définition unique et universellement acceptée du langage, mais il a souvent été caractérisé selon un
ensemble de critères permettant de le distinguer des autres systèmes de communication animaux (e.g.
Hockett et Hockett 1960; Wacewicz et Żywiczyński 2015). De manière générale, le langage peut être
défini selon deux perspectives. D’une part, le langage est une faculté cognitive et sociale, puisqu’il
consiste en la production intentionnelle de signaux en direction d’autres individus, dans un but social
informatif ou impératif, et dans le respect de règles socialement établies (Liebal et al. 2014). D’autre
part, le langage peut être considéré comme un système structuré de signaux (vocaux, gestuels, écrits),
répondant à des règles d’organisation précises sous-tendant leurs significations (e.g. Hockett et Hockett
1960; Liebal et al. 2014).
Bien qu’il soit admis que le langage humain est un trait unique dans le monde animal, son histoire
évolutive est encore sujet à grands débats, plusieurs scénarios évolutifs ayant été proposés pour
expliquer son émergence dans l’espèce humaine (e.g. Corballis 2003; Arbib 2005; Seyfarth et al. 2005;
Arbib et al. 2008; Masataka 2008b; Meguerditchian et Vauclair 2008; Prieur et al. 2019a). Une première
approche est celle du « ponctualisme », posant le langage comme un trait qualitativement différent des
autres systèmes de communication animaux, qui aurait émergé de capacités cognitives elles-mêmes
propres au genre Homo (Chomsky 1981; Pallaud 2001). Cette hypothèse s’appuie notamment sur le
caractère unique de certaines propriétés du langage, comme la récursivité (Hauser et al. 2002). Une autre
suggestion est que le langage résulte de « préadaptations » à différents niveaux évolutifs
(e.g. Hurford 2003). Le langage pouvant être défini comme un ensemble de propriétés sociocognitives
et structurelles, il peut être fait l’hypothèse que certaines soient des traits nouveaux et que d’autres se
soient développées à partir de systèmes de communication préexistants (Hauser et al. 2002; Fitch 2017).
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L’approche comparative est ainsi la plus pertinente pour examiner cette hypothèse, à la recherche
d’éventuelles homologies entre le langage humain et la communication d’autres animaux, des propriétés
« langagières » pouvant avoir été héritées d’ancêtres communs. Selon la définition donnée au langage,
ces propriétés dont les précurseurs sont recherchés chez les animaux correspondent : soit à des capacités
sociocognitives mobilisées pour la communication, comme la capacité à diriger ses signaux dans un but
social précis (intentionnalité), à utiliser des signaux de manière flexible dans différents contextes, ou à
acquérir des compétences communicatives au contact de ses congénères ; soit à des propriétés
structurelles de la communication, comme l’utilisation de signaux pour référer à un sens spécifique
(sémantique), ou la combinaison de signaux selon des règles précises pour former de nouveaux sens
(syntaxe) (Liebal et al. 2014).
De nombreux parallèles ont ainsi été dressés entre le langage et la communication vocale des oiseaux
et des cétacés, chez qui un apprentissage social peut par exemple être nécessaire pour acquérir
l’ensemble du répertoire de vocalisations (chez les oiseaux chanteurs : Baptista et Gaunt 1997 ; les
orques, Orcinus orca : Foote et al. 2006 ; les grands dauphins, Tursiops truncatus : McCowan et
Reiss 1997). Comme chez l’humain, les liens sociaux façonnent leur communication vocale, pouvant
faire émerger des similarités dans le répertoire d’individus affiliés, voire des phénomènes de
convergence vocale (e.g. chez les étourneaux, Sturnus vulgaris : Hausberger 1995 ; les Cassicans
flûteurs, Gymnorhina tibicen : Brown et al. 1988 ; les grands dauphins : Janik 1997 ; et l’humain :
Gallois et al. 2005). On observe même un évitement actif de superpositions de signaux chez certains
oiseaux comme les étourneaux (Henry et al. 2015), ce qui pourrait être le reflet d’un respect de tours de
parole. Une proto-sémantique a été mise en évidence dans les vocalisations de différents oiseaux,
encodant des informations sur l’identité du signaleur (e.g. chez les hirondelles à front blanc, Hirundo
pyrrhonota : Stoddard et Beecher 1983) ou sur l’environnement extérieur (e.g. chez les séricornes à
sourcils blancs, Sericornis frontalis : Platzen et Magrath 2005 ; chez les poules domestiques, Gallus
gallus domesticus : Evans et Evans 1999). Des signaux visuels semblent également pouvoir être
référentiels chez les corvidés (grands corbeaux, Corvus corax : Pika et Bugnyar 2011). De plus, les
oiseaux combinent plusieurs unités vocales dans leurs chants, et de récents travaux montrent que cette
organisation peut être proto-syntactique (e.g. chez les mésanges de Chine, Parus minor, et les cratéropes
bicolores, Turdoides bicolor : Suzuki 2016; Engesser et al. 2016). Du fait de l’éloignement
phylogénétique entre ces espèces et le genre Homo (Kumar et Hedges 1998), il est probable que les
similarités observées entre le langage et ces systèmes de communication ne soient pas sous-tendues par
des mécanismes homologues, mais soient plutôt le fruit de convergences évolutives. Ainsi, étudier ces
propriétés dans la communication d’espèces distantes permet de conjecturer sur les contraintes sociales
et environnementales ayant conduit à leur émergence (Henry et al. 2015).
Pour rechercher des propriétés homologues à celles du langage dans la communication d’animaux
non-humains, il est en revanche plus pertinent de s’intéresser aux espèces qui nous sont les plus proches,
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CHAPITRE I - INTRODUCTION
c’est-à-dire aux primates (Steiper et Young 2006; Chatterjee et al. 2009; Springer et al. 2012). Une
première approche, pour étudier les origines du langage, fut historiquement de se questionner sur la
capacité des grands singes à apprendre ce moyen de communication. Bien que les tentatives d’apprendre
le langage parlé à des chimpanzés (Pan troglodytes) se soient toujours soldées par des échecs (e.g.
Kellogg et Kellogg 1933; Hayes et Hayes 1951), plusieurs grands singes furent capables d’apprendre la
langue des signes (e.g. la chimpanzé Washoe et la gorille Koko, Gorilla gorilla : Gardner et Gardner
1969; Patterson et Cohn 1990) ou à communiquer grâce à des lexigrammes (e.g. le bonobo Kanzi, Pan
paniscus, et le chimpanzé Nim : Savage-Rumbaugh et al. 1985), utilisant aussi bien des mots seuls qu’en
combinaisons. Ces résultats suggéraient ainsi la capacité des grands singes à utiliser des signaux
arbitraires pour faire référence à des objets ou des concepts (sémantique), et à combiner plusieurs signes
pour former de nouveaux sens (syntaxe). La deuxième approche, actuellement privilégiée, est celle de
l’étude de la communication spontanée des primates non-humains, aussi bien en captivité qu’à l’état
sauvage. La communication vocale, gestuelle et faciale de différentes espèces est ainsi caractérisée, dans
une perspective comparative (e.g. Call et Tomasello 2007; Arbib et al. 2008; Lemasson et Barbu 2011;
Slocombe et al. 2011; Ghazanfar et al. 2012; Liebal et al. 2014; Meguerditchian 2014; Bouchet et al.
2016; Tomasello et Call 2018).
Une première théorie est celle d’une origine vocale du langage (e.g. Masataka 2003; Seyfarth et al.
2005; Zuberbühler et al. 2009; Lemasson et Barbu 2011). Le premier argument en faveur de cette théorie
est la nature référentielle de certaines vocalisations des primates non-humains, pouvant être qualifiées
de proto-sémantiques. Des vocalisations spécifiques peuvent ainsi faire référence à des éléments
extérieurs comme un type de prédateur (e.g. chez les vervets, Chlorocebus pygerythrus, et les mones de
Campbell, Cercopithecus campbelli : Seyfarth et al. 1980; Seyfarth et Cheney 2003; Ouattara et al.
2009) ou un type d’aliment (e.g. chez les chimpanzés : Slocombe et Zuberbühler 2005). Les
vocalisations peuvent également véhiculer des informations sur le signaleur, comme son rang
hiérarchique ou son état émotionnel (e.g. chez les cercopithèques : Fischer et al. 2004; Lemasson et al.
2012). De plus, une proto-syntaxe a été mise en évidence dans la communication vocale de plusieurs
espèces de catarrhiniens, plusieurs unités vocales pouvant être combinées de manière non-aléatoire pour
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encoder un sens précis (e.g. Arnold et Zuberbühler 2006, 2012; Clarke et al. 2006; Ouattara et al. 2009;
Schel et al. 2010; Collier et al. 2014; Coye et al. 2015, 2016, 2018).
Un autre argument majeur en faveur de l’hypothèse d’une origine vocale du langage est la flexibilité
de production des vocalisations en fonction de facteurs sociaux. Des règles conversationnelles peuvent
être identifiées dans les échanges vocaux de plusieurs espèces de singes platyrrhiniens et catarrhiniens,
avec notamment un respect de tours de parole, un évitement du recouvrement des cris et un choix
d’interlocuteurs dépendant de caractéristiques individuelles et de relations de dominance (e.g. Snowdon
et Cleveland 1984; Sugiura et Masataka 1995; Lemasson et Hausberger 2004; Lemasson et al. 2010,
2018; Arlet et al. 2015; Bouchet et al. 2017; Levréro et al. 2019; Pougnault et al. 2020a, b). Un
apprentissage social pourrait être nécessaire pour apprendre ces règles sociales ou produire des
vocalisations dans un contexte approprié (e.g. Seyfarth et Cheney 1997; chez les mones de Campbell :
Lemasson et al. 2011a; les macaques japonais, Macaca fuscata : Bouchet et al. 2017; les gorilles :
Pougnault et al. 2020b). Chez des singes platyrrhiniens et catarrhiniens, des phénomènes de
convergence vocale peuvent émerger entre individus selon leurs affiliations (e.g. Snowdon et Elowson
1999; Lemasson et al. 2011b; Candiotti et al. 2012; Watson et al. 2015; Marco et al. 2019), ou leurs
relations hiérarchiques (Lemasson et al. 2016; Marco et al. 2019), signifiant une influence sociale sur
la plasticité vocale des primates. Enfin, la production de vocalisations peut être dépendante de la
présence d’une audience et de sa composition (e.g. chez les tamarins à crête blanche, Saguinus oedipus :
Roush et Snowdon 2000; les chimpanzés : Slocombe et Zuberbühler 2007; les bonobos : Clay et
Zuberbühler 2012; Clay et al. 2015), voire du niveau de connaissance des receveurs sur l’environnement
extérieur (e.g. chez les semnopithèques de Thomas, Presbytis thomasi : Wich et de Vries 2006; les
chimpanzés : Crockford et al. 2012; Schel et al. 2013), suggérant une possible intentionnalité (voir
partie 3.1.).
Une autre théorie propose que le langage parlé ait émergé de la capacité des primates à articuler
rythmiquement les lèvres et la langue dans leur communication vocale et faciale (e.g. Ghazanfar et al.
2012; Bergman 2013; Ghazanfar et Takahashi 2014). Lorsque les humains parlent, les mouvements de
fermeture et d’ouverture de la bouche suivent un rythme typique de 2 à 7 Hz (Chandrasekaran et al.
2009), et les signaux acoustiques sont émis sur une rythmicité allant de 3 à 8 Hz (Ghazanfar et Takahashi
2014). Cette même temporalité est retrouvée dans les vocalisations de plusieurs primates (e.g. Ghazanfar
et Takahashi 2014 ; chez les babouins gelada, Theropithecus gelada : Gustison et Bergman 2017 ; les
orang-outans, Pongo pygmaeus : Lameira et al. 2015 ; les macaques Rhésus et à face rouge, Macaca
mulatta et M. articoides : Cohen et al. 2007; Toyoda et al. 2017). De plus, le rythme d’articulation des
lèvres, de la langue et de l’os hyoïde est similaire dans la production d’expressions faciales comme le
« lipsmacking », produite en contexte affiliatif (e.g. chez les babouins gelada : Bergman 2013 ; les
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CHAPITRE I - INTRODUCTION
macaques Rhésus : Ghazanfar et al. 2010, 2012 ; les chimpanzés : Pereira et al. 2020), ou le « teeth-
chattering » (e.g. chez les macaques à face rouge : Toyoda et al. 2017). Enfin, chez les macaques, le
développement de la rythmicité du lipsmacking est semblable à l’ontogénie de la parole chez l’humain
(Morrill et al. 2012), renforçant cette hypothèse de précurseurs du langage parlé dans la communication
oro-faciale des primates.
La théorie d’une origine gestuelle du langage a également été formulée, en raison des mécanismes
cognitifs et cérébraux sous-tendant la communication gestuelle des primates non-humains (e.g. Hewes
et al. 1973; Corballis 2003, 2010; Gentilucci et Corballis 2006; Arbib et al. 2008; Meguerditchian et
Vauclair 2008, 2014; McNeill 2012). L’un des principaux arguments en faveur d’une origine gestuelle
du langage est en effet l’utilisation flexible et probablement intentionnelle des gestes par les primates
non-humains, en particulier les grands singes (e.g. Call et Tomasello 2007; Meguerditchian et Vauclair
2008; Hobaiter et Byrne 2013b; Tomasello et Call 2018). Un même geste peut être utilisé de manière
flexible dans différents contextes, et un même contexte éliciter différents gestes (e.g. chez les
chimpanzés : Tomasello et al. 1994), ce qui peut être significatif d’une utilisation stratégique des
signaux pour atteindre un but social précis (« means-ends dissociation », Bruner 1981. Voir partie
3.3.2.). A cette notion de flexibilité est liée une taille importante des répertoires de gestes en comparaison
aux répertoires de vocalisations (e.g. Call et Tomasello 2007; répertoire de gestes des siamangs,
Symphalangus syndactylus : Liebal et al. 2004c; des bonobos : Pika et al. 2005b; Graham et al. 2017;
des chimpanzés : Hobaiter et Byrne 2011b; Roberts et al. 2014a; des gorilles : Genty et al. 2009; des
macaques de Barbarie et des macaques à bonnet, Macaca sylvanus et M. radiata : Hesler et Fischer
2007; Gupta et Sinha 2019; des babouins olive, Papio anubis : Molesti et al. 2019;). De plus, la
communication gestuelle spontanée des grands singes est associée à des marqueurs comportementaux
d’intentionnalité (revues de littérature : Leavens et al. 2005; Liebal et al. 2014; Byrne et al. 2017;
Tomasello et Call 2018, voir partie 3.1.3.). Cette communication gestuelle est également flexible en
termes d’apprentissage, les individus les plus âgés ayant un répertoire plus restreint que les juvéniles
et une utilisation des gestes plus efficace (e.g. chez les grands singes : Tomasello et al. 1985, 1994; Pika
et al. 2005a; Call et Tomasello 2007; Hobaiter et Byrne 2011a). Les gestes des primates non-humains
peuvent aussi présenter des propriétés référentielles, et notamment être déictiques, c’est-à-dire produits
pour orienter l’attention du receveur vers un objet extérieur, comme dans le cas des gestes de pointage
(e.g. Blaschke et Ettlinger 1987; Call et Tomasello 1994; Genty et Zuberbühler 2014; Krause et al.
2018). Chez les bonobos, les gestes d’invitation (« beckoning gestures ») sont également un cas de
gestes référentiels iconiques, c’est-à-dire représentant physiquement l’action à laquelle ils font référence
(Genty et Zuberbühler 2014).
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Outre ces propriétés sociocognitives, la théorie d’une origine gestuelle du langage s’appuie en
grande partie sur la latéralité comportementale et neuro-anatomique mise en évidence dans la
communication gestuelle des primates humains et non-humains (e.g. Meguerditchian et Vauclair 2014;
Prieur et al. 2018, 2019a, b. Voir partie 3.2.). La communication verbale et non-verbale humaine est en
effet latéralisée en faveur du côté droit, en raison d’une spécialisation de l’hémisphère gauche pour les
fonctions langagières, en particulier au niveau des aires de Broca et de Wernicke (e.g. Broca 1865;
Wernicke 1874; Kimura 1973; Grossi et al. 1996; Lieberman 2002; Cooper 2006; Meguerditchian et
al. 2013b). Similairement, plusieurs primates non-humains présentent une latéralité gestuelle à droite à
échelle populationnelle, dissociée d’une latéralité manuelle pour des actions non-communicatives
(e.g. les chimpanzés : Meguerditchian et al. 2010; Hobaiter et Byrne 2013a; Prieur et al. 2016a ; les
gorilles : Prieur et al. 2016b ; les babouins olives : Meguerditchian et Vauclair 2006, 2009;
Meguerditchian et al. 2011b; Meunier et al. 2013c ; les mones de Campbell et les mangabeys à collier,
Cercocebus torquatus : Maille et al. 2013). Chez les grands singes, cette latéralité gestuelle est associée
à des asymétries anatomiques voire fonctionnelles au niveau des régions cérébrales homologues aux
aires de Broca et de Wernicke (e.g. Gannon et al. 1998; Cantalupo et Hopkins 2001; Hopkins et
Cantalupo 2004; Taglialatela et al. 2006, 2008). Ces constatations ont mené à l’hypothèse que la
spécialisation de l’hémisphère gauche pour le langage humain soit héritée d’une spécialisation de
certaines régions cérébrales pour la communication gestuelle intentionnelle.
Des propriétés langagières étant retrouvées aussi bien dans la communication vocale, faciale et
gestuelle des primates non-humains, l’hypothèse d’une origine multimodale du langage a été formulée,
proposant que le langage résulte au moins en partie d’une coévolution de ces différents systèmes de
communication (e.g. Arbib et al. 2008; Masataka 2008a; Taglialatela et al. 2011; Slocombe et al. 2011;
Meguerditchian et al. 2013a; Gillespie-Lynch et al. 2014; Liebal et al. 2014; Meguerditchian et Vauclair
2014; Levinson et Holler 2014; Fröhlich et al. 2019; Prieur et al. 2019a). Il a par exemple été suggéré
que les propriétés langagières liées à la perception du langage aient émergé de caractéristiques de la
communication vocale des primates (e.g. référentialité), et que les précurseurs de caractéristiques liées
à la production du langage (e.g. intentionnalité) soient quant à eux retrouvés dans leur communication
gestuelle (Meguerditchian et Vauclair 2008, 2010). La théorie d’une origine multimodale du langage est
basée en particulier sur le constat de la nature multimodale de la communication des primates
humains (e.g. Ekman 1979, 2004; Iverson et Goldin-Meadow 1998; Goldin-Meadow 1999; Vigliocco
et al. 2014) et non-humains (e.g. Jones et Van Cantfort 2007; Pollick et De Waal 2007; Micheletta et al.
2013; Taglialatela et al. 2015; Wilke et al. 2017; Hobaiter et al. 2017; Genty 2019). Les primates
intègrent plusieurs types de signaux dans leur communication (vocalisations, gestes, expressions
faciales, regards), pouvant être perçus via différentes modalités sensorielles (Liebal et al. 2014, voir
20
CHAPITRE I - INTRODUCTION
partie 2.4.), ces différentes modalités ayant supposément des fonctions complémentaires pour
transmettre efficacement de l’information (e.g. Fröhlich et van Schaik 2018). La théorie d’une origine
multimodale du langage s’appuie également sur des données collectées chez l’humain, suggérant
l’existence d’un système bimodal contrôlant la communication vocale et gestuelle dans l’hémisphère
gauche (e.g. Gentilucci et Corballis 2006; Bernardis et al. 2008; Gentilucci et Volta 2008), ainsi qu’un
rôle important de la communication gestuelle dans le développement du langage vocal (revues de
littérature : Meguerditchian et al. 2013a; Vauclair et Cochet 2013, 2016). Plusieurs scénarii évolutifs
ont été proposés, suggérant une coévolution des systèmes gestuels et vocaux, et l’émergence de
propriétés langagières à partir de l’un ou l’autre de ces systèmes à différents niveaux phylogénétiques
(e.g. Meguerditchian et al. 2013a; Levinson et Holler 2014; Fröhlich et al. 2019).
Avant d’aborder plus en détail les propriétés langagières pouvant être caractérisées dans la
communication gestuelle et multimodale des primates non-humains, et auxquelles nous nous
intéresserons dans ce travail, nous présenterons ici la manière dont nous pouvons définir ces signaux.
21
2.1. Qu’est-ce qu’un signal communicatif ?
La communication est un processus par lequel une information est transmise d’un signaleur vers un
receveur, impactant le comportement de celui-ci de manière indirecte (Altmann 1967; Deputte 1981;
Zuberbühler 2012; Liebal et al. 2014b; Beauchaud 2019). Plus précisément, cette information est
encodée dans une certaine modalité sensorielle, sous forme de signal, pour être perçue puis décodée par
le receveur (Ruxton et Schaefer 2011; Zuberbühler 2012; Higham et Hebets 2013). Des perturbations
indépendantes de l’émetteur, ou « bruits » de l’environnement, peuvent parfois affecter le signal (voir
le modèle de communication proposé par Shannon et Weaver 1948, 1949. Figure 1). Un signal
communicatif est ainsi un comportement, ayant été sélectionné pour la fonction de transmission d’une
information, et provoquant un changement de comportement chez le receveur (Ruxton et Schaefer 2011;
Laidre et Johnstone 2013). Un signal communicatif est à distinguer d’un indice, correspondant à un
élément informatif secondaire, pouvant être perçu par le receveur mais véhiculé par l’émetteur de façon
incontrôlée, par sa seule présence ou par ses caractéristiques (Deputte 1981; Smith et Harper 1995;
Maynard-Smith et al. 2003; Tomasello 2008; Ruxton et Schaefer 2011).
Figure 1. Modèle de
communication de
Shannon et Weaver
(1948, 1949).
Les gestes occupent une place significative dans la communication des primates, qui s’appuie
grandement sur la modalité visuelle (e.g. Redican 1975; Cartmill et al. 2012; Liebal et Call 2012; Pika
et Liebal 2012; Gillespie-Lynch et al. 2014; Liebal et al. 2014; Byrne et al. 2017; Tomasello et Call
2018; Liebal et Oña 2018). Chez l’humain, la communication gestuelle se développe en amont du
langage articulé, notamment à travers la production de gestes de pointage, et constitue une étape clé
dans l’ontogénèse de la communication verbale (e.g. Bretherton et Bates 1979; Butterworth 2003;
Vauclair et Cochet 2016). Ainsi, les définitions de gestes communicatifs chez les primates non-humains
se sont principalement construites à partir des nombreuses études de psychologie du développement
s’intéressant aux gestes des enfants préverbaux (Liebal et al. 2014).
Bien que certains critères de définition diffèrent selon les auteurs, tous s’accordent sur la nature
communicative du geste (revues de littérature : Scott et Pika 2012; Hobaiter et Byrne 2017; Bourjade
et al. 2020). Pour différencier les gestes d’actions non-communicatives, ceux-ci doivent d’une part être
produits socialement, c’est-à-dire en direction d’un receveur (e.g. Tomasello et al. 1985, 1994; Leavens
22
CHAPITRE I - INTRODUCTION
et Hopkins 1998; Leavens et al. 2004a; Liebal et al. 2004c; Pika et al. 2005b; Pollick et De Waal 2007;
Genty et Zuberbühler 2014), ou a minima en présence d’une audience susceptible de percevoir ce signal
(e.g. Call et Tomasello 2007; Genty et al. 2009). D’autre part, le geste, en tant que signal communicatif,
doit pouvoir induire un changement de comportement chez le receveur (e.g. Liebal et al. 2004a, c,
2006; Pika 2008; Roberts et al. 2014a; Hobaiter et al. 2017; Gupta et Sinha 2019), et ce de manière
indirecte. En ce sens, la plupart des auteurs définissent les gestes comme des mouvements non-
locomoteurs et « mécaniquement inefficaces » (e.g. Pika et al. 2005b; Call et Tomasello 2007;
Cartmill et Byrne 2007; Pollick et De Waal 2007; Hobaiter et Byrne 2011b, 2017; Scott et Pika 2012;
Liebal et Call 2012; Bard et al. 2014; Fröhlich et al. 2017; Tomasello et Call 2018; Liebal et Oña 2018).
Ce critère n’exclue pas cependant les gestes impliquant un contact avec un objet ou un receveur, tant
que le mouvement n’est pas manipulateur et ne suffit pas de lui-même à induire un changement chez le
receveur (e.g. Pollick et De Waal 2007b; Pollick et al. 2008; Gupta et Sinha 2019). Ainsi, un geste
pourra être perçu via d’autres modalités sensorielles que la modalité visuelle, selon qu’il implique un
contact physique avec le receveur (modalité tactile) ou qu’il implique la production d’un son (modalité
acoustique) (e.g. Pika et al. 2003; Liebal et al. 2004a, 2014; Pika 2008; Fröhlich et al. 2016).
Dans certaines études, les gestes communicatifs ne sont considérés comme tels que s’ils sont
supposément intentionnels, c’est-à-dire produits volontairement et stratégiquement par le signaleur
pour atteindre un but social (e.g. Tomasello et al. 1985; Tanner et Byrne 1996; Pika et al. 2005; Liebal
et al. 2006; Tomasello 2008; Genty et al. 2009; Hobaiter et Byrne 2011b; Cochet 2012; Roberts et al.
2012b; Fröhlich et al. 2016. Voir partie 3.1.1.). Pour remplir ce critère, en plus d’être dirigé vers un ou
des receveurs, le geste devra être accompagné de marqueurs comportementaux suggérant qu’il est
produit dans un but précis (voir partie 3.1.2.). L’un des principaux points de divergence dans la
définition des gestes réside dans la forme physique de ce signal, concernant plus précisément les parties
du corps mobilisées. Certaines définitions réduisent la notion de geste aux mouvements brachio-
manuels (e.g. Leavens et Hopkins 1998; Pollick et De Waal 2007; Leavens et al. 2010; Roberts et al.
2012b, 2014a), voire aux mouvements brachio-manuels dits « libres », n’impliquant aucun contact avec
un substrat ou le receveur (e.g. Pollick et De Waal 2007; Roberts et al. 2012b, 2014a). Selon cette
définition stricte, il a été supposé par certains auteurs que les singes non-hominoïdes n’utilisaient pas de
gestes brachio-manuels dans leur communication spontanée intraspécifique (Call et Tomasello 2007;
Pollick et De Waal 2007; Cartmill et al. 2012; Roberts et al. 2012b, 2014a). A l’inverse, d’autres auteurs
considèrent comme gestes des mouvements de la tête et du tronc, ainsi que des postures (e.g. Tanner
et Byrne 1996; Pika et al. 2005; Call et Tomasello 2007; Pika et Liebal 2012). Enfin, certaines études
s’intéressent à la communication gestuelle au sens large, incluant dans cette définition les expressions
faciales (e.g. Maestripieri 1996, 1997; Liebal et al. 2006; Cartmill et Byrne 2007, 2010; Hesler et
Fischer 2007).
23
2.3. Expressions faciales
Les primates ont une musculature faciale particulièrement complexe (Hill 1974; Burrows 2008;
Diogo et al. 2009), leur permettant de produire une grande diversité de mouvements. Les expressions
faciales correspondent ainsi à des mouvements communicatifs de la bouche, des lèvres, des paupières,
des sourcils, et/ ou des oreilles dans le cas des primates non-humains (e.g. Van Hooff 1967; Waller et
Micheletta 2013; Müri 2016). Ces mouvements peuvent être d’amplitudes différentes et donc être
graduels, possiblement en conséquence de différents niveaux de motivation de la part du signaleur (e.g.
Preuschoft et van Hooff 1996; Parr et al. 2005; Waller et Micheletta 2013).
La description et l’étude des expressions faciales des primates s’est classiquement basée sur les
émotions qui leur sont associées (e.g. Liebal et al. 2014; Waller et al. 2016a). Dans « L'expression des
émotions chez l'homme et les animaux », Darwin (1872) qualifie les expressions faciales de
« contrepartie inévitable des émotions ressenties » par le sujet. Bien que le lien entre émotion et
expression faciale soit confirmé (e.g. Levenson et al. 1990; Porter et al. 2012), l’aspect « inévitable »
de ces expressions évoqué par Darwin est aujourd’hui remis en question par les données neuro-
anatomiques émanant d’études sur les humains et les primates catarrhiniens. En effet, leurs expressions
faciales sont à la fois contrôlées par des aires corticales permettant l’expression d’émotions, via des
innervations des muscles faciaux reliées au système limbique, au niveau du gyrus cingulaire, et
permettant des mouvements volontaires, au niveau d’aires du cortex moteur différentes de celles
contrôlant les mouvements des membres (Sherwood et al. 2004, 2005; Cattaneo et Pavesi 2014; Müri
2016; Sliwa et al. 2018). Etudier les expressions faciales par le seul prisme des émotions du signaleur
ne permet pas d’appréhender pleinement la fonction communicative de ces mouvements faciaux, au
sens de signaux et non d’indices informant de l’état émotionnel du sujet (voir partie 2.1.). Ainsi, dans la
perspective de l’étude comparative de la communication des primates, les expressions faciales sont
plutôt considérées du point de vue de leur fonction sociale (e.g. « the Behavioural Ecology View »,
Fridlund 2002) et peuvent être définies, comme pour les gestes, comme des signaux dirigés vers un ou
des receveurs et induisant un changement de comportement chez ces derniers. En ce sens, la description
des expressions faciales selon leur morphologie est privilégiée, avec une volonté grandissante de gain
en objectivité (Waller et al. 2016a).
Comme évoqué précédemment (voir partie 1.3.4.), la communication des primates non-humains est
de plus en plus étudiée sous l’angle de la multimodalité. Les termes de « communication multimodale »
couvrent cependant des sens différents, selon que l’on s’intéresse à la modalité de perception ou de
production des signaux. La multimodalité peut ainsi faire référence à des signaux pouvant être perçus
sur plusieurs canaux sensoriels (par exemple, acoustique et visuel. Partan et Marler 1999, 2005), ou à
24
CHAPITRE I - INTRODUCTION
des combinaisons de plusieurs types de signaux communicatifs (par exemple, des gestes combinés à
des vocalisations. Pollick et De Waal 2007; Genty et al. 2014; Taglialatela et al. 2015), ou bien inclure
ces deux possibilités (Liebal et al. 2014). Higham et Hebets (2013) proposent des définitions permettant
de discriminer ces deux aspects, en distinguant la « communication multimodale », impliquant
différentes modalités sensorielles, de la « communication multicomposante » impliquant différents
types de signaux, perçus ou non sur la même modalité sensorielle. Chez les primates non-humains, la
communication multimodale est principalement étudiée à travers les modalités visuelle, acoustique et
tactile, les études multimodales portant principalement sur des combinaisons de gestes, de vocalisations
et d’expressions faciales (e.g. Leavens et al. 2004b; Jones et Van Cantfort 2007; Pollick et De Waal
2007; Micheletta et al. 2013; Genty et al. 2014; Hobaiter et al. 2017). Il est à noter que la communication
des primates peut inclure des signaux délivrés sur d’autres modalités, notamment olfactive, dont la
mesure est toutefois limitée par des contraintes méthodologiques (Heymann 2006; Liebal et al. 2014).
Pour décrire la communication multimodale des primates, il est important de définir enfin si l’on
étudie les combinaisons « fixes » ou « libres » de modalités (Higham et Hebets 2013). Certains signaux
communicatifs peuvent en effet être intrinsèquement multimodaux (multimodalité « fixe », Partan et
Marler 2005), puisque perceptible sur différents canaux sensoriels. C’est en particulier le cas des
vocalisations, qui, même si elles sont perçues sur la modalité acoustique, sont nécessairement associées
à des mouvements faciaux spécifiques. Ces mouvements constituent une composante visuelle du signal,
perceptible voire identifiable par les receveurs (e.g. Ghazanfar et Logothetis 2003; Izumi et Kojima
2004; Ghazanfar et al. 2005). La multimodalité pourra aussi résider dans des combinaisons « libres » de
signaux (Partan et Marler 2005; Fröhlich et van Schaik 2018), pouvant aussi bien être associés ou
produits indépendamment les uns des autres. C’est le cas par exemple des combinaisons de gestes et de
vocalisations utilisés dans des contextes spécifiques (e.g. Wilke et al. 2017; Genty 2019), et qui peuvent
être significatifs d’une utilisation flexible des signaux par les primates (voir partie 3.3.3.).
Voyons à présent plus en détail les propriétés sociocognitives potentiellement impliquées dans la
communication des primates. Nous nous intéresserons en particulier à la communication gestuelle (au
sens large, i.e. impliquant des gestes brachio-manuels, des postures et mouvements du corps) et aux
expressions faciales des primates, en termes d’intentionnalité, c’est-à-dire d’utilisation stratégique des
signaux pour atteindre un but social précis, et de latéralité. La latéralité de cette communication gestuelle
intentionnelle est d’un intérêt particulier concernant l’étude de l’émergence du langage, car elle pourrait
avoir la même origine que la spécialisation de l’hémisphère gauche pour le contrôle des fonctions
langagières chez l’humain. Nous aborderons enfin la question de la flexibilité de la communication
25
gestuelle et multimodale, qui peut être le reflet d’une utilisation stratégique de signaux dans le cas d’une
communication intentionnelle.
3.1. Intentionnalité
Intentionnalité de second ordre : Le signaleur agit dans le but de changer l’état mental du
receveur. Ce degré d’intentionnalité implique une « attribution d’un état mental » au receveur
de la part du signaleur. Exemple : Tom produit un cri d’alarme pour que Sam pense qu’il y a un
danger.
26
CHAPITRE I - INTRODUCTION
Intentionnalité de troisième ordre : Le signaleur agit avec l’intention de changer l’état mental
du receveur, pour que celui-ci reconnaisse son intention de changer son comportement.
Exemple : Tom produit un cri d’alarme pour que Sam pense que Tom veut qu’il fuie.
Intentionnalité de quatrième ordre : Le signaleur agit avec l’intention de changer l’état mental
du receveur et que celui-ci reconnaisse cette intention. Exemple : Tom produit un cri d’alarme
pour que Sam sache que Tom veut qu’il pense qu’il y a un danger.
En ce sens, un signal sera considéré comme intentionnel s’il est volontairement produit par un
signaleur en direction d’un receveur et dans le but de provoquer un changement de comportement chez
ce dernier, le signaleur ayant recours à différentes stratégies communicatives pour atteindre ce but
(Bretherton et Bates 1979; Tomasello et al. 1985; Bard 1992; Roeder et Gosset 2001; Hobaiter et Byrne
2013b). Différents marqueurs comportementaux sont alors recherchés dans la communication des
primates non-humains, la plupart étant hérités d’études de psychologie du développement chez l’enfant,
afin d’évaluer si le signaleur se comporte comme si son signal était intentionnel (e.g. Bretherton et Bates
1979; revues de littérature : Leavens et al. 2005; Liebal et al. 2014; Byrne et al. 2017).
Récemment, Townsend et al. (2017) ont proposé une méthodologie basée sur trois grands
critères à valider pour définir un signal communicatif comme intentionnel, vérifiant par différents
marqueurs comportementaux que le signal : (i) est produit dans un but social précis ; (ii) est dirigé vers
un receveur pour atteindre ce but ; (iii) produit un changement de comportement chez ce receveur,
cohérent avec l’intention supposée du signaleur.
27
(i) Le premier critère d’intentionnalité, i.e. le fait que le signal soit produit dans un but précis
(« goal-directedness »), peut être vérifié lorsque le signaleur stoppe la production du
signal une fois ce but présumé atteint (e.g. Leavens et al. 2005). Lorsque le receveur ne
répond pas favorablement à un signal intentionnel, il est attendu que le signaleur agisse
stratégiquement pour que son but soit satisfait, en particulier en répétant le signal
(persistance), en modifiant la forme du signal ou en en produisant de nouveaux
(élaboration) (e.g. Liebal et al. 2004c; Leavens et al. 2005; Cartmill et Byrne 2007, 2010;
Hobaiter et Byrne 2011b; Roberts et al. 2013; Graham et al. 2017; Gupta et Sinha 2019).
De plus, si le signaleur maintient son regard en direction du receveur après avoir produit
son signal, cela peut être significatif d’une attente de réponse du receveur (e.g. Tomasello
et al. 1985, 1994; Pika et al. 2003; Liebal et al. 2004c; Call et Tomasello 2007; Cartmill et
Byrne 2010; Hobaiter et Byrne 2011b; Roberts et al. 2012b, 2014a; Graham et al. 2017;
Molesti et al. 2019).
(ii) Le deuxième critère d’intentionnalité, i.e. le fait que le signal soit dirigé vers un receveur
pour atteindre le but social (« social-directedness »), peut-être vérifié par différents
indicateurs. D’une part, le signal doit être produit en présence d’un autre individu (« social
use »), et être physiquement dirigé vers le receveur, via l’orientation du corps ou du regard
du signaleur, ou s’il y a un contact physique entre le signaleur et le receveur (e.g. Tomasello
et al. 1985, 1994; Leavens et al. 1996, 2004; Leavens et Hopkins 1998; Liebal et al. 2004c,
2014; Call et Tomasello 2007). Dans certains contextes, le signaleur pourra alterner son
regard entre un objet extérieur et le receveur, indiquant à la fois une directionnalité sociale
et une possible communication référentielle (e.g. Franco et Butterworth 1996; Gómez
2007). La sensibilité à l’état attentionnel du receveur est également un marqueur clé de
ce second critère d’intentionnalité, qui sera vérifié si le signaleur produit préférentiellement
des signaux visuels face à un receveur attentif (i.e. regardant en sa direction), ou adapte la
modalité du signal à son état d’attention (e.g. Leavens et al. 2004; Liebal et al. 2004c; Poss
et al. 2006; Call et Tomasello 2007; Maille et al. 2012; Bourjade et al. 2013b; Meunier et
al. 2013c; Demuru et al. 2015). Ainsi, il pourra être noté si le signaleur vérifie l’état
attentionnel de son receveur avant de produire un signal visuel (« audience checking ».
Genty et al. 2009; Hobaiter et Byrne 2011b; Graham et al. 2017), et s’il cherche à attirer le
regard de celui-ci en utilisant des signaux tactiles ou audibles (« attention-getters », e.g.
Tomasello et al. 1994; Tomasello 2008).
(iii) Le dernier critère, i.e. le fait que le signal provoque un changement de comportement chez
le receveur, est en lien avec la nature communicative du signal (e.g. Marler 1967; Altmann
28
CHAPITRE I - INTRODUCTION
1968; Green 1975. Voir partie 2.1.), et permet de vérifier la nature du but social recherché
par le signaleur. Ce changement de comportement doit être répétable et cohérent avec
l’intention supposée du signaleur, le but social étant atteint ou « refusé » par le receveur
(e.g. Liebal et al. 2004c, 2006; Roberts et al. 2012b, 2014a; Townsend et al. 2017).
Pour valider chacun des critères d’intentionnalité, un maximum de ces marqueurs doivent être
observés (Schel et al. 2013), et les trois critères devront être vérifiés pour que le signal soit considéré
comme intentionnel (Townsend et al. 2017). Cette méthodologie a l’avantage d’être applicable à
différentes espèces et pour étudier différents types de communication (gestuelle, faciale, vocale). Elle
présente cependant certaines limites, car les marqueurs d’intentionnalité présentés ci-dessus, pris
indépendamment les uns des autres, peuvent être vérifiés dans le cas d’une communication non
intentionnelle (Graham et al. 2019). Par exemple, si un signal est produit automatiquement en réponse
à un stimulus extérieur (intentionnalité d’ordre zéro), il est probable que ce signal soit répété jusqu’à ce
que le stimulus disparaisse, ce qui pourrait pourtant être interprété comme de la persistance. Un même
stimulus pourrait aussi induire différents types de signaux, ce qui pourrait être interprété comme de
l’élaboration. De plus, beaucoup de marqueurs comportementaux reposent sur la présence de regards du
signaleur en direction du receveur, ce qui peut être observé dans des contextes élicitant davantage
d’attention sociale. Enfin, un signal qui résulterait uniquement d’un changement d’état interne du
signaleur pourrait être favorisé par le regard ou la simple présence d’autres individus, ces facteurs
constituant des stimuli émotionnels (e.g. Zajonc 1965; Emery 2000). Dans ce cas, les signaux seraient
préférentiellement produits en présence d’autres individus (« social use ») et en fonction de leur état
attentionnel (Graham et al. 2019). Pour pallier à l’incertitude liée à l’interprétation de ces marqueurs, il
est ainsi recommandé de s’appuyer sur un maximum d’indices comportementaux différents. En effet,
plusieurs indices convergents sont plus susceptibles d'être expliqués par un seul mécanisme cognitif
(intentionnalité) plutôt que par une série d'autres explications (e.g. Byrne et Bates 2006; Liebal et al.
2014c; Townsend et al. 2017), bien que chaque mécanisme cognitif possible doive être envisagé.
Le fait que les gestes des primates soient produits dans un but précis fût d’abord étudié chez des
jeunes chimpanzés captifs, à partir des marqueurs comportementaux développés dans les études de
développement de l’enfant (Tomasello et al. 1985, 1989, 1994). Par la suite, se basant sur la définition
de Bretherton et Bates (1979), Bard (1992) distingua la communication intentionnelle et les autres
comportements intentionnels chez les orang-outans, se basant sur la directionnalité sociale des gestes.
S’en suivirent de nombreuses études en captivité et à l’état sauvage mettant en évidence des marqueurs
d’intentionnalité accompagnant les gestes des chimpanzés (e.g. Leavens et Hopkins 1998; Hostetter et
al. 2001; Leavens et al. 2004b, 2005; Liebal et al. 2004b; Kaminski et al. 2004; Hobaiter et Byrne
29
2011a, b; Roberts et al. 2013, 2014a, b; Fröhlich et al. 2016; Graham et al. 2018), des bonobos (e.g.
Pika et al. 2005; Halina et al. 2013; Demuru et al. 2015; Graham et al. 2018), des gorilles (e.g. Genty
et al. 2009; Genty et Byrne 2010; Botting et Bastian 2019), des orang-outans (P.pygmaeus et abelii, e.g.
Liebal et al. 2006; Cartmill et Byrne 2007, 2010; Russon et Andrews 2011; Tempelmann et Liebal
2012), et des siamangs (e.g. Liebal et al. 2004c). Il est ainsi admis que la communication gestuelle des
grands singes est intentionnelle (Call et Tomasello 2007; Hobaiter et Byrne 2013b; Liebal et al. 2014;
Byrne et al. 2017; Tomasello et Call 2018).
Les gestes des singes non-hominoïdes ont suscité moins d’attention (Slocombe et al. 2011). De
premières descriptions de communication gestuelle intraspécifiques ont été faites chez les macaques
Rhésus, les macaques à queue de cochon, et les macaques à face rouge (M. mulatta, nemenstrina et
articoides : Maestripieri 1996, 1997, 2005; Maestripieri et Wallen 1997), mais sans s’intéresser aux
marqueurs comportementaux d’intentionnalité comme étudié chez les grands singes. De nombreuses
études expérimentales ont par la suite été réalisées en contexte interspécifique, impliquant des gestes de
pointage ou de quémande appris et dirigés vers un expérimentateur humain pour obtenir une
récompense. Chez plusieurs espèces de singes catarrhiniens et platyrrhiniens, une sensibilité à l’état
attentionnel du receveur a été mise en évidence pour la production de ces gestes interspécifiques, avec
souvent des alternances de regard entre le receveur et la récompense (e.g. chez les babouins olives :
Bourjade et al. 2013a, b; Meunier et al. 2013c; Lamaury et al. 2017 ; les macaques de Tonkean, les
macaques Rhésus et les macaques à bonnet, M. tonkeana, M. mulatta et M. radiata : Canteloup et al.
2015a, b ; Deshpande et al. 2018 ; les mangabeys à collier : Maille et al. 2012 ; les capucins, Sapajus
apella : Hattori et al. 2007, 2010 ; et les singes écureuils, Saimiri sciureus : Anderson et al. 2007, 2010).
Cela suggère une possible aptitude à communiquer intentionnellement chez ces espèces, mais ces
expériences ne s’intéressant qu’à un nombre restreint de marqueurs d’intentionnalité, tous les critères
n’en sont pas vérifiés (voir partie 3.1.2.). Récemment, deux études observationnelles ont mis en évidence
des marqueurs d’intentionnalité accompagnant les gestes spontanés intraspécifiques des babouins olives
(i.e. directionnalité, sensibilité et adaptation à l’état attentionnel du receveur, attente d’une réponse du
receveur : Molesti et al. 2019) et des macaques à bonnet (i.e. directionnalité, sensibilité à l’état
attentionnel du receveur, signal stoppé quand le but supposé est atteint, persistance ou élaboration dans
le cas contraire, changement de comportement chez le receveur : Gupta et Sinha 2019). Ce sont, à notre
connaissance, les seules études à s’être portées sur l’intentionnalité des gestes intraspécifiques de singes
non-hominoïdes.
De plus, la potentielle intentionnalité de premier ordre de leurs expressions faciales n’a jamais été
explorée. Des données neuro-anatomiques suggèrent un double contrôle volontaire et émotionnel des
mouvements faciaux chez les primates catarrhiniens (e.g. Sherwood et al. 2004, 2005; Sliwa et al. 2018),
et quelques données émanant d’observations des grands singes suggèrent un contrôle volontaire des
expressions faciales (e.g. Hopkins et al. 2011b). Une implicite dichotomie oppose parfois la nature
30
CHAPITRE I - INTRODUCTION
émotionnelle et intentionnelle des signaux communicatifs dans la littérature, mais ces mécanismes
peuvent au contraire agir en parallèle et être complémentaires (e.g. Liebal et al. 2014; Cattaneo et Pavesi
2014; Müri 2016). En effet, un signal peut être contrôlé et produit intentionnellement pour
communiquer, et à la fois être associé voire motivé par un état émotionnel spécifique du signaleur. Chez
les bonobos, les expressions faciales de jeu, associées à des émotions positives et une forte excitation,
sont préférentiellement produites en contexte social et face à un receveur attentif (Demuru et al. 2015).
Les mêmes résultats ont été obtenus chez les orang-outans, dont les expressions faciales de jeu
impliquent davantage de mouvements faciaux lorsque le receveur regarde en direction du signaleur
(Waller et al. 2015), et chez cinq espèces de gibbons, chez qui les expressions faciales sont de durée
plus importante lorsque le signaleur et le receveur se font face (chez des siamangs, S. syndactylus, des
gibbons à bonnet, Hylobates pileatus, des gibbons à mains blanches, Hylobates lar, des gibbons à joues
jaunes, Nomascus gabriellae, et des gibbons à joues blanches, Nomascus siki : Scheider et al. 2016).
Ces expressions faciales ne semblent donc pas être produites automatiquement pendant le jeu, mais
d’autres mécanismes que l’intentionnalité pourraient expliquer ces résultats, comme une excitation plus
importante face à un receveur visuellement attentif (voir partie 3.1.2.). Quelques études ont montré que
les expressions faciales, au même titre que les gestes, pouvaient être accompagnées de certains
marqueurs comportementaux d’intentionnalité chez les siamangs (Liebal et al. 2004c), les orang-outans
(Cartmill et Byrne 2010) et les babouins olives (Molesti et al. 2019). Ces recherches restent jusqu’alors
anecdotiques, et cette question de l’intentionnalité des expressions faciales, à notre connaissance, n’a
jamais été abordée chez d’autres primates catarrhiniens. Ainsi, d’avantage de données sont nécessaires
pour déterminer si les primates non-humains peuvent produire des expressions faciales
intentionnellement pour communiquer (e.g. Arbib et al. 2008; Slocombe et al. 2011; Graham et al.
2019).
3.2. Latéralité
On observe chez l’humain une spécialisation de l’hémisphère gauche pour les fonctions langagières,
avec en particulier une implication de l’aire de Broca (gyrus frontal inférieur gauche, aires de
Broadmann 44-45) dans la production de la parole, et de l’aire de Wernicke (gyrus temporal supérieur
gauche, aire 22) pour la compréhension du langage (e.g. Broca 1865; Wernicke 1874; Lieberman 2002;
Cooper 2006). Cette spécialisation hémisphérique dans le contrôle du langage est associée à une
asymétrie anatomique du planum temporale, plus développé du côté gauche (Lieberman 2002).
Conjointement, la main droite est préférentiellement utilisée pour les gestes communicatifs, bien que
certains individus puissent utiliser majoritairement le côté gauche pour communiquer (Vauclair 2004).
A l'échelle populationnelle, on observe une préférence de la main droite pour les gestes accompagnant
la parole (Kimura 1973; Vauclair 2004; Meguerditchian et al. 2013a), et pour les gestes communicatifs
31
utilisés dans la langue des signes (Grossi et al. 1996). De plus, la latéralité manuelle mesurée pour les
gestes communicatifs est plus prononcée que celle observée pour des actions non-communicatives chez
les enfants (e.g. Cochet et Vauclair 2010; Esseily et al. 2011), suggérant qu’ils ne soient pas contrôlés
par les mêmes régions cérébrales que les autres mouvements manuels (Meguerditchian et al. 2013a). En
effet, des données comportementales, neuro-anatomiques et fonctionnelles suggèrent que la production
et la perception des gestes communicatifs soient sous-tendues par les même régions cérébrales que le
langage parlé, au niveau de l’hémisphère gauche (e.g. Gentilucci et Volta 2008; Xu et al. 2009;
Meguerditchian et al. 2013a).
Chez les grands singes, une latéralité gestuelle en faveur du côté droit est également observée à
échelle populationnelle, pour des gestes dirigés vers un expérimentateur humain (e.g. chez les
chimpanzés, gorilles, bonobos et orang-outans : Hopkins et al. 2012 ; Hopkins et Leavens 1998;
Hopkins et al. 2005), mais aussi pour des gestes intraspécifiques (e.g. chez les chimpanzés :
Meguerditchian et al. 2010; Hobaiter et Byrne 2013a; Prieur et al. 2016a; les gorilles : Prieur et al.
2016b, 2017a, b). La même observation a été faite chez les babouins olives, qui produisent des gestes
de menace “hand-slapping” préférentiellement avec la main droite, en contexte inter- ou intraspécifique
(Meguerditchian et Vauclair 2006; Meguerditchian et al. 2011b). De plus, cette latéralité est stable dans
le temps au niveau individuel chez les babouins et les chimpanzés (Meguerditchian et al. 2011b, 2012).
Cette latéralité gestuelle intraspécifique est dissociée d’une éventuelle préférence manuelle pour des
actions non-communicatives, qu’elles soient manipulatrices ou autodirigées (e.g. chez les chimpanzés :
Prieur et al. 2016a ; chez les babouins olives : Meguerditchian et Vauclair 2009). Des approches
expérimentales ont également permis de mettre en évidence chez d’autres cercopithécidés que la
latéralité observée pour les gestes communicatifs interspécifiques (comme des gestes de pointage) et
pour les actions manuelles non-communicatives (comme des actions de saisie) n’étaient pas corrélées,
suggérant un contrôle cérébral différent (e.g. chez les macaques de Tonkean : Meunier et al. 2013b ; les
mones de Campbell et les mangabeys à collier : Maille et al. 2013). De plus, les préférences manuelles
démontrées pour les gestes de pointage sont moins dépendantes de la position de l’objet référent que
dans le cas d’actions de saisie (e.g. chez les babouins olives : Meunier et al. 2012; Bourjade et al. 2013c ;
les macaques de Tonkean : Meunier et al. 2013b ; les mones de Campbell et les mangabeys à collier :
Maille et al. 2013). L’ensemble de ces résultats suggèrent, comme chez l’humain, une dominance de
l’hémisphère gauche dans le contrôle cérébral de la communication intentionnelle chez ces espèces. De
plus, une expérience comparative sur la latéralité gestuelle a montré une divergence entre les résultats
obtenus chez des capucins (singes platyrrhiniens, Perelman et al. 2011), en comparaison à des enfants
humains, des babouins olives et des macaques de Tonkéan (singes catarrhiniens, Meunier et al. 2013b).
Il a ainsi été émis l’hypothèse que la spécialisation de l’hémisphère gauche pour le langage humain soit
32
CHAPITRE I - INTRODUCTION
héritée d’une latéralisation cérébrale pour le contrôle de la communication gestuelle chez l’ancêtre
commun aux catarrhiniens actuels (e.g. Meguerditchian et Vauclair 2014; Prieur et al. 2018, 2019a, b;
Meunier et al. 2013a).
Cette hypothèse est appuyée par des données neuro-anatomiques et fonctionnelles, en particulier
chez les grands singes, montrant un lien entre les aires cérébrales homologues à celles du langage et la
production de gestes communicatifs (revues de littérature : Meguerditchian et Vauclair 2014; Prieur et
al. 2018). En effet, une asymétrie est observable en IRM (Imagerie par Résonance Magnétique) entre
les deux hémisphères cérébraux des grands singes (chimpanzés, bonobos et gorilles), au niveau des aires
homologues à l’aire de Broca qui sont plus développées du côté gauche (Cantalupo et Hopkins 2001).
Cette asymétrie est d’autant plus marquée pour les chimpanzés les plus latéralisés à droite dans leur
communication gestuelle (Taglialatela et al. 2006). De plus, des méthodes d’imagerie fonctionnelle
(TEP-IRM) ont montré chez les chimpanzés que ces régions étaient activées lors de la production de
gestes communicatifs (Taglialatela et al. 2008). Plus récemment, et pour la première fois chez une
espèce non-hominoïde, il a été montré que les babouins olives présentaient une asymétrie du planum
temporale, plus développé à gauche (Marie et al. 2018), comme mis en évidence chez les chimpanzés
(e.g. Gannon et al. 1998). Ces résultats renforcent l’hypothèse d’une origine évolutive commune de ces
structures cérébrales chez les singes catarrhiniens avec les substrats neuronaux de la production
langagière chez l’humain.
Ainsi, l’étude de la latéralité gestuelle des primates non-humains est d’un intérêt certain pour
explorer les origines du langage, et en particulier de la latéralité cérébrale et comportementale qui y est
associée. Etudier la latéralité gestuelle via une approche comparative (e.g. Meguerditchian 2014) et/ou
multifactorielle (e.g. Prieur et al. 2016a, 2017a) peut permettre de comprendre plus finement l’origine
de ce trait, en s’intéressant aux facteurs ultimes et proximaux qui le déterminent. Différents facteurs
peuvent en effet affecter la latéralité manuelle (e.g. Maille 2012), et nous présenterons ici ceux qui sont
susceptibles d’impacter spécifiquement la latéralité en contexte de communication chez les primates.
Tout d’abord, l’existence d’une latéralité gestuelle à échelle populationnelle et la force de cette
latéralité peuvent dépendre de l’espèce étudiée (e.g. Prieur et al. 2017b), en raison notamment de leur
socialité ou de leur écologie. La théorie d’une origine sociale de la latéralité des comportements
propose qu’une latéralisation à échelle populationnelle favorise la coordination et la coopération entre
les individus d’un même groupe (Ghirlanda et Vallortigara 2004; Vallortigara et Rogers 2005;
MacNeilage et al. 2009). Suivant cette théorie, il est ainsi attendu qu’un plus haut niveau de coopération
33
au sein d’une espèce favorise une plus forte latéralité gestuelle à échelle populationnelle, et que celle-ci
soit soumise à des contraintes sociales. Chez l’humain par exemple, de telles contraintes ont été mises
en évidence dans le développement de la latéralité manuelle (Schaafsma et al. 2009). Des différences
dans la latéralité gestuelle des chimpanzés et des gorilles ont ainsi été attribuées à des différences de
structure et de dynamique sociale impactant leur communication (Prieur et al. 2017b). Les
caractéristiques écologiques de l’espèce peuvent également affecter la latéralité gestuelle, notamment le
type de locomotion. La théorie d’une origine posturale de la latéralité manuelle suggère que celle-ci
résulte d’une spécialisation de la main droite pour réaliser des tâches complexes chez les espèces
terrestres, en comparaison aux espèces arboricoles, l’utilisation d’une main ou de l’autre étant moins
contrainte par les besoins de stabilité de leurs postures (MacNeilage et al. 1987; MacNeilage 2007;
Hopkins et al. 2011). La direction de la latéralité manuelle chez les primates semble en effet dépendre
de leur degré d’arboricolisme pour différentes tâches (Meguerditchian 2014). Dans le cas de la
communication, nous pouvons ainsi faire l’hypothèse que les primates arboricoles soient moins
latéralisés dans la production de leurs gestes que les espèces terrestres. L’environnement captif ou
naturel dans lequel sont étudiés les primates pourrait impacter aussi leur latéralité gestuelle. Certains
auteurs ont émis l’hypothèse que la latéralité manuelle mesurée chez plusieurs espèces de primates
captifs était le résultat d’artefacts liés aux conditions expérimentales, notamment celles impliquant la
présence d’un humain, ou liés directement au contexte de captivité (« artefactual hypothesis » : Warren
1980; McGrew et Marchant 1997, 2001). Aucun effet de la captivité ou de la présence humaine ne
semble cependant être observé concernant spécifiquement la communication gestuelle chez les
chimpanzés (Hopkins et al. 2005; Fletcher 2006). A l’inverse, certaines études chez les grands singes
rendent compte d’une latéralité gestuelle à droite plus importante pour les gestes intraspécifiques que
pour les gestes dirigés vers les humains, en contextes spontané ou expérimental (Hopkins et al. 2012;
Prieur et al. 2017c).
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CHAPITRE I - INTRODUCTION
l’autre de ces théories, des contextes sociaux négatifs devraient éliciter davantage de gestes avec la main
gauche qu’avec la main droite. Pourtant, récemment, Prieur et al. (2016a, 2017a) ont démontré chez les
chimpanzés et les gorilles une latéralité gestuelle à droite plus prononcée dans les contextes négatifs que
dans les contextes positifs. Ces résultats s’expliquent probablement par une importante motivation
d’approche dans les contextes négatifs étudiés, comme les agressions, qui serait donc associée à
l’hémisphère gauche selon la théorie « Approach / withdrawal » (Rohlfs et Ramírez 2006). Outre la
valence du contexte interactionnel, les positions relatives du signaleur et du receveur peuvent
influencer la main utilisée pour produire le geste (e.g. chez les chimpanzés et les gorilles : Prieur et al.
2016a, 2017b, c), en raison de la directionnalité du geste, ou d’asymétries dans les expressions faciales
des émotions chez le receveur, pouvant éliciter la production d’un geste par le signaleur (e.g. Wallez et
al. 2012; Prieur et al. 2016a). Les primates non-humains peuvent favoriser un côté ou l’autre pour
approcher leurs congénères, et ce en fonction de paramètres sociaux comme le rang hiérarchique (e.g.
chez les mangabeys à collier, C. torquatus, et les mangabeys à joues grises, Lophocebus albigena :
Baraud et al. 2009). Ainsi, cette latéralité sociale pourrait avoir une influence sur leur communication
gestuelle.
La latéralité gestuelle peut potentiellement être dépendante des caractéristiques des gestes eux-
mêmes. En particulier, la latéralité peut dépendre du type de geste produit (e.g. chez les chimpanzés et
les gorilles : Hopkins et Leavens 1998; Hopkins et Wesley 2002; Hobaiter et Byrne 2013a; Prieur et al.
2016a, 2017a, b). Par exemple, des gestes plus ou moins communs aux individus d’un même groupe
pourraient être plus ou moins soumis à des pressions sociales modulant leur latéralité (Prieur et al.
2016a). La modalité sensorielle du geste peut également avoir un effet sur la main utilisée pour le
produire. Par exemple, les chimpanzés utilisent préférentiellement la main ipsilatérale à la position du
receveur pour produire des gestes tactiles ou visuels, supposément en raison de la directionnalité de ces
gestes (Prieur et al. 2016a). La posture du signaleur pourrait aussi influencer la main utilisée pour
communiquer, un effet postural ayant été mis en évidence sur la latéralité manuelle pour plusieurs tâches
manipulatrices chez des cercopithécidés (e.g. chez les mangabeys à collier : Blois-Heulin et al. 2006 ;
les mangabeys à joues grises : Blois-Heulin et al. 2007 ; les macaques Rhésus : Fagot et al. 1991). Cet
effet est en lien avec la théorie d’une origine posturale de la latéralité (voir plus haut), et est d’autant
plus marqué pour des tâches nécessitant des manipulations complexes (« task complexity hypothesis » :
Fagot et Vauclair 1991). Dans le cas de la communication, certaines postures pourraient contraindre
l’utilisation d’une main ou d’une autre pour produire un geste.
35
3.2.3.4. Effet des caractéristiques sociodémographiques du signaleur et du receveur
La relation de dominance entre les sujets peut induire une préférence manuelle, comme c’est le
cas chez les chimpanzés qui sont plus latéralisés à droite pour des gestes dirigés vers des individus
dominants (Prieur et al. 2016a). Aucun effet de la parenté entre signaleur et receveur n’a été mis en
évidence dans la communication gestuelle des chimpanzés et des gorilles (Hopkins et al. 2005; Prieur
et al. 2016a, 2017a), mais le potentiel effet de ce paramètre sur la latéralité gestuelle n’a, à notre
connaissance, jamais été testé chez d’autres espèces. Un effet de l’âge et du sexe des individus sur la
latéralité gestuelle a été mis en évidence chez plusieurs primates. Chez les chimpanzés, les gorilles et
les babouins olives, certaines études montrent une préférence pour le côté droit plus marquée chez les
individus adultes que chez les juvéniles (Hopkins et Leavens 1998; Meguerditchian et Vauclair 2006;
Hobaiter et Byrne 2013a; Prieur et al. 2016a, 2017a). Ces résultats pourraient être le reflet d’une
maturation de l’implication de l’hémisphère gauche dans la communication intentionnelle
(Meguerditchian et Vauclair 2006), ou être l’effet d’un apprentissage, les gestes communicatifs des
adultes étant susceptibles d’avoir été davantage façonnés par des expériences sociales (Call et Tomasello
2007). Prieur et al. (2016a) ont également observé un possible effet de senescence sur la latéralité
gestuelle des chimpanzés, les vieux individus étant moins latéralisés que les jeunes adultes, peut-être en
raison de limitations physiques. Il est toutefois à noter que d’autres études n’ont pas montré d’effet
significatif de l’âge sur la latéralité gestuelle chez les chimpanzés et les babouins olives (Hopkins et al.
2005; Meguerditchian et al. 2011b). Enfin, plusieurs études ne montrent pas d’effet du sexe du signaleur
sur la latéralité gestuelle chez les chimpanzés et les babouins (e.g. Hopkins et al. 2005; Meguerditchian
et Vauclair 2006, 2009; Meguerditchian et al. 2011b), mais d’autres mettent en évidence des effets
significatifs de ce facteur chez les grands singes. Notamment, des études montrent que les mâles
bonobos sont plus latéralisés à droite que les femelles (Hopkins et de Waal 1995), que les femelles
gorilles sont plus latéralisées à droite que les mâles et que ceux-ci utilisent d’avantage leur main droite
pour communiquer avec d’autres mâles que lorsqu’ils communiquent avec des femelles (Prieur et al.
2017a), et une étude suggère une tendance des femelles chimpanzés à être plus latéralisées à droite que
les mâles (Hopkins et Leavens 1998). Il peut être fait l’hypothèse que ces résultats soient liés aux liens
de dominance qui existent entre les deux sexes chez ces espèces. Dans l’ensemble, l’effet des
caractéristiques sociodémographiques des individus sur la latéralité gestuelle est encore peu étudié, et
reste à élucider chez de nombreuses espèces.
Prieur et al. (2016a, 2017a, b) ont récemment et pour la première fois exploré l’effet conjoint
de ces différents paramètres sur la latéralité gestuelle grâce à des analyses multifactorielles, chez les
chimpanzés et les gorilles. Cette approche n’a encore jamais été adoptée pour caractériser la latéralité
gestuelle intraspécifique d’autres espèces, mais pourrait être un moyen de comprendre le lien entre
36
CHAPITRE I - INTRODUCTION
latéralité comportementale et contrôle cérébral de la communication gestuelle chez les primates, dans la
perspective d’une étude multicausale des origines du langage.
3.3. Flexibilité
Les mécanismes cognitifs impliqués dans la communication des primates peuvent être inférés par
la caractérisation de leurs signaux en termes de flexibilité. En effet, la communication peut être
considérée comme flexible lorsque la production des signaux n’est pas le résultat d’une simple
association stimulus-réponse, suggérant ainsi qu’un ou des mécanismes cognitifs complexes la sous-
tendent (e.g. Liebal et al. 2014). Dans la littérature relative à la communication des primates, le terme
de flexibilité peut par exemple correspondre à :
L’effet d’audience sur la communication, c’est-à-dire l’effet que peut avoir la présence,
l’identité, le comportement ou le niveau de connaissance des individus pouvant percevoir
le signal (e.g. Zuberbühler 2008, 2012). Cet effet d’audience peut être considéré comme un
marqueur d’intentionnalité (voir partie 3.1.2. Liebal et al. 2014).
37
La capacité d’un individu à combiner plusieurs signaux simultanément ou en séquence, en
adéquation avec le contexte ou l’intention du signaleur (voir partie 3.3.3. Call et Tomasello
2007; Pollick et De Waal 2007; Zuberbühler 2012; Liebal et al. 2014).
Nous nous intéresserons ici en particulier à la flexibilité d’utilisation des gestes en indépendance du
contexte, et à l’utilisation combinée voire multimodale de signaux communicatifs, ces deux aspects
pouvant refléter une utilisation stratégique des signaux pour communiquer efficacement.
Pollick et de Waal ont proposé l’hypothèse selon laquelle les gestes des primates seraient utilisés de
manière plus flexible que les signaux faciaux ou vocaux, car moins associés à un contexte ou une
émotion spécifique et plus adaptables à différentes situations sociales (« gestural flexibility
hypothesis », Pollick et De Waal 2007). Selon cette hypothèse, un geste aurait ainsi différentes
significations possibles, qui seraient discriminées par le receveur selon le contexte d’émission du geste
ou sa combinaison avec des vocalisations ou expressions faciales, plus contexte-spécifiques (Moore
2014; Byrne et al. 2017). Cette hypothèse peut cependant être nuancée, les expressions faciales et les
vocalisations des primates pouvant elles-mêmes être associées à différents contextes (e.g. les
expressions faciales des siamangs : Liebal et al. 2004c).
La flexibilité d’utilisation des signaux peut être reflétée non seulement par leur indépendance vis-à-
vis du contexte, mais également par la production de signaux seuls ou en combinaisons, pour servir
différentes fonctions communicatives (Call et Tomasello 2007; Pollick et De Waal 2007; Zuberbühler
2012; Liebal et al. 2014). La communication des primates peut ainsi être flexible en termes de
38
CHAPITRE I - INTRODUCTION
multimodalité « libre » (voir partie 2.4.) et être multicomposante, différentes modalités (tactile, audible,
visuelle) et types de signaux (gestes, vocalisations, expressions faciales) pouvant être combinés (Jones
et Van Cantfort 2007; Pollick et De Waal 2007; Micheletta et al. 2013; Wilke et al. 2017; Genty 2019).
La lumière n’est pas encore faite, cependant, sur les causes proximales et ultimes d’une telle complexité
de communication (Partan 2013; Liebal et Oña 2018; Fröhlich et van Schaik 2018).
L’utilisation de plusieurs signaux en combinaisons plutôt qu’un seul a un coût énergétique pour les
individus, et peut mobiliser des parties du corps qui deviennent donc indisponibles pour d’autres
fonctions (Partan et Marler 2005). Différentes hypothèses ont été formulées quant aux bénéfices que
peut avoir, en contrepartie, la communication multimodale ou multicomposante. Partan et Marler (1999,
2005) ont proposé une classification des signaux multimodaux des animaux en fonction de la réponse
du receveur (Tableau 1), à partir de laquelle la fonction des combinaisons de signaux peut être inférée
(e.g. Micheletta et al. 2013; Wilke et al. 2017; Hobaiter et al. 2017). Cette classification distingue les
combinaisons de signaux ayant a priori la même signification (redondance), des combinaisons de
signaux ayant des significations différentes. La redondance pourrait notamment permettre d’augmenter
la perceptibilité des signaux, et donc transmettre une information malgré des bruits environnementaux
(Johnstone 1996). Combiner des signaux non redondants peut permettre d’obtenir des réponses
différentes de la part du receveur, ou communiquer d’avantage d’informations par unité de temps
(Moller et Pomiankowski 1993; Partan et Marler 1999. Tableau 1).
Plus récemment, un nouveau cadre théorique a été proposé, en continuité de celui de Partan et Marler
(1999), pour classer les hypothèses formulées sur les fonctions des différentes catégories de
combinaisons de signaux. Les hypothèses basées sur la signification des signaux combinés sont
distinguées des hypothèses portant sur l’efficacité de transmission de la communication multimodale
(Hebets et Papaj 2005; Fröhlich et van Schaik 2018), bien qu’elles ne soient pas incompatibles les unes
39
avec les autres. Cette distinction est fondée sur l’idée selon laquelle l’évolution des signaux
communicatifs dépend de deux grands types de contraintes, liées à la stratégie ou à l’efficacité de la
communication (Guilford et Dawkins 1991). Enfin, certaines hypothèses concernent de possibles
interactions entre les signaux produits simultanément ou en séquence par un même signaleur, en
termes aussi bien de modulation du message que d’amélioration de la détection des signaux. La
classification de Hebets et Papaj (2005) distingue les possibles facteurs sociaux et environnementaux
contraignant l’utilisation de différentes modalités sensorielles. En effet, il est fait l’hypothèse que la
communication multimodale soit plus appropriée pour des interactions à courte distance, dans lesquelles
le receveur peut percevoir simultanément des signaux sur différentes modalités (Partan et Marler 2005;
Fröhlich et van Schaik 2018). La densité de l’environnement physique des primates pourrait favoriser
une modalité de communication ou une autre, des habitats moins denses facilitant la perception de
signaux visuels, et les vocalisations étant plus adaptées à une communication à distance et un
environnement visuellement dense (e.g. Marler 1965; Gautier 2001; de la Torre et Snowdon 2002;
Partan et Marler 2005). Par exemple, les primates forestiers terrestres semblent utiliser davantage de
signaux visuels que les espèces arboricoles (Lemasson et Barbu 2011).
La première catégorie d’hypothèses concerne les facteurs impactant le message sous-tendu par les
signaux, sur une base de redondance ou non-redondance comme défini par Partan et Marler (« content-
based hypotheses » : Hebets et Papaj 2005; Fröhlich et van Schaik 2018). Dans le cas de significations
redondantes (Moller et Pomiankowski 1993; Partan et Marler 1999), la combinaison de signaux peut
augmenter les chances que le receveur interprète correctement le message, et augmente la probabilité de
pertinence de sa réponse. L’hypothèse de cette fonction de la communication multimodale et/ou
multicomposante a été émise en se basant sur la description de signaux multimodaux chez des espèces
autres que les primates, comme chez des oiseaux, des poissons ou des insectes (revue de littérature :
Fröhlich et van Schaik 2018). Dans le cas de la communication des primates non-humains, cela peut
être mis en évidence dans la persistance ou l’élaboration de la communication pour atteindre un but
social (voir partie 3.1.2. Leavens et al. 2005; Cartmill et Byrne 2007). Par exemple, en cas d’échec d’un
premier signal vocal, les chimpanzés peuvent élaborer leur communication en utilisant des combinaisons
de signaux vocaux et gestuels (Hobaiter et al. 2017). Dans le cas de combinaisons de signaux non-
redondants, les significations de chacun des signaux peuvent se superposer, la communication
multimodale ou multicomposante permettant alors de convier différents messages à la fois (« multiple
message hypothesis » ou « complementary hypothesis » : Moller et Pomiankowski 1993; Johnstone
1996; Partan et Marler 1999, 2005; Fröhlich et van Schaik 2018).
40
CHAPITRE I - INTRODUCTION
« backup », c’est-à-dire pour garantir une perception des signaux communicatifs de la part du receveur,
en particulier dans des environnements contraignants (manque de visibilité, bruit ambiant, etc.). Selon
cette hypothèse, la communication multimodale serait un moyen d’augmenter la probabilité de recevoir
une réponse aux signaux (Hebets et Papaj 2005). Cette hypothèse a été vérifiée concernant la
communication multimodale de plusieurs animaux (e.g. chez les araignées-loups, Schizocosa retrorsa :
Hebets et al. 1996; Hebets et Uetz 1999), mais n’a jamais été démontrée chez les primates, pour lesquels
il est méthodologiquement difficile de tester séparément les effets de l’interaction sociale et de
l’environnement physique (Fröhlich et van Schaik 2018).
Enfin, il pourrait exister des interactions entre les signaux, comme l’hypothèse d’une amélioration
de la détection et de la discrimination des signaux (« increased detection and discrimination
hypothesis » : Hebets et Papaj 2005; Fröhlich et van Schaik 2018). Selon cette hypothèse, la présence
d’un signal peut aussi bien augmenter la probabilité qu’un second signal soit perçu (amélioration de la
détection) ou correctement compris par le receveur (amélioration de la discrimination). Ainsi, les
combinaisons multimodales ou multicomposantes de signaux pourraient être un moyen d’augmenter la
probabilité d’obtenir une réponse de la part du receveur, ou de la recevoir plus vite (e.g. Liebal et al.
2004c; Pollick et De Waal 2007; Genty et Byrne 2010; Leavens et al. 2010; Genty et al. 2014; Wilke et
al. 2017). Par exemple , chez les macaques Rhésus et les macaques à crête (Macaca nigra et M. mulatta),
les « lipsmacks » multicomposants ont plus de chance d’être suivis de contacts affiliatifs que les
« lipsmacks » unicomposants (Partan 2002; Micheletta et al. 2013). Les combinaisons de signaux, et en
particulier multimodales et/ou multicomposantes, pourraient aussi être un moyen d’affiner la
signification d’un signal ou d’en changer le sens (« refinement », Fröhlich et van Schaik 2018). Chez
les humains, la combinaison de la parole avec des gestes est un moyen de moduler la signification du
discours (e.g. Goldin-Meadow 1999), et la compréhension du discours va être perçue via l’intégration
de signaux perçus sur différentes modalités, vocale ou visuelle (Vigliocco et al. 2014). Chez les grands
singes, les combinaisons multicomposantes voire multimodales semblent également être un moyen
d’affiner le message convié, notamment en levant l’ambiguïté de signification d’un signal associé à
différents contextes (e.g. Holle et Gunter 2007; Moore 2014; Genty et al. 2015; Byrne et al. 2017; Wilke
et al. 2017; Fröhlich et van Schaik 2018). Chez les jeunes bonobos par exemple, la signification des
vocalisations « contest hoots », produites aussi bien en contexte d’agression que de jeu, semble élucidée
par sa combinaison ou non avec des gestes spécifiques (Genty et al. 2014). Il est également fait
l’hypothèse que la combinaison de gestes entre eux permette de créer de nouvelles significations (Liebal
et al. 2004a).
La communication multimodale est étudiée chez de nombreux animaux, comme des araignées, des
oiseaux, des insectes ou des petits mammifères (e.g. Hutchison et al. 1997; Uetz et Roberts 2002; Cooper
41
et Goller 2004; Elias et al. 2005; Partan et al. 2010). Chez les primates, l’étude de la communication
multimodale et multicomposante reste assez rare (Slocombe et al. 2011), mais suscite de plus en plus
d’intérêt, en particulier dans la perspective d’étudier les origines évolutives du langage (Waller et al.
2013; Liebal et al. 2014; Fröhlich et al. 2019). Pour comprendre les déterminants de cette potentielle
flexibilité dans la communication des primates (voir partie 3.3.3.1.), qui peut être significative de
mécanismes cognitifs complexes, il est nécessaire de décrire de manière systématique les circonstances
dans lesquelles des combinaisons multimodales et multicomposantes peuvent être observées, chez
différentes espèces et dans différents environnements (Fröhlich et van Schaik 2018).
42
CHAPITRE I - INTRODUCTION
multicausale des origines évolutives du langage, nécessite des descriptions chez une grande diversité
d’espèces et d’environnement, mais aussi une certaine unité dans les méthodologies de description
utilisées.
4. Problématiques de la thèse
Nous nous intéressons dans le présent travail aux précurseurs du langage pouvant être retrouvés
dans la communication gestuelle des singes cercopithécidés, en termes d’intentionnalité, de latéralité
et de flexibilité, et dans leur communication multimodale et multicomposante, en termes
d’utilisation flexible des signaux. La littérature scientifique actuelle sur la communication gestuelle des
primates non-humains est principalement centrée sur l’étude des grands singes (Slocombe et al. 2011),
et en particulier des chimpanzés (Lameira et Call 2020). Certaines propriétés de la communication
gestuelle des singes non-hominoïdes ne sont encore que peu ou pas étudiées, malgré l’intérêt significatif
qu’aurait leur caractérisation pour la compréhension des origines évolutives du langage humain. Nous
avons donc abordé les questions suivantes :
Quels sont les déterminants ultimes et proximaux de la latéralité gestuelle chez les
cercopithécidés ?
Elucider quelles contraintes ultimes et proximales façonnent la latéralité gestuelle chez les
primates non-humains est un moyen de déterminer les facteurs ayant contribué à
l’émergence d’une spécialisation hémisphérique dans le contrôle du langage. La latéralité
43
gestuelle à droite, partagée par les catarrhiniens d’après des données expérimentales, n’a
jusqu’à aujourd’hui été étudiée en contexte intraspécifique que chez une seule espèce non-
hominoïde, les babouins olives.
Pour tenter de répondre à ces questions, nous nous sommes intéressés à la communication d’une
population captive de non-hominoïdes encore peu étudiés, les mangabeys à collier (Cercocebus
torquatus). Les mangabeys sont des cercopithecinés du clade des Papionini (Figure 2), comme les
macaques et les babouins, chez qui la communication gestuelle est suggérée comme intentionnelle et
flexible (voir parties 3.1.3. et 3.3.3.), et dont certaines espèces présentent une latéralité gestuelle à droite
à échelle populationnelle (voir partie 3.2.2.). L’ancêtre commun des mangabeys à collier et des autres
Papionini date d’il y a environ 12 millions d’années, et leur ancêtre commun avec les hominoïdes, dont
Homo sapiens, date d’il y a environ 29 millions d’années (Chatterjee et al. 2009; Springer et al. 2012).
Les mangabeys à collier sont originaires des forêts humides d’Afrique de l’Ouest (Jones et Sabater-
Pi 1968; Gautier-Hion et al. 1999; Oates et al. 2008; Cooke 2012; Orimaye et al. 2016; Orimaye 2017),
et occupent les strates les plus basses de la forêt, leur locomotion étant considérée « semi-terrestre à
tendance terrestre » (Jones and Sabater-Pi 1968; Cooke 2012; Mitani et al. 2012). Ces caractéristiques
écologiques suggèrent ainsi que la communication des mangabeys puisse reposer sur une utilisation
riche de signaux visuels et multimodaux, adaptée aux contraintes environnementales (voir partie
3.3.3.1.). Les mangabeys vivent dans de grands groupes multi-mâles, multi-femelles, organisés selon
une hiérarchie linéaire, et dont la dynamique de dominance pourrait être qualifiée de « semi-tolérante »
(Jones et Sabater-Pi 1968; Gautier-Hion et al. 1999; Thierry 2007; Dolado et Beltran 2011, 2012). Cette
complexité sociale, impliquant une grande diversité de contextes sociaux et des interactions entre
individus de sexe, d’âge et de rangs hiérarchiques différents, pourrait ainsi être associée à une
communication complexe, intentionnelle et flexible (e.g. Dunbar 2009; Freeberg et al. 2012).
44
CHAPITRE I - INTRODUCTION
Figure 2. Arbre phylogénétique des singes catarrhiniens. Les catarrhiniens sont les primates
haplorrhiniens d’Afrique et d’Asie. Les dates de divergence des familles et sous-familles sont
renseignées en millions d’années, avec l’intervalle de confiance à 95% entre crochets (source :
TimeTree, Kumar et al. 2017).
Le répertoire vocal des mangabeys à collier est connu en captivité (Bouchet et al. 2010) mais leurs
autres signaux spontanés n’ont pas encore été décrits, bien que de premières études présagent d’une
riche communication visuelle et multimodale chez cette espèce. Notamment, une étude expérimentale a
mis en évidence une capacité des mangabeys à adapter la production de gestes de quémande appris en
fonction de l’état attentionnel d’un receveur humain (Maille et al. 2012), suggérant une possible capacité
à communiquer intentionnellement par les gestes. De plus, une autre expérience, impliquant la
production de gestes de pointage, a mis en lumière une latéralité gestuelle à droite plus marquée pour
les individus ayant les meilleures capacités de communication référentielle (Maille et al. 2013), cette
latéralité n’étant pas corrélée à celle observée pour des gestes non-communicatifs (voir partie 3.2.2.).
Ces résultats sont prometteurs quant à une possible latéralité gestuelle à échelle populationnelle dans
45
leur communication intraspécifique. De plus, d’après les résultats d’études portant sur leur latéralité
manuelle ou sociale chez cette espèce, il peut être hypothétisé un effet de la posture et du contexte social
sur leur latéralité gestuelle (voir partie 3.2.3. Nedellec-Bienvenue et Blois-Heulin 2005; Blois-Heulin et
al. 2006; Baraud et al. 2009). Enfin, une première étude a été réalisée pour décrire certaines interactions
multimodales chez les mangabeys à collier captifs, et suggère chez eux une capacité d’utilisation flexible
de différentes modalités de communication en fonction du contexte (Baraud et al. 2016).
Pour répondre aux questions précédemment posées (voir partie 4.1.), l’objectif de ce travail de thèse
était ainsi de caractériser la communication gestuelle et multimodale des mangabeys à collier en
captivité, en termes d’intentionnalité, de latéralité gestuelle et de flexibilité, et à cette occasion de
compléter la description de leur répertoire de signaux communicatifs.
Nous avons ensuite testé si les mangabeys étaient latéralisés pour la production de leurs
gestes intraspécifiques, et avons cherché à déterminer les facteurs affectant leur latéralité
gestuelle, relatifs au contexte interactionnel, aux caractéristiques du signal ou aux
caractéristiques sociodémographiques des sujets (Article 3).
Enfin, nous nous sommes interrogés sur la capacité de mangabeys à utiliser leurs gestes de
manière flexible en termes d’indépendance vis-à-vis du contexte (Article 1) et de
multimodalité (Articles 4 et 5). Plus généralement, nous avons cherché à décrire la
communication multimodale et multicomposante intraspécifique des mangabeys à collier,
avec la perspective d’en étudier la fonction. Pour cela, nous avons cherché une
méthodologie permettant une description la plus objective possible des combinaisons de
signaux (Article 4).
Nous avons adopté une double approche observationnelle et expérimentale, pour à la fois décrire
la communication spontanée intraspécifique des mangabeys à collier, et tester en conditions plus
contrôlées les mécanismes cognitifs sous-tendant cette communication.
46
CHAPITRE I - INTRODUCTION
47
48
Chapitre II
Méthodologie générale
49
50
CHAPITRE II – METHODOLOGIE GENERALE
1. Sujets d’étude
Les mangabeys à collier ont un pelage très contrasté, allant du gris foncé sur le dos et les membres
à blanc sur le ventre et le bout de la queue. Leur visage est entouré d’un pelage blanc, et couronné de
poils roux, dont ils tirent leur nom en anglais : « red-capped mangabey » ou « cherry-crowned
mangabey ». Les paupières blanches des mangabeys se démarquent du noir de leur visage, ce qui a
probablement une fonction dans leur communication faciale, accentuant la visibilité des mouvements
de sourcils (Figure 1, Hill 1974; Redican 1975; Gautier-Hion et al. 1999). Un dimorphisme sexuel est
à noter chez cette espèce, les mâles adultes pesant environ 10 kg pour une taille de 60 cm, et les femelles
adultes pesant environ 6 kg pour une taille de 50 cm (dimorphisme mâle / femelle ≈ 1,8. Gautier-Hion
et al. 1999; Swedell 2010). De plus, les mâles adultes présentent de très grandes canines supérieures,
qui se développent avec la maturité sexuelle (Figure 2, Hill 1974; Deputte 1986; O’higgins et Jones
1998). D’après des descriptions du développement des traits sexuels secondaires chez une espèce
proche, les mangabeys à joues grises (Lophocebus albigena), cette maturité est atteinte au cours de la
4ème année chez les femelles, et entre 5 et 7 ans chez les mâles (Chalmers 1968; Gautier-Hion et Gautier
1976; Deputte 1992). Une saisonnalité de la reproduction est observée chez les cercocèbes : la majorité
des naissances en captivité ont ainsi lieu en automne, résultant de reproductions au printemps (Gautier-
Hion et Gautier 1976). Enfin, la longévité médiane des mangabeys en captivité est de 15 ans (durée de
vie moyenne ±E.S. = 16,0 ±2,1 ans, d’après les données démographiques de la Station Biologique de
Paimpont).
1.1.2. Ecologie
Les populations sauvages de mangabeys à collier sont distribuées dans les régions côtières d’Afrique
de l’Ouest, le long du Golfe de Guinée (au Nigeria, Cameroun, Guinée-Equatoriale, et Gabon. Figure 3).
Les mangabeys sont retrouvés dans des habitats forestiers variés, principalement en futaies (hautes
forêts) mais également dans des mangroves et forêts alluviales, et parfois autour d’aires cultivées (Jones
et Sabater-Pi 1968; Gautier-Hion et al. 1999; Oates et al. 2008; Cooke 2012; Orimaye et al. 2016;
Orimaye 2017). Ils se déplacent aussi bien de manière terrestre qu’arboricole, et peuvent donc être
qualifiés de « semi-terrestres à tendance terrestres » (Jones et Sabater-Pi 1968; Cooke 2012; Mitani et
al. 2012). Les mangabeys occupent ainsi les strates les plus basses de la forêt et passent beaucoup de
temps au sol, mais fourragent et se nourrissent dans la canopée (Jones et Sabater-Pi 1968; Mitani 1989;
Gautier-Hion et al. 1999). Principalement végétariens, ils se nourrissent de graines et de fruits, et
51
peuvent occasionnellement consommer des invertébrés et certains champignons (Jones et Sabater-Pi
1968; Mitani 1989; Cooke 2012; McGraw et al. 2014).
Figure 1. Photographies de mangabeys à collier. (a) Mâle juvénile de 3,5 ans ; (b) femelle adulte de
11 ans ; (c) mâle adulte de 10 ans. Crédit photographique : J. Aychet.
Figure 3. Distribution
géographique des populations
sauvages de mangabeys à
collier en Afrique centrale
(Source : IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species, Oates et
al. 2008)
52
CHAPITRE II – METHODOLOGIE GENERALE
Les mangabeys à collier vivent naturellement dans de larges groupes multi-mâles, multi-femelles,
allant de 10 à 25 individus, et pouvant exceptionnellement atteindre jusqu’à 60 individus (Jones et
Sabater-Pi 1968; Gautier-Hion et al. 1999). Ces groupes peuvent se disperser en sous-ensembles, en
particulier lors des déplacements et des activités de fourragement (Jones et Sabater-Pi 1968; Mitani
1989). Il existe jusqu’alors peu d’études sur la cohésion temporelle et spatiale des groupes de mangabeys
à collier, mais de récentes données suggèrent que la présence de fruits dans l’environnement impacte la
taille des groupes, qui varie de manière saisonnière (Dolado et al. 2016). Cependant, on ne retrouve pas
chez les mangabeys à collier de dynamique de fission-fusion journalière comme chez les chimpanzés
(Pan troglodytes, van Lawick-Goodall 1968), et bien qu’une variabilité saisonnière soit observée dans
la taille des groupes, leur composition reste stable en termes de ratio âge-sexe (Dolado et al. 2016). Le
ratio mâles : femelles : juvéniles au sein des groupes est de 1 : 1,25 : 1,86 (Mitani 1989). Comme chez
la plupart des espèces de cercopithécinés, les femelles sont philopatriques, tandis que les mâles émigrent
au moment de la puberté et peuvent changer de groupe plusieurs fois au cours de leur vie (Pusey 1992;
Range et Noë 2002; Range et al. 2007; Mitani et al. 2012). Ainsi, des mâles solitaires peuvent être
observés en périphérie des groupes de mangabeys (Mitani 1989).
En captivité, les mangabeys sont organisés socialement selon une hiérarchie linéaire, avec une forte
uni-directionnalité des agressions (Dolado et Beltran 2011, 2012), comme chez les sociétés de macaques
dites « despotiques » (Thierry 2007). En revanche, certains aspects de la socialité des mangabeys captifs
sont semblables à ce qui est observé chez des espèces dites « tolérantes » : les comportements agressifs
sont très fréquents mais de faible intensité ; les individus dominants se tiennent en périphérie du groupe ;
une forte proximité est observée entre les individus et l’épouillage est réciproque au sein des dyades
(Dolado et Beltran 2012). D’après l’étude de groupes de mangabeys enfumés (Cercocebus atys), une
espèce phylogénétiquement proche des mangabeys à collier et un temps considérée comme une sous-
espèce de C. torquatus (Liedigk et al. 2014), la hiérarchie en captivité ne dépend des lignées maternelles
que dans les 3 premières années de vie (Gust et Gordon 1994). En revanche, l’influence du rang
hiérarchique des mères est durable dans les groupes sauvages (Range 2006). Les individus apparentés
interagissent plus fréquemment (Mielke et al. 2020a). De plus, l’âge et le sexe des individus sont
déterminants dans la fréquence des interactions au sein du groupe. Par exemple, les mâles adultes vivant
au sein de groupes multi-mâles, multi-femelles, n’ont que de rares interactions affiliatives avec leurs
juvéniles (Gust et al. 1998), et ne s’épouillent pas ou peu entre eux (Mielke et al. 2018) ; les individus
sub-adultes sont fortement affiliés entre eux, en particulier pour les individus de même sexe (Mielke et
al. 2020b) ; enfin, les femelles juvéniles épouillent préférentiellement des juvéniles de même rang
hiérarchique et des femelles adultes (Range 2006). D’une manière générale, les mâles tiennent un rôle
de protection du groupe ou sous-groupe (vigilance, alarme, défense du groupe), et les femelles sont
53
davantage impliquées dans les interactions sociales intra-groupes (Chalmers 1968; Gust et Gordon 1994;
Range et al. 2007).
Les présents travaux ont été réalisés sur des mangabeys à collier vivant en captivité à la Station
Biologique de Paimpont (Université de Rennes 1, 35380 Paimpont, France). L’animalerie est agréée
comme établissement utilisateur d’animaux à des fins scientifiques (n° d’agrément D 35-211-18 du
30/05/2017 délivré par la Direction Départementale de la Cohésion Sociale et de la Protection des
Populations). Vingt-cinq individus ont été étudiés ici, dont 10 femelles et 15 mâles, et trois classes
d’âges ont été distinguées : « juvéniles » pour les mâles de moins de 7 ans et la femelle de moins de 4
ans, « adultes » pour les autres individus de moins de 15 ans (longévité médiane), « vieux adultes » pour
les individus de plus de 15 ans (Tableau 1). Tous les sujets sont nés en captivité, à la Station de Paimpont
ou au zoo de Münster (Allwetterzoo Münster, Dutschland), et tous les liens de parentés au sein de la
colonie sont connus.
Figure 4. Enclos extérieurs (a, b) et intérieurs (c) des mangabeys à collier à la Station Biologique
de Paimpont. Crédit photographique : J. Aychet
54
CHAPITRE II – METHODOLOGIE GENERALE
Tableau 1. Caractéristiques des sujets d’étude et de leurs groupes sociaux. Tous les individus ont
été inclus dans les études observationnelles. *: individus inclus dans l’étude expérimentale.
Les groupes sont hébergés dans des enclos intérieurs et extérieurs de tailles variables (de 8 à
26,4 m² en intérieur, et de 14,7 à 37,2 m² en extérieur), dont la hauteur va de 2,5 à 4,4 m. Ces enclos
sont reliés entre eux par des tunnels, permettant aux singes d’entrer et de sortir à volonté. La température
intérieure est maintenue à 22 ± 2°C. Le sol des enclos intérieurs est couvert de paille et de copeaux de
bois, et celui des enclos extérieurs est cimenté ou couvert d’écorce (Figure 4). Des perchoirs en bois ou
métal sont fixés dans chacun des enclos, auxquels peuvent être accrochés des chaînes ou rubans. Les
singes sont nourris deux fois par jour, avec des fruits et légumes frais le matin, et des granulés industriels
l’après-midi. Des enrichissements alimentaires sont parfois distribués en supplément, comme des
insectes (criquets), des œufs de caille, du feuillage ou des pommes de pin. L’eau est accessible ad libitum
depuis les enclos intérieurs, grâce à des robinets actionnables.
55
2. Approche observationnelle
Les observations ont été réalisées selon la méthode d’échantillonnage en focal (Altmann 1974), via
des enregistrements de vidéos par sessions de 15 minutes. Les individus ont été observés à toutes heures
de la journée entre 9 h et 18h, et à toutes périodes de nourrissage (avant et pendant le premier
nourrissage ; entre deux nourrissages ; pendant ou après le deuxième nourrissage). Les données
comportementales ont ensuite été extraites des vidéos grâce à des logiciels de codage, Salomon Coder
v.15.1.13.0 (Article 1) et BORIS v.6.0.6 (Articles 2, 3 et 4. Friard et Gamba 2016).
Une première période d’échantillonnage a eu lieu en amont de cette thèse, réalisé par Axelle Bono
(étudiante de Master) de Janvier à Avril 2015, pour un total de 136 sessions d’observations de 17
individus (soit 34 heures). Les données issues de ces observations ont été analysées au cours de la
présente thèse dans le cadre d’une collaboration internationale avec le docteur Anne Schel de l’université
d’Utrecht (Pays-Bas), et ont permis une première description des gestes des mangabeys et de
l’intentionnalité de ces gestes (Article 1). J’ai à mon tour réalisé des observations de Janvier à Juin 2018
sur 25 individus, suivant la même méthode d’échantillonnage et correspondant à 200 sessions
d’observations (soit environ 52 heures). Ces données ont permis de décrire le répertoire d’expressions
faciales des mangabeys et d’en étudier l’intentionnalité dans le cadre d’une deuxième collaboration
internationale avec le professeur Elisabetta Palagi de l’université de Pise (Italie) (Article 2), de
compléter le répertoire de gestes et d’en caractériser la latéralité (Article 3), et de décrire l’utilisation
flexible de signaux en combinaisons, notamment multimodales et multicomposantes (Article 4).
Les gestes ont été définis ici comme tous mouvements du corps, mécaniquement inefficaces et
dirigés vers un receveur (d’après l’orientation du corps, du regard, et/ou un contact physique entre le
signaleur et le receveur). Ainsi, pour décrire le répertoire de signaux visuels des mangabeys à collier,
les gestes ont été définis au sens large et incluaient aussi bien des mouvements brachio-manuels que des
postures et mouvements du corps ou de la tête (e.g. Call et Tomasello 2007; Pika et Liebal 2012; Liebal
et al. 2014). Les expressions faciales ont quant à elles été définies comme tous mouvements de la
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CHAPITRE II – METHODOLOGIE GENERALE
bouche, des lèvres, des sourcils ou des oreilles, qui pouvaient être produits seuls ou en combinaisons,
au cours d’interactions sociales ou non (van Hooff 1967; Waller et Micheletta 2013; Liebal et al. 2014).
La description du répertoire de signaux visuels des mangabeys s’est ainsi réalisée en deux temps.
Suite à une première description (Article 1, basée sur les sessions d’observation 1 à 136), le répertoire
a été complété par la description d’autres gestes et la description des expressions faciales (sessions 137
à 337). Pour déterminer si le répertoire était exhaustif, nous avons tracé une courbe du nombre cumulé
de signaux visuels décrits au cours des sessions d’observations (Figure 5), l’atteinte d’une asymptote
indiquant que la totalité du répertoire de la population est décrit (e.g. Pika et al. 2005a; Molesti et al.
2019). Une asymptote semblait avoir été atteinte à la 284ème session d’observation pour le répertoire de
gestes, mais un nouveau geste décrit à la dernière session suggère que quelques autres gestes pourraient
être décrits à l’avenir. En revanche, le répertoire d’expressions faciales semble être complet, la taille
maximale du répertoire ayant été atteinte en 31 sessions d’observation sur 200 (Article 2).
L’intentionnalité des signaux visuels des mangabeys à collier a été évaluée, d’une part pour les
gestes (Article 1) et d’autre part pour les expressions faciales (Article 2). Nous nous sommes intéressés
ici à la communication intentionnelle de « niveau 1 » (Dennett 1983), dans laquelle un individu (le
signaleur) produit volontairement un signal en direction d’un receveur, dans le but de modifier le
comportement de celui-ci (voir Chapitre I, partie 3.1.1.). Nous basant sur la méthodologie classiquement
utilisée pour étudier l’intentionnalité de la communication chez les primates, en particulier la
communication gestuelle (Leavens et al. 2005; Liebal et al. 2014; Byrne et al. 2017; Townsend et al.
2017), nous avons testé la présence de marqueurs comportementaux d’intentionnalité accompagnant
les signaux des mangabeys (détaillés dans le Chapitre I, partie 3.1.2.). Ces marqueurs peuvent être
regroupés en trois grands critères (Townsend et al. 2017), indiquant que le signal est (i) dirigé vers un
receveur, (ii) produit dans un but précis et (iii) provoque une réponse du receveur, cohérente avec
57
l’intention supposée du signaleur. Pour qu’un signal soit considéré comme intentionnel, ces trois grands
critères doivent être vérifiés. Nous avons ainsi décrit la présence ou absence de ces marqueurs au
moment de la production des gestes et expressions faciales des mangabeys, puis utilisé des statistiques
non paramétriques pour tester si ces marqueurs étaient associés avec les signaux visuels de manière
non aléatoire.
Nous avons cherché ensuite à évaluer la latéralité gestuelle des mangabeys à collier, en s’intéressant
spécifiquement à leurs gestes brachio-manuels (Article 3). Ces analyses ont été réalisées dans le cadre
d’un stage de Master 1 (co-encadrement de l’étudiante Noémie Monchy).
Dans un premier temps, nous avons testé l’existence d’une latéralisation aux niveaux individuel et
populationnel. Un individu est considéré comme latéralisé s’il utilise préférentiellement un côté pour
effectuer un geste (McGrew et Marchant 1997). La latéralité gestuelle a ainsi été analysée au niveau
individuel à l’aide de tests Binomiaux, comparant la proportion de gestes effectués avec la main droite
ou la main gauche à une proportion théorique de 0,5. Nous avons ensuite calculé pour chacun un indice
de latéralité HI (« Handedness Index »), couramment utilisé pour étudier la latéralité chez les primates
non-humains et indiquant la direction d’une éventuelle latéralisation pour une tâche donnée (e.g.
Hamilton et Vermeire 1988). La valeur absolue de cet indice, ABSHI, permet quant à elle d’estimer la
force de la latéralité. La latéralité à échelle populationnelle correspond à un cas de population dans
laquelle la majorité des individus présente une préférence manuelle (e.g. Rogers 2009; Chapelain et al.
2011), voire une préférence pour la même main (e.g. Fagot et al. 1991). Elle a ainsi été estimée en se
basant sur le nombre d’individus latéralisés, et sur la comparaison du nombre de gestes produits avec la
main droite ou la main gauche dans la population.
Dans un deuxième temps, nous avons testé l’effet de différents facteurs (contextuels, relatifs au
geste et sociodémographiques) sur une éventuelle préférence manuelle dans la production de gestes
intraspécifiques. Pour cela, nous avons choisi d’adopter une approche multifactorielle, en analysant
l’effet de ces facteurs à l’aide d’un modèle mixte linéaire généralisé (GLMM). Cette approche,
précédemment adoptée par Prieur et al. (2016a, 2017a) pour caractériser la latéralité gestuelle des
chimpanzés et gorilles, permet de tester l’effet de chaque facteur tout en prenant en compte l’effet des
autres facteurs « fixes », et des effets individuels, facteurs « aléatoires ».
Nous nous sommes ensuite intéressés au potentiel usage flexible des signaux communicatifs par les
mangabeys, en termes de combinaisons de signaux (Article 4). Nous avons cherché en particulier à
décrire et quantifier les combinaisons de différents types et modalités de signaux. Nos observations nous
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CHAPITRE II – METHODOLOGIE GENERALE
ayant permis de décrire les signaux gestuels et faciaux des mangabeys (Articles 1, 2 et 4), et leur
répertoire vocal ayant été précédemment établi (Figure 6, Bouchet et al. 2010), nous avons pu prendre
en compte ces trois types de signaux communicatifs dans nos analyses. Nous avons également distingué
trois types de modalités sensorielles : visuelle, audible et tactile. Les signaux ont été définis comme
« visuels » s’il s’agissait de gestes ou mouvements faciaux silencieux et distants, comme « tactiles »
s’ils impliquaient un contact physique avec le receveur et comme « audibles » s’ils impliquaient la
production d’un son vocal ou non-vocal (e.g. Pika et al. 2003; Liebal et al. 2004a; Pika 2008; Fröhlich
et al. 2016).
Figure 6. Répertoire vocal des mangabeys à collier (d’après Bouchet et al. 2010). Les vocalisations
sont nommées d’après les unités vocales qui les composent. (+) indique une éventuelle répétition de
l’unité vocale, (Uh) indique l’éventuelle présence d’une unité Uh terminant la vocalisation.
La définition temporelle des combinaisons de signaux diffère grandement d’une étude à l’autre.
Certains auteurs considèrent des signaux comme combinés uniquement s’ils se superposent (e.g. Wilke
et al. 2017), d’autres s’ils se superposent ou sont séparés par une pause d’une durée inférieure à une
valeur arbitraire, par exemple 1 seconde (e.g. Genty et Byrne 2010; Hobaiter et Byrne 2011a; Genty et
al. 2015; Hobaiter et al. 2017; Genty 2019; Knox et al. 2019), 2 secondes (e.g. Taglialatela et al. 2015)
ou 5 secondes (e.g. Liebal et al. 2004a, 2006; Tempelmann et Liebal 2012). Enfin, certains auteurs
considèrent des signaux comme combinés s’ils sont initiés à moins de 10 secondes les uns des autres
(Pollick et De Waal 2007). Cherchant ici à utiliser un critère de définition moins arbitraire et qui soit le
plus pertinent possible au regard de l’espèce étudiée, nous avons basé la définition des combinaisons de
signaux sur les latences observées séparant généralement l’initiation de deux signaux communicatifs
chez les mangabeys à collier. Nous avons pour cela utilisé la même méthode graphique que dans les
études portant sur les échanges vocaux des primates (Lemasson et al. 2010, 2018a; Levréro et al. 2019),
59
nous permettant d’identifier une latence seuil X. Les signaux étaient alors considérés comme combinés
s’ils étaient produits au sein d’une même « séquence communicative », définie comme une série de
signaux produits par un même signaleur vers un même receveur, et initiés à moins de X secondes les
uns des autres (ces signaux pouvant ainsi se superposer ou non).
Une fois les séquences communicatives extraites du jeu de données grâce à cette définition, nous
avons cherché à identifier les « séquences types » produites par les mangabeys à collier. Nous avons
pour cela appliqué une méthode d’analyse séquentielle, grâce à TraMineR, un outil d’analyse sur R
(R Core Team 2018) initialement développé pour des études de sciences sociales (Gabadinho et al.
2011). Des distances ont été calculées entre chaque dyade de séquences, selon la méthode de l’ « optimal
matching » (Levenshtein 1966; Needleman et Wunsch 1970; Abbott et Forrest 1986; Studer et Ritschard
2016), le calcul étant basé sur le nombre de modifications qu’il faudrait appliquer à une séquence pour
la transformer en une autre. Cette méthode nous a permis de grouper les séquences similaires entre elles,
et donc d’identifier les principaux types de séquences communicatives produites par les mangabeys,
pour tester alors l’effet de différents facteurs contextuels et sociodémographiques sur leur production.
Pour décrire plus précisément les combinaisons de signaux au sein des séquences, différentes méthodes
ont ensuite été envisagées. La première approche imaginée fut d’analyser les séquences de signaux
communicatifs comme des chaînes de Markov, et ainsi de décrire les probabilités de transitions d’un
signal à un autre, comme cela a été souvent fait pour les séquences vocales chez différents animaux
(Kershenbaum et al. 2014), ou même pour des séquences de gestes chez les grands singes (Genty et
Byrne 2010). Cependant, souhaitant décrire particulièrement les dyades de signaux fréquemment
combinés par les mangabeys, et évaluer l’implication de chaque type et modalité de signal dans ces
combinaisons, nous ne cherchions pas spécifiquement à décrire l’ordre de production des signaux
communicatifs. Cet aspect pourra être plus détaillé dans de futures études. Nous nous sommes
finalement tournés vers une autre méthode, et avons analysé les combinaisons de signaux comme un
réseau d’associations. Cette approche nous a permis de représenter de façon claire les combinaisons de
signaux, ainsi que de quantifier et comparer l’importance de chaque type et modalité de signal grâce aux
indices de réseaux (Whitehead 2008; Sosa et al. 2020). Nous avons utilisé le logiciel SOCPROG v.2.9
(Whitehead 2009), développé pour l’analyse de réseaux sociaux, afin de calculer les indices
d’association de chaque dyade de signaux (Ginsberg et Young 1992), et des indices de réseaux (degré,
force, affinité, et coefficient d’agrégation). Un diagramme a ensuite été tracé pour représenter le réseau
de combinaisons de signaux, grâce au logiciel GEPHI 0.9.2 (Bastian et al. 2009).
Nous avons testé le potentiel effet de facteurs contextuels et sociodémographiques sur la production
des signaux visuels (Articles 1 et 2), sur la latéralité gestuelle (Article 3) et sur la production de signaux
en combinaisons (Article 4). Le contexte dans lequel ont été produits les signaux communicatifs des
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CHAPITRE II – METHODOLOGIE GENERALE
mangabeys a été catégorisé selon les comportements observés chez le signaleur et le receveur dans les
5 secondes précédant et suivant le signal communicatif. Huit contextes ont été distingués : affiliation,
épouillage, alarme, agression, soumission, jeu social, socio-sexuel et non-social (Baraud 2007; Bouchet
et al. 2010; Baraud et al. 2016). Les caractéristiques sociodémographiques du signaleur et du receveur
ont toujours été définies via des variables catégorielles, permettant d’analyser leurs effets conjointement
à d’autres facteurs grâce à des modèles mixtes. Outre l’âge et le sexe des sujets, nous nous sommes
intéressés à la relation entre le signaleur et le receveur. Nous avons ainsi déterminé la relation de
dominance pour chaque dyade d’individus, identifiant pour chacune d’elle l’individu dominant et
dominé, en nous basant sur les comportements d’évitement (voir comportements de « rupture de
contact », Baraud 2007). La connaissance des liens de parenté entre les différents sujets nous a permis
d’identifier les dyades d’individus dits « apparentés » (parents et enfants, frères ou sœurs) ou « non-
apparentés » (dont le lien est plus éloigné). Nous n’avons pas pu prendre en compte ici l’affiliation entre
les individus, car une catégorisation basée sur une valeur d’indice d’affiliation (e.g. ratio de
comportements affiliatifs et agonistiques : Weaver et De Waal 2002 ; Indice Composite de Socialité :
Silk et al. 2006, 2013 ; Indice d’Affiliation Dyadique : Prieur 2015; Prieur et al. 2016a), n’aurait pu être
utilisée de manière fiable ici en raison de l’inégalité de composition des différents groupes sociaux
étudiés.
3. Approche expérimentale
La sensibilité à l’état attentionnel du receveur, et la capacité à attirer son attention, sont des
marqueurs clés de communication intentionnelle (voir Chapitre I, partie 3.1.2). Pour tester cette aptitude
cognitive chez les primates non-humains, en particulier dans leur communication gestuelle, des
expériences impliquant la production de gestes de quémande envers un humain sont classiquement
mises en place (e.g. chez les grands singes, Pan troglodytes, P. paniscus, Gorilla gorilla, Pongo
pygmaeaus : Call et Tomasello 1994; Povinelli et al. 2003; Leavens et al. 2004a; Liebal et al. 2004b;
Poss et al. 2006; Cartmill et Byrne 2007; Roberts et al. 2014b ; les babouins olives, Papio anubis :
61
Bourjade et al. 2013a; Meunier et al. 2013c ; les macaques Rhésus et à bonnet, Macaca mulatta et
radiata : Canteloup et al. 2015a; Deshpande et al. 2018 ; les singes écureuils, Saimiri
sciureus : Anderson et al. 2007, 2010 ; les singes capucins, Cebus apella : Defolie et al. 2015). Cette
approche permet de modéliser une communication dyadique en plaçant l’expérimentateur comme
receveur, et ainsi de tester l’effet du comportement de celui-ci sur la communication, en contrôlant
notamment sa posture et donc son état d’attention visuelle (potentiellement perçu par la direction des
yeux, l’orientation de la tête, du corps : Emery 2000). En plus de standardiser les conditions dans
lesquelles les sujets vont communiquer, l’utilisation de ce paradigme expérimental permet de tester
l’intentionnalité de la communication chez plusieurs espèces avec la même approche, autorisant des
comparaisons plus directes entre les études.
Cette approche expérimentale nécessite généralement un entrainement préalable des singes pour
la production de gestes de quémande, absents du répertoire comportemental des sujets étudiés
(e.g. Anderson et al. 2007, 2010; Maille et al. 2012; Bourjade et al. 2013a; Meunier et al. 2013c;
Canteloup et al. 2015a; Defolie et al. 2015). Ainsi les potentielles capacités des singes à communiquer
de manière intentionnelle sont étudiées au travers d’un geste dont l’ontogénèse est connue. Le geste de
quémande est une extension du bras en direction d’un receveur pour obtenir une récompense alimentaire,
la main ouverte. Ce geste peut être acquis selon un processus de ritualisation ontogénétique, à partir
d’une action de saisie de la récompense alimentaire dans les mains de l’expérimentateur,
progressivement positionné hors d’atteinte (Bourjade et al. 2013a; Meunier et al. 2013c; Canteloup et
al. 2015a). C’est selon ce protocole que nous avons entrainé les mangabeys à collier à produire des
gestes de quémande, préalablement aux sessions expérimentales.
Une précédente étude avait mis en évidence la sensibilité des mangabeys à l’état attentionnel de leur
receveur, grâce au paradigme de quémande alimentaire (Maille et al. 2012). Ces résultats montraient
que la production et la fréquence des gestes dépendaient de la posture de l’expérimentateur, en
particulier de l’orientation de sa tête et de son corps. Notre objectif ici était d’approfondir cette question,
relative à la capacité des mangabeys à utiliser un geste communicatif intentionnellement et de manière
flexible. L’expérience impliquait sept conditions expérimentales différentes, pour :
(i) Vérifier que les gestes de quémande appris avaient bien une valeur communicative, et
étaient donc dépendants de la présence d’un potentiel receveur. Pour cela, nous avons
comparé des conditions dans lesquelles l’expérimentateur était présent ou absent,
hypothétisant que les gestes ne seraient produits qu’en présence de l’humain et
accompagnés d’alternances de regards.
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CHAPITRE II – METHODOLOGIE GENERALE
(ii) Evaluer l’effet de l’état attentionnel du receveur sur la production des gestes, et en
particulier sur la stratégie potentiellement mise en place face à un receveur visuellement
non attentif. Différentes conditions impliquaient différentes postures de l’expérimentateur,
faisant varier la direction de sa tête et de son corps. Nous avons alors utilisé un dispositif
original, permettant aux singes de se déplacer autour de l’expérimentateur, et/ou d’utiliser
différentes modalités de gestes pour communiquer, visuelle ou audible. Nous avons ainsi
fait l’hypothèse que les singes produiraient moins de gestes de quémande face à un receveur
inattentif, et dans le cas où celui-ci leur tournerait le dos, se déplaceraient pour se placer
face à lui ou attireraient son attention avec des signaux acoustiques.
(iii) Evaluer l’effet de la réponse du receveur aux gestes communicatifs, en particulier pour
tester la capacité des mangabeys à persister et/ou élaborer leur communication en cas
d’échec d’un premier signal. Pour tester cela, différentes conditions ont été mises en place,
dans lesquelles l’expérimentateur mettait plus de temps à répondre que dans la condition
contrôle (« pas de réponse ») ou répondait de manière incongrue (« mauvaise réponse »).
Nous avons alors fait l’hypothèse qu’en l’absence d’une réponse satisfaisante de la part du
receveur, les mangabeys répèteraient leurs gestes et/ou élaboreraient de manière visuelle
(en modulant leurs gestes de quémande ou en produisant d’autres signaux) ou de manière
audible (en produisant des gestes audibles ou des vocalisations).
Nous avons utilisé un dispositif mis au point et fabriqué spécialement pour cette expérience de
quémande alimentaire. Il s’agissait d’une cage cubique de 1,70 m de côté, dont deux faces étaient
équipées de « trous de quémande », à travers lesquels les mangabeys pouvaient passer leurs bras pour
quémander une récompense à l’expérimentateur placé au centre (Figure 7). Au-dessus de l’un des
« trous de quémande » étaient disposées des clochettes. Ainsi, produire un geste de quémande à travers
ce trou permettait aux mangabeys de produire un signal audible plutôt qu’uniquement visuel, sans en
changer la forme.
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Figure 7. Dispositif expérimental conçu pour tester l’intentionnalité des gestes interspécifiques. Une
cage cubique de 1,70 m de côté a été fabriquée (a), dont deux faces étaient pourvues de trous permettant
aux singes de passer leurs bras pour communiquer, de manière sonore ou silencieuse (b).
L’expérimentateur se trouvait au centre de la cage, permettant aux singes de se déplacer autour de lui (c).
Crédit photographique : J. Aychet.
En premier lieu, il est à noter que la communication spontanée et intraspécifique des individus
captifs peut différer de la communication observée à l’état sauvage. En effet, la composition des groupes
sociaux diffère de celle des groupes naturels (au niveau de la taille et des paramètres démographiques),
ce qui peut avoir un impact significatif sur le type d’interactions au sein des groupes (voir partie 1.1.3.).
La proximité spatiale des individus au sein d’un groupe peut également impacter les relations sociales,
et la proximité des cages favoriser les interactions inter-groupes. Certains contextes existants dans un
environnement naturel seront absents ici, comme des déplacements de groupe ou des contextes de
prédation. Inversement, certains paramètres sont inhérents à l’environnement captif des individus,
comme les nourrissages, pouvant impliquer des périodes d’anticipation alimentaire (Waitt et Buchanan-
Smith 2001). Ces facteurs sociaux et contextuels sont donc susceptibles d’affecter la composition du
répertoire de signaux communicatifs, et leurs fréquences d’utilisation. Enfin, l’environnement visuel en
captivité est moins encombré que l’environnement naturel des mangabeys (voir partie 1.1.2.), ce qui
peut avoir un effet sur les modalités sensorielles impliquées dans la communication (Hebets et Papaj
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CHAPITRE II – METHODOLOGIE GENERALE
2005; Fröhlich et van Schaik 2018). Bien que ces facteurs soient susceptibles d’impacter le répertoire
de signaux communicatifs, étudier des populations captives permet d’explorer les caractéristiques
cognitives sous-tendant la communication via une double approche, observationnelle et expérimentale.
Ainsi, les résultats issus de l’approche expérimentale ne reflèteront pas forcément des stratégies de
communication que les singes adoptent en contexte intraspécifique, mais permettront d’évaluer s’ils sont
capables de les mettre en place. L’approche observationnelle, quant à elle, permet de s’affranchir des
biais liés à l’interaction avec l’humain, pour s’intéresser à l’effet de facteurs spécifiques aux interactions
entre congénères. C’est la raison pour laquelle ces deux approches ont été adoptées ici, afin de
caractériser la communication gestuelle et multimodale des mangabeys à collier en termes
d’intentionnalité, de latéralité et de flexibilité.
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Chapitre III
Intentionnalité des signaux
visuels spontanés
67
68
CHAPITRE III – INTENTIONALITE DES SIGNAUX VISUELS SPONTANES
Article 1
Anne Marijke Schel1, Axelle Bono2,3, Juliette Aychet2, Simone Pika4, Alban Lemasson2,5
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CHAPITRE III – INTENTIONALITE DES SIGNAUX VISUELS SPONTANES
SYNTHESE DE L’ARTICLE 1
Contexte
Les recherches menées ces trente dernières années sur la communication gestuelle des grands singes
mettent en évidence la capacité de ces derniers à communiquer de manière intentionnelle, suggérant que
cette propriété clé du langage soit héritée de l’ancêtre commun aux hominoïdes actuels. Peu d’études se
sont cependant intéressées à la communication gestuelle des autres singes en contexte intraspécifique.
Le caractère intentionnel des gestes des cercopithécidés est encore débattu, tout comme l’existence de
gestes manuels visuels dans leurs répertoires communicatifs.
Méthode
Résultats
Nous avons montré que la majeure partie des gestes communicatifs produits par les mangabeys à collier
présentaient des marques d’intentionnalité. Les mangabeys produisaient préférentiellement leurs gestes
visuels face à un receveur attentif, et utilisaient d’autres modalités (tactile, audible) lorsqu’il ne l’était
pas. Ils regardaient en direction du receveur avant de produire leurs gestes (« audience checking »), et
maintenaient ensuite leurs regards vers le receveur en l’attente d’une réponse. Lorsque le receveur ne
répondait pas, les mangabeys persistaient dans leur communication, répétant leurs signaux. Enfin, parmi
les 20 gestes associés à ces marqueurs d’intentionnalité, quatre étaient des gestes brachio-
manuels visuels.
Conclusion
Ainsi, il semble que les mangabeys à collier communiquent intentionnellement avec leurs congénères
grâce à leurs gestes, notamment brachio-manuels. Conjointement aux récentes descriptions de la
communication gestuelle spontanée des babouins olives et des macaques à bonnet, ces résultats
suggèrent que la communication intentionnelle n’est pas seulement un trait commun aux hominoïdes
mais à l’ensemble des primates catarrhiniens.
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Intentional gesturing in red-capped mangabeys
(Cercocebus torquatus)
Anne Marijke Schel1*, Axelle Bono2,3, Juliette Aychet2, Simone Pika4, Alban Lemasson2
Abstract
Apes, human’s closest living relatives, are renowned for their intentional and highly flexible use of
gestural signals. In stark contrast, evidence for intentional signalling in monkeys is scarce. Here, we
investigated spontaneous gestural communication amongst red-capped mangabeys (Cercocebus
torquatus) with a special focus on manual gestures and hallmarks of intentionality. We applied
established methods used in ape gesture research to analyse the communicative behaviour of a total of
17 individuals living in three different groups in captivity. Results showed that signallers showed
hallmarks of intentionality during the production of 20 out of a total of 21 different body signal types,
with four of these being strictly manual gesture types. During the production of these socially-directed
signals, the monkeys showed sensitivity to the attentional states of recipients, adjustment of signal
modality, audience checking before signal production, and response waiting. Moreover, in case of
communication failure, the monkeys showed goal persistence. We discuss our results in light of several
scientific directions that have been taken with regards to the comparative approach towards human
language evolution and propose the red-capped mangabey as a model species to investigate these
questions further. We further challenge the view that precursors to flexible intentional communicative
strategies emerged in hominoids around 18 MYR ago. Instead, our results show that the origins of
flexible and intentional communicative strategies are evolutionary older, i.e. already appearing in the
primate lineage around 30 MYR ago.
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Introduction
Human language is a unique communication system in the animal kingdom, which crucially
depends on a complex interplay of several sensory-motor, cognitive and computational capacities
(Hauser et al. 2002). Trying to unravel its evolutionary roots has been a primary interest of researchers
studying non-human animal communication and human language evolution in past decades (e.g. Hewes,
1973; Snowdon et al. 1982; Seyfarth, 2005; Arbib et al., 2008; Tomasello 2010; Petkov & Jarvis 2012;
Lemasson et al. 2013; Fitch 2017). In this context, past comparative research revealed that precursors
or pre-adaptations for several cognitive abilities needed for human language can be found in non-human
animal communication systems (Hockett 1959; Fitch 2010; Hauser et al. 2002). One of these is the
ability to communicate intentionally, which requires from individuals involved in the communicative
act a certain degree of intentionality. In cognitive sciences, intentionality has been described as the
capacity of mental states (e.g. knowing, believing and desiring) to be ‘about’ particular objects or
situations: this assumes a certain form of rationality from the creature to which intentional states are
attributed (Dennett, 1983). In animals, this may range from an individual having one’s own beliefs
about a particular situation to having beliefs about the beliefs that other individuals have about that
situation (e.g. Dennett, 1983; Cheney & Seyfarth, 1990; Hurford, 2007; Townsend et al., 2016; Sievers
et al., 2017; Krupenye et al., 2017).
Animal studies investigating the intentionality of communication typically build onto the
‘intentional stance’ (Dennett, 1983), which explicitly assumes that animals are capable of having mental
states. Following this view, several orders of cognitive complexity required for different levels of
intentional communication can be differentiated. The simplest form is communication with 'zero-order
intentionality', in which signallers produce their communicative signals reflexively. For this, they neither
need to have a mental state of their own, nor to recognize the consequences of their signalling behaviour
on the behaviour or mental state of others. In first order intentional communication, a signaller has a
mental state of its own and recognizes the effects of its signalling behaviour on the behaviour of others,
but he does not have mental states about mental states of others. In this case, a signaller may thus intend
to signal to produce a desired behaviour change in the recipient, but not a mental one. Communication
with second order intentionality occurs when a signaller is able to recognize both its own and the
recipient’s mental state and intends to signal to change the latter. In this case, a signaller may for instance
intend to signal about an external event that he is knowledgeable about, but the recipient is ignorant
about (e.g. the presence of a predator). Third- and higher-order forms of intentional communication
require ‘mutual mind-reading’, in which both signaller and recipient recognize each other’s mental
states/ intentions and act accordingly (Dennett 1983; Scott-Philips 2015; Sievers et al., 2017). This latter
type, also termed ‘overtly intentional’ or ‘ostensive’ communication (Sperber & Wilson 1995; Scott-
73
Philips 2015), has traditionally been regarded as ‘true communication’ and is common in human
language (Grice 1957).
Currently, there is no consensus on whether or not non-human animals have, and actually need,
the cognitive capacity for (mutual) mind-reading during their communicative exchanges (Scott-Philips
2015; Fischer & Price 2016; Moore 2016: Fitch 2016). Instead, it has been proposed that most animals
possess a fully functional and adequate communication system without these higher forms of
intentionality (Fischer & Price 2016; Townsend et al., 2016; Moore, 2016). In line with this, past studies
on intentional non-human animal communication have mainly been focusing on the question whether
or not first-order intentionality is used from the signallers’ perspective, without further implying
anything about their capacity for mental state attribution or recipients recognizing their intentions
(reviewed in Liebal et al. 2013; Sievers et al., 2017; but see Engh 2006; Crockford et al. 2017).
The majority of such studies have concentrated on the gestural signalling behaviour of apes.
Gestures are generally defined as socially directed, mechanically ineffective body signals that result in
a voluntary response from the recipient (e.g. Bates 1975; Plooij 1978; Tomasello et al. 1985; Pika 2008).
In many studies, the described body signals include body postures, body movements and movements of
hands, feet, limbs and head (reviewed in Call & Tomasello 2007; Pika & Liebal 2012; Liebal et al.
2013). Some studies include facial expressions too, resulting in a broader definition of the term gesture
(e.g. Liebal et al. 2004; Gupta & Sinha, 2019; Molesti et al. 2020: but see Byrne el al. 2017 for
argumentation to classify facial expressions and gestures as independent systems), whereas other studies
only consider strictly manual gestures, i.e. free movements of the hands, feet and/or limbs that do not
involve interaction with a substrate or object, as gestures (de Waal 2003; Pollick & de Waal 2007;
Roberts et al. 2012, 2014), leading to a more restrictive definition. Moreover, more recent studies often
only consider body signals produced during episodes of intentional communication as gestures (see e.g.
Fröhlich & Hobaiter, 2018). For this, it is essential to be able to determine whether such signals are
produced intentionally.
Determining whether or not body signals are produced intentionally has typically been done by
applying methodologies originally developed to measure intentionality in preverbal human infant
communication (e.g. Bates et al. 1975; Tomasello et al. 1994; Leavens et al. 2005). This method aims
at identifying whether subjects make use of the behavioural 'markers of intentionality' (Table 1) during
their signal production (see Townsend et al., 2016 for a recently re-evaluated theoretical framework
concerning this topic), and whether they show flexibility in gesture use, e.g. in terms of ‘means-ends
dissociation’ (Bruner 1981; Tomasello & Call, 1997). Using these methods, it has become clear from a
large number of studies in captive and wild settings that all ape species make flexible use of intentionally
produced gestures during their communicative interactions (e.g. Tomasello et al. 1985, 1994; Bard,
1992; Leavens et al. 1996, 2005; Liebal et al. 2004, 2006; Pika et al. 2003; 2007; Poss et al. 2006;
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Cartmill & Byrne 2007, 2010; Genty et al. 2009; Hobaiter & Byrne 2011: Graham et al. 2016; Knox et
al., 2019). In addition, these studies showed that within- and between-species differences of gesture use
exist, which may for example reflect differences between species’ socio-ecologies, differences in group
composition (e.g. age-sex ratios), and associated sociocognitive abilities (e.g. Maestripieri 1997; Liebal
et al, 2006; Fröhlich & Hobaiter, 2018).
Table 1. Description of the behavioural markers used to identify whether or not body signals are
produced with first order intentionality (cf. ape gesture studies, e.g. Tomasello et al. 1985, 1994; Call
& Tomasello 2007; Pika 2008; Cartmill & Byrne 2007, 2010; Genty et al. 2009; Hobaiter & Byrne 2011;
Hopkins & Leavens 1998; Hostetter et al. 2001; Leavens et al. 1996, 2004, 2005; Leavens & Hopkins
1998; Liebal et al. 2004, 2006; Pika et al. 2003; Poss et al. 2006; Roberts et al. 2012; Fröhlich et al.
2016).
Marker Description
(0.) Social use (prerequisite to be The signal is produced in the presence of individuals at close
considered ‘communicative’) proximity and directed at one of them
(i.) Sensitivity to- and Signaller adjusts its signalling behaviour to the attentional state of
manipulation of attentional state of the recipient, i.e. it takes into account whether the recipient can
recipient visually perceive its signals. If the signaller is not in the visual field
of the recipient, the signaller produces tactile or audible signals or
moves into the visual field of the recipient before signalling.
(ii.) Audience checking Signaller monitors its audience before signalling and may visually
orient to the recipient the signal is directed at.
(iii.) Gaze alternation Signaller alternates its gaze between the recipient and an external
object/event or individual of interest.
(iv.) Response waiting After signalling, signaller pauses signalling for at least one second,
during which he maintains visual contact, apparently monitoring the
recipient’s behaviour.
(v.) Goal persistence (persistence and Signaller repeats the same signal (persistence) or enhances its
elaboration) original signal by elaborating on it with an additional component
(elaboration) when (apparently) unsatisfied* with a recipient’s
response.
Whether or not primates other than apes also communicate with flexibly produced intentional
gestures remains more controversial. Although the intentional use of body signals was already reported
for macaques in the 1990’s (e.g. Macaca mulatta; M. nemenstrina, M. arctoides: Maestripieri 1996,
1997, 1999), these studies did not apply the same and thus comparable methodology as used in ape
gesture studies; i.e. systematically assessing the use of markers of intentionality during signal
75
production. Although more recent studies did use this methodology, there are several limitations. First
of all, most of these studies exclusively focused on human-trained manual gesture use (e.g. manual
pointing or begging signals) during monkeys’ communicative interactions with human experimenters.
One potential issue with this is that in these cases intensive training experience may affect the animals’
behaviour (e.g. Bourjade et al., 2015; Leavens et al. 2019), resulting in possible misinterpretations of
these species’ natural capacities for intraspecific intentional gestural communication. Secondly, these
studies often only tested the use of one or a restricted subset of the markers of intentionality during
signal production, despite the fact that lower level explanations exist for the isolated use of every marker
of intentionality (Liebal et al., 2013; Graham et al., 2019), and a more powerful approach into the study
of communicative intentions would be to investigate whether or not subjects use all markers of
intentionality simultaneously during their gestural communication (Liebal et al. 2013; Scott-Philips,
2015; Townsend et al. 2016; Graham et al 2019). Despite these issues, however, these previous studies
found that monkeys can adjust their (trained) signals to the attentional states of human recipients, with
some of them providing evidence for the additional use of one other marker of intentionality during
signal production, such as gaze alternation or elaboration (e.g. Cebus apella: Hattori et al. 2007; 2010;
Defolie et al. 2015; Saimiri sciureus: Anderson et al. 2010; Cercocebus torquatus: Maille et al. 2012;
Aychet et al. 2020; Papio anubis: Meunier et al. 2013; Bourjade et al. 2014; ; Macaca tonkeana:
Canteloup et al. 2015a; Macaca mulatta: Canteloup et al. 2015b). As mentioned, whether or not
monkeys use species-specific body signals to intentionally communicate with conspecifics has received
less research attention, with currently only two studies providing evidence that wild bonnet macaques
(Macaca radiata: Gupta & Sinha, 2019) and captive olive baboons (Papio anubis; Molesti et al. 2020)
use a particular subset of markers of intentionality when communicating with conspecifics.
In addition to this, naturally occurring intentional ‘free manual gestures’, i.e. gestures produced
with the hands, feet and/or limbs that do not involve physical contact with a substrate or partner (Pollick
& de Waal, 2007; Roberts et al., 2012), have been claimed to be virtually non-existent in monkeys (Call
& Tomasello 2007; de Waal 2003; Pollick & de Waal 2007; Cartmill & Maestripieri, 2012; Roberts et
al. 2012, 2014; de Waal 2016). In contrast, they are frequent communicative means in the gestural
repertoires of apes (e.g. Hobaiter & Byrne, 2011; Liebal, 2007; Genty et al., 2009; Roberts et al. 2014;
Graham et al., 2016; Knox et al., 2019). Manual gesture production has been identified as particularly
relevant for theories on human language evolution (e.g. Call & Tomasello 2007; Cartmill & Maestripieri
2012; de Waal 2003, 2016; Pollick & de Waal 2007: Roberts et al. 2012, 2014), because the behavioural
lateralization in their production may reveal more about the evolutionary roots of hemispheric
asymmetry and specialization found in humans, which has been linked to the unique emergence of
human language (e.g. Meguerditchian et al. 2010; 2013; Hopkins et al., 2012; Maille et al., 2013; Prieur
et al., 2018; Fagot et al. 2019). Yet, keeping in mind the relative scarcity of systematic studies
investigating whether primates other than the apes produce intentional gestures at all during their natural
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intraspecific communicative exchanges, the necessary comparative work to support this view on manual
gesture use is currently also lacking.
Therefore, the aim of this study was twofold. First, we systematically analysed whether captive
red-capped mangabeys (Cercocebus torquatus), a monkey species of the cercopithecoid superfamily of
catarrhine primates, showed hallmarks of intentionality during their spontaneous intraspecific
communicative exchanges involving body signals. For this, we determined which types of body signals
were produced by the signallers and whether the animals adhered to all behavioural markers of
intentionality during their production, which would classify them as (intentional) gestures. To be able
to directly compare our results with similar studies done in apes we used methodology traditionally used
in ape gesture studies (see Table 1). Secondly, we assessed whether these monkeys are capable of free
manual gesture production. For this, from the subset of intentionally produced gesture types, we
determined which ones were produced by making movements of the hands, feet and/or limbs only,
without making physical contact with a substrate or partner (de Waal 2003; Roberts et al. 2012, 2014).
Given the fact that in previous studies red-capped mangabeys were found to use human-trained (manual)
gestures in intentional ways towards human experimenters (Maille et al. 2012; Aychet et al. 2020), we
expected the monkeys to be able to use their body signals produced amongst conspecifics in intentional
ways as well.
Methods
From January – April 2015, we collected focal video footage from a total of 17 adult and
subadult captive red-capped mangabeys living in three social groups (Cercocebus torquatus) at the
Station Biologique de Paimpont, France (Table 2). Red-capped mangabeys are medium sized (7.5-10
kg) diurnal and predominantly terrestrial primates that live in multimalemultifemale groups naturally
occurring in Atlantic forest coastal areas ranging from Western Nigeria to Gabon, Africa (Gautier-Hion
et al. 1999; Jones & Sabater-Pi 1968; Cooke 2012; Orimaye 2017). Reported group sizes in the wild
range from 10 to 25 individuals (Jones & Sabater Pi 1968). Individual females and males are classified
as adults when they are > 4 and 7 years of age, respectively, and as subadults when they are between 3
and 4 (females) or 7 (males) years of age, based on demographic data on a closely related species, i.e.
grey-cheeked mangabeys (Lophocebus albigena; Chalmers 1968; Gautier-Hion and Gautier 1976;
Deputte 1992). In this study, we considered individuals as ‘old’ adults if they were more than 15 years
of age, corresponding to the median lifespan of mangabeys in captivity (based on 45 years data from
our breeding facility on grey-cheeked and red-capped mangabeys).
77
Each individual had access to one outdoor enclosure and one indoor enclosure with different
sizes (ranging from 15.3 to 29 m2), which were connected by tunnels. The different enclosures for the
groups were subdivided into several sub-enclosures separated by gratings. The monkeys could move
freely between the inside and outside enclosures, except during keepers’ cleaning activities. The floor
of the indoor enclosures was covered by straw and sawdust, whereas the floor of the outdoor enclosures
was covered by bark or cement. Enrichment consisted of beams, ropes, chains, and tires. In the indoor
enclosures, the temperature was stabilized at 22 ± 2 ° C. The monkeys were fed twice daily with fresh
vegetables and fruits in the morning and monkey chow in the afternoon. Fresh water was available ad
libitum.
Table 2. Social composition and individual details of the mangabeys in the study groups.
Group Individual Sex Age at study (yrs) Year of birth Age category
I. Chipie Female 23 1992 Old
Many Female 7 2008 Young
Chipse Female 9 2006 Young
Tips Male 4 2011 Young
Julie Female 11 2004 Young
Gofrette Female 19 1996 Old
Coet Male 4 2011 Young
Maillette Female 6 2009 Young
II. Bell Female 13 2002 Young
Kamel Male 5 2010 Young
Zunie Female 28 1987 Old
Joly Female 15 2000 Old
Roby Male 5 2010 Young
III. Pirate Male 23 1992 Old
George Male 9 2006 Young
Carillon Male 8 2007 Young
Elky Male 6 2009 Young
Daily observations took place between 9 a.m. and 5 p.m., with the monkeys being observed for
a total of 4-6h per day. 15 min continuous focal-animal sampling (Altmann 1974) was used to video
record the interactions of 17 adult and subadult focal individuals (the signallers) with their group
members (the recipients) using a Panasonic HC-X920 digital video camera. Focal animals were selected
following a preset randomized order. Usually, the focus was on individuals from one group in the
morning and another in the afternoon, and the next day this order was alternated. If a focal subject moved
outside the range of vision, the recording was stopped, but the recorded focal time was added to the total
sampling time for that individual if it had lasted at least one minute. If a focal subject did not return
within one minute after moving out of sight, the next session with a new focal animal was started. Each
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of the focal individuals was sampled for a total of 120 minutes. When necessary, comments were given
on the focal individuals’ general behaviour, identity and sex of the potential recipient, the recipient’s
response, and identities of other animals present within the same area of the enclosure. We aimed to
capture both the signaller and recipient in the same video frame. The video recordings were transferred
to a PC and then loaded into Solomon Coder 15.1.13.0 for further video analyses.
During video analyses, we first identified all instances of expressive and mechanically
ineffective body signals produced by a focal individual (the signaller), which were directed at a
particular recipient (indicated via body orientation, eye gaze, or physical contact). In this study, we used
the term ‘body signals’ in the broad sense, such that it comprised all brachio-manual movements, body
postures, and body movements, including those where (nonmechanically effective) physical contact
with any other individual or a substrate was made.
After extracting all socially directed body signals produced by the focal individuals, we assessed
for each signal separately whether they qualified as intentionally produced gestures. Because we aimed
to compare our results with previous ape studies using similar methodology, we scored for all socially
directed body signals whether they were accompanied by any of the behavioural markers of
intentionality (Table 1). The marker ‘gaze alternation’ was omitted from these analyses as a preliminary
inspection of our results revealed that none of the produced body signals appeared to concern an external
object or third party and testing this experimentally did not fall within the aim of this study. Moreover,
in order to assess whether the signaller exhibited goal persistence depending on the type of recipient’s
response, it was first of all scored whether the recipient responded with a ‘positive’ or ‘negative’
response after receiving a body signal that was directed at it. A positive response was scored when one
of the two following situations applied: (1.) the recipient stopped its current activity within a particular
behavioural context and changed this to one within a different behavioural context, or (2.) within one
behavioural context the recipient changed its focus from self-directed behaviour or interacting with
another individual than the signaller to interacting with the signaller. Behavioural contexts identified
were: grooming (including e.g. start/stop grooming, change of grooming position), agonistic (including
aggression and submission), affiliative (social positive behaviours other than grooming), sexual (e.g.
copulation, inspect or touch genitals), and playing. A negative response was scored when a recipient did
not show a behaviour change after receiving a signal that was directed at it. Important to note here is
that because the occurrence of goal persistence is likely to depend on whether the signaller received a
‘satisfactory (intended) response’ (see Table 1) from the recipient as a reply to its initial signal, it can
occur both after receiving a positive (but unsatisfactory) or a negative (and therefore unsatisfactory)
79
response from the recipient, or it may not occur at all, e.g. after receiving a satisfactory positive
response. Therefore, goal persistence is expected to not always be present in all intentional
communicative events, yet, at the same time it is considered a strong indicator that communication is
intentional (Liebal et al. 2013).
Identification of whether or not the monkeys’ signal production was influenced or accompanied
by the above-mentioned markers (Table 1) was determined using the following operational criteria:
(i.) Sensitivity to- and manipulation of the attentional state of the recipient: recipient was either (a)
attending: within the 5 sec prior to signal production, the recipient was directly looking into the
direction of the signaller, or the signaller was stationary within the field of vision of the recipient who
had its head oriented at most 45°either side from its looking direction straight ahead towards the signaller
(cf. Genty et al. 2009; Pika et al. 2003), or (b) not attending: during the entire 5 sec prior to signal
production, the recipient’s head was turned away from the signaller and its attention was never directed
towards the signaller, but distracted by other social partners or incidents in its environment (cf. Liebal
et al. 2006). In the case of a nonattending recipient, we assessed whether the signaller used a tactile or
audible signal instead of a visual only signal (see below; Call & Tomasello 2007); (ii.) Audience
checking: within the 5 sec. prior to signal production, the signaller was directly looking at the recipient,
or the recipient was within the field of vision of the signaller who had its head oriented at most 45°
either side from its looking direction straight ahead towards the recipient (cf. Genty 2009; Hobaiter &
Byrne 2011), (iii.) Response waiting: following the end of signal production the signaller paused
signalling for at least 1s and kept monitoring the recipient’s behaviour during this period by maintaining
visual contact (cf. Pika et al. 2003; Liebal et al. 2004; Cartmill & Byrne 2010; Hobaiter & Byrne 2011;
Roberts et al. 2014; Fröhlich et al 2016; Graham et al. 2017), (iv.) Goal persistence: following response
waiting, it was scored for every signal whether the signaller either a. stopped further signalling, b.
produced the same signal (i.e. ‘persistence’: cf. Leavens et al. 2005; Cartmill & Byrne 2007; Cartmill
& Byrne 2010; Genty & Byrne 2010; Hobaiter & Byrne 2011; Fröhlich et al 2016), c. enhanced its
original signal by elaborating on it (i.e. ‘elaboration’; cf. Leavens et al. 2005; Cartmill & Byrne 2007;
Cartmill & Byrne 2010), or d. produced a new signal altogether. In case of any further signalling
behaviour, we started the process of assessing whether the markers of intentionality accompanied it over
again.
To identify which gesture types were produced by the signallers, every intentionally produced
body signal was classified as a particular gesture type, which was further categorized within one of the
following signal categories (cf. Pika et al. 2003): (i) visual only gestures: distant signals representing
movements of hands, body parts, or body postures, (ii) tactile gestures: visual signals that involve
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physical contact between the interacting animals, and (iii) audible gestures: visual signals that
simultaneously produce a sound during their performance (see Table 3). Using this classification, it was
determined whether the mangabeys made use of strictly manual gesture types, by checking which
gestures were produced by making movements of the arms and/or hands only, without making physical
contact with a substrate or partner (de Waal 2003; Roberts et al. 2012, 2014).
Production details
To examine whether the mangabeys showed contextual and individual variation in gesture
production similar to that found in apes (e.g. Call & Tomasello 1997), we investigated the production
details of the signal types and -categories in terms of production context, determined by the general
behavioural situation in which the gesture occurred and the observed behavioural change from the
recipient, and prevalence across specific age-sex classes, based on the individual details provided in
Table 2.
Inter-observer reliability
Inter-observer reliability coding of the occurrence of all criteria during production of each signal
was performed by a second observer for 25% of all recipient-directed bodily actions. ‘Substantial’ levels
of inter-observer agreement (0.846>κ >0.643: McHugh, 2012) were found for all measured criteria
(gesture form, attentional state, audience checking, response waiting, change of recipient behaviour,
persistence, elaboration).
Statistics
We used R. 3.5.0 software (R Core Team 2018) to run all statistical tests. Because of our
relatively small sample size (N = 17 individuals), we mainly used descriptive statistics and
nonparametric statistical tests. All tests were two-tailed and the alpha-level was set at 0.05. The presence
of intentionality markers associated to the production of body signals was studied both at the level of
body signal occurrences (lumping all instances together), using tests for proportion comparisons
(binomial and Fisher exact tests), and at the individual level, using Wilcoxon signed ranks tests.
Regarding the first marker of intentionality, i.e. ‘sensitivity and manipulation of recipient’s
attentional state’, we first tested whether or not body signals were preferentially produced in the presence
of a visually attending or non-attending recipient. Moreover, we compared the proportion of each signal
category (visual only or non-visual only, i.e. audible or tactile) depending on recipient’s attentional state.
In order to run this analysis at the individual level, we only kept the data of individuals that produced
body signals both in the presence of attending and non-attending recipients (N = 7). Then, we tested
whether or not instances of body signals were associated with the second and third intentionality
81
markers: ‘audience checking’ and ‘response waiting’. Regarding the supplementary intentionality
marker ‘goal persistence’, we first determined whether the proportion of body signalling instances that
was followed by further signal production depended on the type of response by the recipient (positive
or negative). In order to run this test at the individual level, we only kept the data of signal producers
that were confronted with both positive and negative responses from their recipients (N = 15). Then, we
determined whether the proportion of persistence or elaboration when the signaller produced further
signals after its initial signal depended on whether or not it had received a positive or negative response
by the recipient. For this analysis at the individual level, we only kept data of individuals that produced
further body signals after receiving a positive or negative response from the recipient (N = 13).
Results
From the 34 hours of focal observations (N = 17 individuals, 120 minutes per individual), we
extracted a total of 297 instances of mechanically ineffective, recipient-directed body signals (range =
1 – 40 per individual; median=16, N = 17 individuals) that were produced across focal individuals (see
Table 4). These were further used to assess the intentionality of signal use.
(i) Sensitivity to- and manipulation of the attentional state of the recipient
For 2 out of the 297 recorded body signals the attentional state of the recipients could not be
determined due to insufficient recording conditions. From the 295 signals for which the recipients’
attentional state could be determined, the majority (280; 95%) were produced by the signallers when
recipients were visually attending (Binomial test: N = 295, Pexp = 0.50, Pobs = 0.95, p < 0.001). This was
also significant at the individual level, with mangabeys generally producing more body signals in front
of visually attending compared to non-attending recipients (Wilcoxon signed rank test: N = 17, V = 136,
p < 0.001).
From the 280 signals produced to visually attending recipients, 234 (84%) were visual only
signals, 42 (15%) were tactile signals and 4 (1%) were audible signals. From the 15 signals that were
produced when recipients were not visually attending, 6 (40%) were visual only signals, 8 (53%) were
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tactile signals and 1 (7%) was an audible signal. Thus, the majority of signals produced in front of
visually attending recipients were visual only (Binomial test: N = 280, Pexp = 0.50, Pobs = 0.84, p <
0.001), and there was no significant difference in the amount of visual only compared to non-visual only
(i.e. tactile or audible) signals produced in front of non-attending recipients (Binomial test: N = 15, Pexp
= 0.50, Pobs = 0.40, p = 0.607). Correspondingly, at the individual level, we found that the mangabeys
preferentially produced visual only signals when recipients were visually attending (Figure 1, Wilcoxon
signed rank test: N = 7, V = 0, p = 0.036), and both visual only and non-visual only signals (i.e. tactile
or audible) in similar proportions when recipients were not attending (Wilcoxon signed rank test: N =
7, V = 12, p = 0.829). When combined, however, these results revealed that signallers who produced
signals in both situations (i.e. to attending and non-attending recipients: N=7) used higher proportions
of non-visual signals (i.e. tactile or audible signals) when recipients were not attending compared to
when recipients were attending, and vice versa (Fisher exact test for visual only vs. non visual only
signals when recipients attending vs. not attending: exact p = 0.004).
Figure 1. Individual proportions of signalling instances falling within the visual only or
nonvisual only signal categories in relation to the attentional state of the recipients. Wilcoxon
signed rank tests: N = 7 individuals; *: p ≤ 0.050; ns: p > 0.050.
From the total of 297 body signalling instances, the majority (293; 99%) was preceded by
audience checking (Binomial test: N = 297, Pexp = 0.50, Pobs = 0.99, p < 0.001). This effect was also
significant at the individual level, with the mangabeys visually orienting to their audience before
signalling in the majority of cases (Wilcoxon signed rank test: N = 17, V = 153, p < 0.001).
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(iii.) Response waiting
From the total of 297 body signalling instances, the majority (285; 96%) was followed by
response waiting (Binomial test: N = 297, Pexp = 0.50, Pobs = 0.96, p < 0.001). This effect was also
significant at the individual level, with the mangabeys monitoring a recipient’s behaviour after
producing body signals in the majority of cases (Wilcoxon signed rank test: N = 17, V = 153, p < 0.001).
Goal persistence
A total of 104 (35%) out of all 297 instances of body signal production resulted in a negative
response from the recipients (i.e. no behaviour change at all). From these 104 instances, signallers
stopped signalling in 50 (48%) cases and continued signalling in 54 (52%) cases after response waiting
(Binomial test: N = 104, Pexp = 0.50, Pobs = 0.52, p = 0.769). Correspondingly, at the individual level,
signallers were equally likely to stop signalling or produce further signals after receiving a negative
response to their signals (Figure 2A, Wilcoxon signed rank test: N = 15, V = 44.5, p = 0.972). In
contrast, from the 193 (65%) of all 297 body signals leading to a positive response (i.e. a behaviour
change) in the recipient, the signallers were more likely to stop signalling (127 instances; 66%) than to
continue signalling (Binomial test: N = 193, Pexp = 0.50, Pobs = 0.66, p < 0.001), and this was also
significant at the individual level (Figure 2A, Wilcoxon signed rank test: N = 15, V = 75.5, p = 0.039).
When combined, these results revealed that the monkeys showed higher proportions of further signalling
behaviour after they had received a negative response to their initial signal compared to when having
received a positive response (Fisher exact test for further signalling vs. no further signalling after
positive response vs. negative response from the recipients: exact p = 0.004).
A further in-depth analysis of the details of the continuation of signalling behaviour after
receiving either a positive, yet apparently unsatisfactory, response (N = 66) or a negative response (N =
54) to the initial signal in terms of persistence and elaboration revealed that the monkeys elaborated on
(38 instances; 58%) or persisted with (28 instances; 42%) their initial signalling behaviour after
receiving a positive response from their recipients (Binomial test: N = 66, P exp = 0.50, Pobs = 0.42, p =
0.267), whereas they preferentially persisted with their initial signalling behaviour when they had
received a negative response to their initial signal (39 instances; 72%; Binomial test: N=54, Pexp = 0.50,
Pobs = 0.72, p = 0.001). This effect was significant at the individual level as well (Figure 2B, Wilcoxon
signed rank test: persistence after positive response: N = 13, V = 24, p = 0.438; persistence after negative
response : N = 13, V = 10, p = 0.041). Combined, these results thus showed that the monkeys were more
likely to persist with the same signal when confronted with a negative response (i.e. no behaviour
change) compared to when confronted with a positive, but unsatisfactory, response: in the latter case
they also often chose to elaborate on their initial signal (Fisher exact test for persistence vs. elaboration
when further signalling after positive vs. negative response from recipients: exact p = 0.002).
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Figure 2. A. Individual proportions of further signalling behaviour by the signaller after receiving
either a negative or a positive response (i.e. behavioural change) to its initial signal. N = 15.
B. Individual proportions of elaboration and persistence as further signalling behaviour by the
signaller in relation to receiving a negative or positive response to its initial signal. N = 13. Wilcoxon
signed rank tests: *: p ≤ 0.050; ns: p > 0.050.
In sum, for a total of 295 body signal instances it was possible to determine whether their
production was accompanied by the abovementioned three markers of intentionality, i.e. in addition to
the prerequisite marker social use and in potential combination with goal persistence in case of a
seemingly unsatisfactory response. This was the case for 275 (93%) of body signal instances. The
remaining body signal instances were all accompanied or influenced by 2 markers of intentionality, i.e.
in addition to social use and in potential combination with goal-directedness.
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Description of gesture types
From the total number of 297 body signals produced by the red-capped mangabeys, we
identified 21 different types of body signals (Table 3), of which 20 were produced intentionally (i.e.
accompanied by all three markers of intentionality in addition to social use and, potentially, goal
persistence) and were therefore considered as gestures: the only signal type that was not accompanied
by all these markers in the focal individuals was ‘shake object’ (see Table 4). Four of the 20 gesture
types were categorised as ‘tactile’ gestures, two were categorised as ‘audible’ gestures, and 14 were
categorised as ‘visual only’ gestures. Of the 14 visual only gesture types, four were strictly manual
(gesture types 6, 7, 12 and 14 in Table 3), i.e. produced by making movements of the arms and/or hands
only, without making physical contact with a substrate or partner (de Waal 2003; Roberts et al.
2012, 2014).
Table 3. Overview and description of the different gesture types produced by red-capped
mangabeys during this study. Gesture types are further specified per signal category (visual only,
tactile, or audible signals). Manual gestures are indicated with *.
2. Head bob Subject makes short forward movement of the head, ‘lunging’ its head
towards the other, while staring at him intently.
3. Head shake Subject moves head in quick, jerky movements in front of the other,
horizontally and/or vertically.
4. Hop Subject jumps/ hops in the air with both feet leaving the ground, either in one
position or moving around in front of the other.
5. Lie down wiggling Subject is lying down on its belly in front of the other, wiggling its body at
the same time. This can also occur with one arm extended towards the other,
with body and arm wiggling at the same time.
6. Make grabbing Subject throws arm towards the other with hand closing at the end of the
movement towards* movement.
7. Move arm in front* Subject puts its arm with elbow flexed in 90° in front of its face or its body.
8. Present body part Subject exposes one particular body part to the other, by orienting its body
appropriately. Subject can present different body parts (including back, belly,
rear, neck, penis, head, side) using different postures. This occurs in three
main positions: while seated, standing, or lying down rigidly (subject is lying
down on the belly or on the back in front of the other, not moving, exposing
body part). At least 25 different varieties of this signal were recorded (e.g.
present back seated arms relaxed, present back seated one arm up, present
back seated two arms up, present back lying on belly, etc.).
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10. Somersault Subject jumps and makes a forwards or backwards salto/ flip.
11. Swing body Subject moves its body in quick movements in front of other: swinging its
body from side to side, seated, arms relaxed.
12. Throw arm towards* Subject extends and throws arm (arm extended) with hand open, palm facing
down, towards the other in a brief, quick movement.
13. Throw body towards Subject throws its upper body in direction of other, with two hands and arms
stiff, thereby hitting the ground or support.
14. Throw hand towards Subject ‘throws’ one hand towards the other in a brief movement, with hand
(hand fling)* open, palm facing down, no movement of arm.
Tactile gestures
15. Embrace Subject puts one arm or both arms around the body of the other, dorsally (by
the back) or ventrally (by the front).
16. Grab body part Subject grabs a body part of the other with its hand or feet, without pulling
body part. The subject can hold the body part briefly (<1s) or longer (>1s).
Body parts include: top of the head, arm, hand, penis, tail, hips.
17. Hit/ slap body part Subject hits a body part of the other with a flat hand, in a quick movement
(<1s). Body parts include: top of the head, limb, back, hand, tail.
18. Put body part on other Subject places its hands or feet gently on a body part of other (>1s). Body
parts of others include tail, arm, top of the head, back.
Audible gestures
19. Kick object Subject jumps in the air and stamps once on an object (e.g. cage) with two
feet.
20. Shake object Subject holds and shakes an object or other support (cage) with its hands or
with its hand and feet.
21. Slap object Subject hits/slaps the ground or an object (e.g. cage) with one or two hands.
Production details
We explored the production details of gesture types and signal categories (visual, tactile and
audible) in relation to signaller characteristics (age and sex; see Table 2) and production context. We
found that males had a tendency to produce more different signal types compared to females (Median
±IQR (interquartile range) males vs females = 7 ±7 vs 2 ±3, respectively: Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test:
Nmales = 7, Nfemales = 5, Z = -1.802, p = 0.0715), and in particular that they produced more tactile signal
types compared to the females (Median ±IQR males vs females = 3 ±2 and 1 ±1, respectively: Wilcoxon-
Mann-Whitney test: Z = -2.277, p = 0.043). Correspondingly, the males made more frequent use of
tactile body signals compared to females (Median ±IQR males vs females = 4 ±8 / 120 min vs 1 ±1 /
120 min, respectively: Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test: Z = -2.655, p = 0.008), although their overall
frequency of signalling was comparable to that of females (Median ±IQR males vs females = 24 ±23/120
min vs 7 ±23/120 min, respectively: Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test: Z = -0.976, p =0.329). These effects
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were not found for the other two categories, i.e. the use of visual only and audible body signals was
similar across sexes (frequency of visual signals: Median ±IQR males vs females= 18 ±21/120 min vs
6 ±22/120 min, respectively: Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test: Z = -0.570, p = 0.568; frequency of audible
signals: Median ±IQR males vs females = 0 ±0/120 min vs 0 ±1/120 min, respectively: Wilcoxon-Mann-
Whitney test: Z = 0.748, p = 0.454). Regarding the effect of signaller’s age on signal production, we
found that the frequency of signalling and total number of different signal types used did not differ
between age categories (WilcoxonMann-Whitney tests: Nyoung= 5, Nold = 4, Frequency of signalling:
Median ±IQR young vs old = 7 ±23/120 min vs 14 ±21/120 min, respectively: Z = 0.861, p = 0.389;
number of different signal types: Median ±IQR young vs old = 2 ±3 vs 2 ±3, respectively: Z = 0.135, p
= 0.893).
Whether or not there was variation in production context per gesture type could only be reliably
determined for eight of the total of 20 intentionally produced gesture types: the other 12 gesture types
were produced fewer than five times across different individuals, not providing enough statistical power
to determine the (potential) diversity of contexts in which these gestures may be produced. Inspection
of the eight intentional gesture types for which this could be determined revealed that two manual
gesture types (‘throw arm towards’ and ‘throw hand towards’) and four non-manual gesture types (‘grab
body part’, ‘hit body part’, ‘put body part on other’ and ‘present body part’) were produced flexibly, i.e.
in both the play context and at least one additional behavioural context (i.e. agonism or grooming, with
‘present body part’being produced in two contexts additional to play, i.e. groom and sexual).
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Table 4. Signal instances per individual. All signal instances were accompanied by a minimum 2 markers of intentionality. x/y means that the signallers’ production of x instances (of
the total of y) of a particular signal type was (i.) preceded by audience checking, (ii.) followed by response waiting, and (iii.) was adjusted to the attentional state of the recipients, in
addition to (prerequisite) use of marker ‘social use’ and potential use of marker goal-directedness in cases of communicative failure (see text for details). ID: individual; F: female; M:
male; Y: young individual; O: old individual, *: manual gesture type.
Signal types
Visual Tactile Audible
Shake object
Head shake
Swing body
Kick object
Slap object
Embrace
Head bob
Crouch
Age
cate-
Salto
Hop
ID Sex gory
Chipie F O 1/1 29/31 30/32 2/2
Many F Y 31/33 1/1 0/1 32/35 2/3
Chipse F Y 1/1 7/8 2/2 2/2 1/1 1/1 14/15 6/6
Tips M Y 1/1 4/5 5/5 1/1 3/3 1/1 15/16 6/6
Julie F Y 2/2 2/2 1/1
Gofrette F O 2/2 5/5 7/7 2/2
Coet M Y 1/1 1/1 9/10 6/6 1/1 2/2 2/3 22/24 7/7
Mailette F Y 6/6 0/1 6/7 1/2
Belle F Y 1/2 1/1 2/3 2/2
Kamel M Y 1/1 2/2 1/1 4/4 10/10 0/1 3/4 1/1 4/5 1/2 27/31 9/10
Zunie F Y 1/1 1/1 11/11 2/3 2/2 1/1 18/19 6/6
Joly F O 7/7 1/1 8/8 2/2
Roby M Y 3/3 1/1 1/1 20/20 1/1 1/1 1/1 28/28 7/7
Pirate M O 1/1 13/13 6/6 1/1 21/21 4/4
George M Y 2/4 2/3 1/1 5/8 3/3
Carillon M Y 1/1 1/1 1/1
Elky M Y 2/2 1/1 5/5 1/1 0/1 6/6 1/1 7/8 3/3 2/2 5/7 1/1 2/2 36/40 12/13
Total nb 2/2 1/1 2/2 10/10 4/4 6/7 3/3 157/167 1/1 1/1 1/1 39/41 1/1 4/5 8/8 8/9 15/18 8/10 2/2 0/1 3/3 275/297
Total ID 1/1 1/1 2/2 4/4 3/3 6/7 2/2 16/16 1/1 1/1 1/1 8/8 1/1 2/3 3/3 5/6 6/6 5/5 2/2 0/1 2/2
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Discussion
In this study, we investigated whether the intra-specific body signals of a group of captive
redcapped mangabeys qualified as intentional gestures, and whether these monkeys used free manual
gestures during their communication as well. The mangabeys produced a total of 21 body signal types
that were socially directed at particular recipients, mechanically ineffective, and led to a voluntary
response in the recipients. Of these, 20 were classified as intentionally produced gesture types (Table
3) as in the majority of cases these fulfilled the following hallmarks of intentionality: they were (i.)
adjusted to the attentional state of the recipient, (ii.) preceded by audience checking, (iii.) followed by
response waiting, and (iv.) followed by signs of persistence and elaboration in cases of communicative
failure (see Table 4). In particular, in terms of attentional state adjustment, the mangabeys used tactile
or audible gestures more frequently than visual gestures in situations with inattentive recipients
compared to attentive recipients, and in terms of goal persistence they repeated their initial signal if this
had been followed by a negative response from the recipient (i.e. no behaviour change at all), whereas
they elaborated or repeated their initial signal if this had been followed by a positive, yet unsatisfactory,
response from the recipient (i.e. a non-intended behaviour change). The monkeys thus appeared to
communicate in a goal-directed manner, and, together, our results provide convergent evidence that red-
capped mangabeys are proficient at intentional gestural communication and use this to communicate
with conspecifics. As such, our results strengthen the findings of two recent studies that brought to light
intra-specific intentional gesture use in two other catarrhine monkey species, wild bonnet macaques
(Gupta & Sinha, 2019) and captive olive baboons (Molesti et al., 2020). The study on bonnet macaques
found evidence for ‘response waiting’ and ‘goal persistence’ (see Table 1 for definitions) during the
gestural communication between already attentive communicative partners, and the study on olive
baboons found evidence for ‘audience checking’, ‘attentional state adjustment’, and ‘response waiting’
(see Table 1). However, neither of these studies investigated the combined use of the markers ‘social
use’, ‘adjustment to recipient’s attentional state’ and ‘goal persistence’ in their study species: these have
recently been argued to be the three markers that (at least) need to be used simultaneously by one animal
species if one is to invoke first order intentional communication in this species (Liebal et al., 2013;
Townsend et al. 2016; Graham et al., 2019). Our study provides such evidence and therefore clearly
shows that, indeed, the evolutionary roots of intentional communicative strategies can be dated back to
approximately 30 My ago (cf. Gupta & Sinha, 2019; Molesti et al., 2020).
Whether or not this conclusion is strengthened by the fact that in our study we do not only
provide evidence for the combined use of the markers social use, attentional state adjustment, and goal
persistence, but also for audience checking and response waiting during the communicative interactions,
remains debated. Like any of the markers of intentionality, audience checking and response waiting may
carry little weight as markers of intentionality on their own, but in combination with all other markers
they certainly contribute to the evidence that these animals communicate intentionally (Liebal et al.
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2013; Townsend et al., 2016; Graham et al. 2019). The only marker that we did not find any evidence
for in the current study was the use of gaze alternation. This is not surprising, because this marker is by
definition only found in triadic communicative contexts (see Table 1), and the majority of
communicative interactions across adult primates occur as non-triadic communicative events (Hurford,
2007; Liebal et al. 2013). Consequently, in gesture studies the capacity for gaze alternation is often
studied experimentally in trained ‘food requesting’ paradigms between primate subjects and human
experimenters (e.g. Leavens et al., 2004). This experimental setup has recently also been used in the red-
capped mangabeys, who were found to alternate their gaze between a preferred food item and the
experimenter whilst producing their (trained) requesting gestures (Aychet et al. 2020). Although this
shows that these animals are capable of gaze alternation in such experimental situations, it is possible
that the display of gaze alternation may have been affected by experimental training in this study (see
e.g. olive baboons: Bourjade et al., 2015), and studying this in more naturally occurring intraspecific
communicative interactions will reveal more about these primates’ natural capacity for this behaviour.
A more natural communicative context in which gaze alternation has been reported to occur in
concordance with naturally occurring vocal signalling in this same study population concerned the
emission of the Un (+ Hu) vocalisation in the ‘recruiting for help’ context during agonistic encounters
with conspecifics (Bouchet et al. 2010). Signallers directed these vocalisations at a particular group
member, whilst alternatively glancing back and forth between this individual and their opponent
(Bouchet et al., 2010), but unfortunately it was not investigated whether the other markers of
intentionality applied to this signal as well. Whether or not these monkeys also accompany their
intentionally produced gestures by gaze alternation in the presence of an external entity with the possible
aim of directing a conspecific recipients’ attention to it, is not yet answered and should be further
investigated. Such studies could reveal more about this primate’s capacity for intentional triadic
communication, which has been related to human’s complex communicative capacity of informing
others about external objects or events in their environment (Hurford, 2007). One possible candidate for
such a study would be the ‘tail arched over back’ posture, a body signal that we did not observe during
our study but which has been reported to occur during predator encounters and/or other major
disturbances in an earlier study on the red-capped magabeys (Bouchet et al., 2010) and in two subspecies
of the closely related sooty mangabey (Cercocebus atys lunulatus: S. Waasdorp, pers. comm;
Cercocebus atys atys: A. Mielke, pers. comm., pers. obs.). Whether or not this body posture is produced
intentionally and is accompanied by gaze alternation is not yet clear, but could be easily investigated
further.
But even when these monkeys show gaze alternation as the final marker of intentionality, which
would provide the rigorous proof of intentional (gestural) communication in one single monkey species
that is needed (Liebal et al. 2013; Townsend et al., 2016; Graham et al. 2019), more recently the validity
of checking for the use of markers of intentionality as evidence for intentionality of communication has
91
actually been questioned as a whole, i.e. in particular when put in the context of studying human
language evolution (Graham et al., 2019). A first issue revolves around the validity of each single marker
of intentionality and the unsystematic use of these across gesture studies. To counter this, it has been
suggested that studies on intentionality of communication should at least consistently use one uniform
methodology, ideally including multiple, and preferably all, markers when assessing intentionality of
signal use, and applying these to all signal instances: this is what we did in the current study. A second,
more fundamental, concern is about the cognitive mechanisms underlying first order intentional
communication as indicated by a species’ use of the markers of intentionality during communication:
even when a species uses all markers simultaneously during its communicative attempts, the mere fact
that by using this method several hallmarks of intentional communication have now been found in
animals as distantly related as, for example, fish (Vail et al. 2013) casts doubts on the relevance of this
methodology in light of the comparative approach towards human language evolution (Graham et al.
2019). Instead, it has been proposed to focus studies on intentional communication in relation to human
language evolution on second-order intentionality during communicative interactions, as second order
intentionality would, a priori, imply first order intentionality and second order intentional
communication lies at the heart of our own ostensive communicative strategy (cf. Graham et al. 2019).
For this, it would be necessary to show mental state attribution in signalling individuals. Studying this
in (semi-) natural conditions is not a trivial task, however, and the only systematic studies so far that
have explicitly studied mental state attribution during intraspecific communication focused on the vocal
communication of wild chimpanzees (Crockford et al. 2012; 2017) and two macaque species in captivity
(Cheney & Seyfarth, 1990), with results tentatively pointing to evidence for this capacity in the
chimpanzees but not the macaques.
However, taking these findings to conclude that ‘apes’ are capable of second order intentional
communication and ‘monkeys’ are not is still overly simplistic, as several studies have suggested that
the presence of communicative and cognitive complexity in an animal species may be linked to its
sociality and related socio-cognitive capacities (e.g. McComb & Semple, 2005; Freeberg et al. 2012;
Fröhlich & Hobaiter, 2018; Peckre et al. 2019), leading to large differences between species. For
example, compared to species living in relatively small and stable groups, species living in complex
social societies show larger repertoire sizes (e.g. Maestripieri 1999; McComb & Semple, 2005; Freeberg
et al. 2012; Pollard & Blumstein, 2012; Krams et al. 2012; Pika, 2017; Roberts et al., 2019), more
variation and flexibility in the communicative domain (Call & Tomasello, 1996; Cartmill &
Maestripieri, 2012; Bouchet et al., 2013; Roberts et al. 2019; Rebout et al., 2020), and may use more
advanced cognitive capacities during their communication, e.g. those also needed to deal with complex
social group life, such as perspective taking or ToM (Humphrey 1976; Crockford et al., 2012, 2017).
We therefore argue that studying this in a broader range of primate species with different socioecological
backgrounds is needed for a balanced comparative view on this topic. In mangabeys, who live in a
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relatively complex social environment based on a fission-fusion organisation (Bouchet et al. 2013;
Aureli et al. 2008), one could for example focus on the aforementioned ‘tail arched over back’ posture
produced during predator encounters and assess whether or not a complex audience effect applies to this
behaviour, e.g. only adopting or prolonging the duration of this behaviour in the presence of ignorant
others or others for whom the snake is out of their viewing range.
As mentioned, an additional direction that has been taken in the comparative approach towards
human language evolution is to study manual gesture use and its laterality (reviewed in Prieur et al.,
2018; Fagot et al., 2019). Although debated (see for example Fitch & Braccini, 2013), this idea is based
on the premise that studies on both humans and non-human primates found evidence for a right-hand
preference during manual gesture production, in combination with strong size asymmetry and neuronal
firing activity during the production of such gestures in particular neuroanatomical areas of the left
cerebral hemisphere that have been linked to speech production and perception in humans (Broca’s &
Wernicke’s areas) and in anatomically homologous areas in non-human primates (e.g. Meguerditchian
et al., 2010; Hopkins et al., 2012; Prieur et al., 2017; 2018; Fagot et al., 2019). The ground slapping
gesture by olive baboons is one particularly well investigated example supporting this idea
(Meguerditchian & Vauclair, 2006; Marie et al., 2018). Whether or not the production of naturally
occurring ‘free’ manual gestures (i.e. species-specific manual gestures that do not involve physical
interaction with a substrate or partner) is also governed by such left hemispheric dominance in monkeys
is not yet clear, possibly as a result of the fact that free manual gestures have so far been rarely
documented in monkeys (but see Molesti et al. 2020 for one example in olive baboons). In our study we
found evidence for the intentional production of four free manual gesture types in the natural
communication amongst red-capped mangabeys, with these gesture types being used in variable
frequencies by 11 of the 17 focal individuals (see Table 4 for details). A preliminary inspection revealed
that there did not appear to be any hand preference during their production, but it should be noted here
that we did not observe enough instances per gesture type and individual to formally analyse individuals’
hand preferences during the production of these gestures (for example by calculating the HI index cf.
Hobaiter & Byrne, 2013) and adding more data may tell a different story. In fact, in a systematic study
on manual laterality during an experimental fruit requesting paradigm between these same focal
individuals and human experimenters (Maille et al., 2013), these monkeys showed a right-hand
preference for the use of their trained pointing gestures (Maille et al, 2013). Whether or not these
(preliminary) contrasting results are attributable to the relatively few focal observation hours of the
current study and the fact that we did not systematically determine hand use, by the potential effect of
human training on behaviour during experimental tests (Bourjade et al., 2015; Leavens et al. 2019), or
by the recent idea that laterality of hand use may differ across behavioural contexts (Roberts et al., 2019)
is not yet clear and could be further investigated in this species. This could contribute valuable data to
further the debate on this topic in particular and human language evolution more broadly.
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Moreover, the fact that such free manual gestures are produced highly flexible in terms of
means-ends dissociation (Bruner, 1981) by some ape species, has been taken to suggest that such flexibly
produced free manual gestures formed the ‘starting point’ of human language evolution (e.g. Pollick &
de Waal, 2007; Cartmill & Maestripieri, 2012). This would imply that this capacity for flexible manual
gesture production appeared somewhere in the hominoid lineage (~ 17 Mya), but the comparative work
on more distantly related monkey species to support this idea has been lacking. In the current study we
found evidence for the flexible use of two of the four free manual gesture types and four tactile gesture
types: these signals were produced in both the play context and at least one additional behavioural
context. Yet, because a remarkable diversity of behavioural patterns from a variety of contexts is a
characteristic of play behaviour in several different primate species (Yanagi & Berman 2014; reviewed
in Byrne 2016), this finding may not be so surprising, and more data on the flexibility of use of all other
gesture types are needed. One finding of the present study that actually may be clarified with these
preliminary findings on flexibility of use is the relatively high proportion of tactile gesture use towards
attentive recipients: in such situations visual gestures would theoretically suffice and may be a more
conservative option, i.e. especially in aggressive agonistic contexts. As described above, tactile gesture
types were commonly produced in both the play context and another, more ‘formal’, context (agonism
or grooming). The only other tactile gesture type that was found in this species so far (‘embrace’)
occurred only in the play context, and was also mostly produced to attentive recipients. When initiating
play, it is highly relevant for a signaller that a recipient understands that its gesture is produced in a
playing context rather than in the more ‘formal’ context in which it is also commonly produced (e.g.
agonism). In several other primate species in which gestures to initiate play also take the form of tactile
gesture types that are also used in other contexts (e.g. rhesus macaques: Symons, 1974; bonobos and
chimpanzees: Palagi, 2006; Barbary macaques: Hesler & Fischer, 2007; siamangs: Liebal, 2004;
gorillas: Genty & Byrne, 2010), this is often achieved by producing additional signals such as a ‘play
face’ (van Hooff, 1972). In addition, in species where particular play signals accompanying tactile
gestures produced in the play context are not part of a species’ communicative repertoire, other subtle
signals may reveal to a recipient that the signaller ‘is only playing’. This for example includes the
absence of aggressive vocalisations and/or of piloerection that would normally accompany an aggressive
gesture in its more ‘formal’ context, producing the signals at a slower tempo and in more inhibited form
during play (Symons, 1974), or (non-intentionally) producing the signal with the left hand as opposed
to the right hand that may be used in the more ‘formal’ or ‘evolutionary urgent’ communicative
interactions concerning this gesture (e.g. Roberts et al., 2019). In most of these cases, being visible to a
recipient and thus producing gestures to attentive recipients, is paramount. Whether or not red-capped
mangabeys have particular play signals such as the play face, or show inhibition and/or lateralisation
during the production of signals produced in particular contexts is not yet clear, and is another interesting
topic for further studies in this species on the flexibility of (manual) gesture use and its laterality.
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Finally, with respect to the communicative repertoire of these animals, we can currently again
only provide a preliminary picture. The two hours of focal observations per individual were, of course,
by no means sufficient to describe a species’ entire repertoire (see e.g. Hobaiter & Byrne who described
that for the full description of the chimpanzee gestural repertoire a minimum of 15 hours of active
gesture time per individual were needed), and several gesture types in this study also did not fulfil the
often used requirement of having to have been used for an overall minimum of three times by at least
two individuals to be included in the repertoire (e.g. Liebal et al., 2004; Hobaiter & Byrne, 2011; Graham
et al., 2016: see Table 4). In addition, the animals lived in relatively small subgroups compared to their
wild counterparts, which may have impacted on their communicative behaviour, as this meant they had
a less complex social environment than their wild counterparts (Roberts et al., 2019). However, as the
four free manual gesture types actually were produced three or more times by at least two individuals in
our study and therefore can be considered part of these animals’ repertoire, we feel that a brief
comparative picture of manual gesture use in primates is in place here. Thus, the absolute number of
four manual gesture types reported for the mangabeys falls in between that found for captive ape species,
is relatively high when compared to other monkey species, but is low when compared to wild apes, in
particular chimpanzees, bonobos and gorillas (Figure 3). Especially when taking into account the
relatively few total observation hours of the present study (see Figure 3 for comparison with other
studies), it is likely that adding more video recordings of intra-specific interactions is going to reveal a
larger number of gesture types in these monkeys, including manual ones. This idea is supported by video
observations of several other intentionally produced signal types that were directed at focal individuals
by other individuals of the social groups, a method often used in gesture studies describing species’
repertoires (e.g. Liebal et al. 2004; Graham et al., 2016). These ‘received’ signals included ‘hang’
(subject hangs with two arms on a support in front of the other), ‘jump towards’ (subject jumps/ lunges
towards the other), ‘open arms’ (subject opens both arms while facing the other), and ‘mock-bite body
part’ (subject grabs body part of the other and puts it in its mouth: teeth touch, but no biting), which all
adhered to all markers of intentionality. Adding these gesture types to the preliminary gestural repertoire
found so far shows that (also) in terms of free manual gesture types the gesture repertoire of these red
capped mangabeys is likely to be larger than currently reported here and may fall somewhere between
that of the monkey species and apes that live in similarly complex social environments.
In sum, in this study we provide systematic evidence that these red-capped mangabeys use their
naturally occurring body signal types in flexible and intentional communicative ways, by showing
simultaneous adherence to at least five intentionality markers during their production, something that
was not earlier described for any other monkey species. Their preliminary intentional gesture repertoire
includes body postures, but also free movements of the hands and/ or arms. These monkeys appear to
produce their gestures flexibly, both in terms of behaviour (e.g. elaboration during goal persistence) and
context, and show potential for the use of gaze alternation during intraspecific gestural communication,
95
(intentional) triadic communication, and laterality of (manual) gesture use. Next to the fact that studies
on the vocal communication of these monkeys have indicated this species’ capacity for syntactic like
semantic vocal communication: Bouchet et al., 2010), we argue that red-capped mangabeys are a highly
interesting model species for further comparative studies in relation to human language evolution and
to include in systematic Primate Cognitive Battery Testing (Hermann et al., 2007; Schmitt et al., 2012).
The results of this study contradict claims that flexible and intentional communicative strategies
appeared in the primate lineage after the split of the hominoids from the other primates, about 18 My
ago (e.g. Pollick & de Waal 2007; Cartmill & Maestripieri, 2012: Chatterjee et al. 2009). In stark
contrast, and in concordance with recent findings on macaque and baboon species (Gupta & Sinha 2019,
Molesti et al. 2019), our results reveal that the origins of these precursors for language may date back to
approximately 30 My ago, i.e. at the start of the catarrhine primate lineage.
Figure 3. Bubble chart representing the number of gesture types (y-axis) in relation to total
bservation time (x-axis) found in several primate gesture studies. The size of the bubble represents
the absolute number of manual gesture types found in the represented study. The bubbles within the
boxes represent non-ape studies. */** indicates the study was done on (semi) wild subjects; all other
studies were done in captivity. B: bonobos (Pika 2007); B*: bonobos (Graham et al. 2016); BM: Barbary
macaques (Hesler & Fischer 2007); BtM: Bonnet macaques (Gupta & Sinha, 2019); C: chimpanzees
(Tomasello 2007); C*: chimpanzees (Hobaiter & Byrne 2011); C**: chimpanzees (Roberts et al. 2012);
G: gorillas (Pika 2007); G*: (semi-wild) gorillas (Genty et al. 2009); O: orangutans (Liebal 2007) ; O*;
orangutans (Knox et al. 2019); OB: Olive baboons (Molesti et al. 2020); RCM: red-capped mangabeys
(this study); S: siamangs (Liebal et al., 2004).
Funding: This study was funded by Fondation Fyssen in France and the Dr. J. L. Dobberke Stichting
voor Vergelijkende Psychologie of the Koninklijke Academie van Wetenschappen, the Netherlands.
Conflict of interest: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical approval: All applicable international, national, and/or institutional guidelines for the care and
use of animals were followed.
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Article 2
1. Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie animale et humaine) - UMR 6552, F-35000
Rennes, France
2. University of Pisa, Unit of Ethology, Department of Biology, Pisa, Italy
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/com0000252
Cette étude a fait l’objet d’une communication affichée au colloque de l’Association for The Study of
Animal Behaviour (ASAB), 26-28 Août 2019, Université de Konstanz, Allemagne ; au 32ème colloque
de la Société Francophone de Primatologie (SFDP), 2-5 Octobre 2019, Parc de Branféré, France ; aux
Journées Scientifiques de l’école doctorale Biologie-Santé (BS), 10-11 Décembre 2019, Angers, France.
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SYNTHESE DE L’ARTICLE 2
Contexte
Des observations récentes menées sur les grands singes (gibbons, orang-outans, bonobos) ont montré
que leurs expressions faciales pouvaient être accompagnées de marqueurs d’intentionnalité comme
l’adaptation à l’état attentionnel d’un receveur, ou l’attente d’une réponse de la part de ce dernier. Les
expressions faciales de nombreux singes non-hominoïdes ont été décrites, mais leur potentielle
intentionnalité reste quant à elle en question. Les gestes intraspécifiques des mangabeys à collier
semblant être intentionnellement produits, nous avons émis l’hypothèse que les expressions faciales
faisaient partie de la communication visuelle intentionnelle chez cette espèce.
Méthode
Nous avons observé 25 mangabeys à collier captifs, selon la méthode d’échantillonnage en focal, afin
de décrire leur répertoire d’expressions faciales. Nous avons ensuite cherché à savoir si ces expressions
faciales étaient communicatives, c’est-à-dire dirigées vers d’autres individus, et si elles étaient
intentionnelles. Nous avons alors décrit les contextes de production de ces expressions faciales, et avons
testé la présence ou l’absence de marqueurs comportementaux d’intentionnalité, semblables à ceux
utilisés pour l’étude de la communication gestuelle.
Résultats
Nous avons décrit 6 expressions faciales différentes chez les mangabeys à collier, correspondant à des
mouvements de la bouche, des sourcils et des oreilles, produites seules ou en combinaisons. Toutes ces
expressions étaient produites en contextes sociaux, mais certaines étaient également produites en
contexte non-social, comme les « lipsmacks » et les bâillements. Toutes les expressions décrites, excepté
les bâillements, pouvaient être produites conjointement à des marqueurs de communication
intentionnelle (directionnalité, « audience checking », sensibilité à l’état attentionnel du receveur,
attente d’une réponse, effet sur le comportement du receveur). Les expressions faciales de jeu « open
mouth » étaient les plus fréquemment associées à ces marqueurs.
Conclusion
Cette étude souligne la nature communicative des expressions faciales des mangabeys. Corroborant des
résultats obtenus chez les grands singes, les expressions de jeu sont fortement associées à des marqueurs
d’intentionnalité. Les présents résultats ouvrent la voie à de futures études s’intéressant à d’autres
indices comportementaux d’intentionnalité, comme la persistance ou l’élaboration de la communication.
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Facial displays in red-capped mangabeys (Cercocebus torquatus):
repertoire, social context, and potential intentionality
Juliette Aychet1*, Catherine Blois-Heulin,1, Elisabetta Palagi2, Alban Lemasson1,3
1. Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie animale et humaine) - UMR 6552, F-35000
Rennes, France
2. University of Pisa, Unit of Ethology, Department of Biology, Pisa, Italy
Abstract
Primate communication relies strongly on the visual modality, notably through the production of a wide
range of expressive facial signals. We investigated here the facial display repertoire of a relatively little-
studied cercopithecid species, red-capped mangabeys (Cercocebus torquatus), and questioned whether
their facial displays were dependent on social contexts and accompanied by indices of intentionality.
Although the dual intentional and emotional use of apes’ facial expressions has recently been suggested,
the question of whether monkeys produce facial expressions intentionally to communicate remains open.
We described six facial displays produced by captive red-capped mangabeys in social contexts. They
are based on movements of the mouth, eyebrows and ears, possibly graded in intensity and produced
independently or in combination. We showed that most of the facial displays were produced
preferentially in specific social contexts, and that repertoires varied with subjects’ characteristics,
highlighting the communicative function of these displays. Moreover, behavioral markers of
intentionality commonly used in gestural studies were found to accompany the production of some of
the facial signals observed. Particularly, playful “open mouth” appeared strongly associated with
intentionality indices, as previously noticed in ape species. All other facial displays, except yawns, did
not exhibit all defined intentional indices but were, at least, directed towards a recipient. Interestingly,
yawns presented different variants of intensity associated presumably with different social functions.
Altogether, these results emphasize the communicative function of red-capped mangabeys’ facial
displays, and provide a basis for further research on their intentional communication.
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Introduction
Primate communication strongly relies on the visual modality (Redican 1975; Liebal et al.,
2014a) through a variety of gestural and postural signals. Moreover, compared to other mammals,
primates produce a wide range of expressive facial movements, due to their complex facial musculature
(Burrows 2008; Diogo et al., 2009). Facial expressions can involve movements of the mouth and lips,
eyelids and eyebrows, forehead and ears (van Hooff 1967; Waller and Micheletta 2013). Substantial
variations are notable between primate genera and species regarding facial mobility (Santana et al,.
2014) and facial expression repertoires (Marler 1965; van Hooff 1967). Thus, the understanding of
visual communication in primate species needs precise descriptions of their facial expression repertoire
and the context of production as their communicative signals. Some authors include facial displays in
the gestural domain (e.g. Altmann 1962; Call and Tomasello 2007; Chalmers 1968a; Dube 2013; Hesler
and Fischer 2007; Hinde and Rowell 1962; Hostetter et al., 2001; Maestripieri 1997, 2005; Poss et al.,
2006; Wolfheim and Rowell 1972); whereas others consider facial displays as disentangled from
gestures due to differences in the definitions of signal intentionality (e.g. Byrne et al., 2017; Graham et
al., 2017; Genty et al., 2009; Hobaiter and Byrne 2011; Liebal et al., 2004b, 2006; Pollick and de Waal
2007; Roberts et al., 2014). Indeed, the intentional use of facial expressions in primates is still matter of
debate (Arbib et al., 2008; Hopkins et al., 2011; Slocombe et al., 2011).
Non-human primates seem to have a voluntary control of their facial movements, which is
required for the flexible use of facial expressions. Regarding neuroanatomical data from humans and
great apes, facial expressions are controlled by both voluntary and emotional pathways acting in parallel
within the facial motor system that differs from the motor system controlling limb movements (Cattaneo
and Pavesi 2014; Müri 2016; Sliwa et al., 2018; Sherwood et al., 2004, 2005). Moreover, some facial
expression asymmetries are associated with attention-getting calls in chimpanzees, suggesting voluntary
control of these facial movements (Hopkins et al., 2011; Reynolds-Losin et al., 2008). This possible
voluntary control may reveal that primates could use facial expressions intentionally as communication
signals.
The distinction between intentional behaviors and intentional communication was previously
addressed by Bretherton and Bates (1979) in their developmental studies in children, based on the
implication of social agents within intentional sequences of behavior. Then, the philosophical stance of
intentional communication as a goal-directed process was formulated by Dennett (1983), who defined
different degrees of intentionality. The first degree, as studied in animal communication, supposes that
an intentional signal would be controlled and produced voluntarily by a signaler and directed towards a
recipient in order to trigger the appropriate response by the receiver (Hobaiter and Byrne 2013; Roeder
and Gosset 2001). The goal-directedness discriminates intentional communicative signals from mere
informative signals, which convey messages without being voluntarily emitted by the signaler (Poggi
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and D’Errico 2012). One example of “informative signal” could be piloerection, which conveys
information about the individual’s internal state (e.g. Benedek and Kaernbach 2011; Dettling et al.,
1998) without appearing voluntarily emitted. Bard (1992) introduced Bates’ definition of intentional
communication to the study of primate communication, distinguishing intentional communication from
other intentional behaviors in orangutan mother-infant interactions. In the same line, several behavioral
indices of intentional communication inherited from child developmental studies were then applied to
non-human gestural studies to assess intentionality (see for reviews: Byrne et al., 2017; Leavens et al.,
2005, Liebal et al., 2014c; Schel et al., under review; Townsend et al., 2017). Townsend et al. (2017)
recently gathered these indices in a general framework implying three main criteria to attribute
intentionality to communicative signals: the signal has to be directed towards a recipient, produced in
order to reach a particular social goal, and has to be followed by a response from the recipient that is
consistent with the goal that is deduced for the signaler. This last criterion, related to the communicative
value of the signal (Altmann 1968; Green 1975; Marler 1967), would imply that the signal is followed
by a consistent change in the recipient’s behavior, consistency with signaler’s intention corresponding
to an acceptance or a refusal of signaler’s goal. Following this framework, appropriate behavioral
markers have thus to accompany the production of the signal so that it could be associated with
intentionality. These behavioral markers may have validity limitations to admit a signal’s intentionality,
since each of them can also be explained by unintentional processes, such as learning or changes in
signaler’s emotional state (Graham et al., 2019; Liebal et al., 2014b). It has been argued that the more
indices observed, the more we get confidence that the criteria are fulfilled and so that the signal might
be intentional (Schel et al., 2013), considering that several convergent indices are more likely to be
explained by a single cognitive mechanism (intentionality) rather than a series of lower-level cognition
explanations (Byrne and Bates 2006; Liebal et al., 2014b; Townsend et al., 2017). However, these
markers have to be used cautiously when studying animal signals, with due consideration to all possible
cognitive mechanisms underlying signal production.
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the goal-directedness of the signal, could be checked by monitoring response-waiting from the signaler
after it produced the display (Call and Tomasello 2007; Cartmill and Byrne 2010; Graham et al., 2017;
Hobaiter and Byrne 2011a; Liebal et al., 2004c; Molesti et al., 2019; Pika et al., 2003; Roberts et al.,
2012, 2014; Schel et al., under review; Tomasello et al., 1985, 1994). Moreover, goal-directedness is
recognized when the signaler stops producing the signal once the presumed goal has been reached, and
repeats and/or elaborates the signals in case the goal has not been met yet (Cartmill and Byrne 2007,
2010; Genty et al., 2014; Graham et al., 2017; Gupta and Sinha 2019; Hobaiter and Byrne 2011b;
Hostetter et al., 2001; Leavens et al., 2005; Liebal et al., 2004b, 2014b; Roberts et al., 2013).
Based on these indices, the intentionality of great apes’ communication gestures has been
admitted, notably from Tomasello et al. (1994)’s work on chimpanzee sensitivity to the receiver’s
attentional state when gesturing, followed by numerous field and lab studies on great apes (see reviews:
Byrne et al. 2017; Call and Tomasello 2007; Liebal et al., 2014c). Intentional gestures have been
explored recently in monkey species such as macaques (Macaca mulatta, tonkeana, and radiata,
Canteloup et al., 2015a, b; Gupta and Sinha 2019; Deshpande et al., 2018), olive baboons (Papio anubis,
Bourjade et al., 2013; Meunier et al., 2013; Molesti et al., 2019), red-capped mangabeys (Cercocebus
torquatus, Aychet et al., under review; Maille et al., 2012 ; Schel et al., under review), squirrel monkeys
(Saimiri sciureus, Anderson et al., 2010). However, studies of potential intentionality markers
accompanying the production of primates’ facial expressions are still rare.
Some observational studies seem to indicate the social-dependency of apes’ facial expressions.
The facial expressions of five gibbon species were shown to last longer when the signaler and the
receiver were facing each other in social contexts (Scheider et al., 2016). This social directedness and
sensitivity to receiver’s attentional state were also observed in orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) playful
facial expressions as they produce more intense play faces when facing a visually-attentive play partner
(Waller et al., 2015), and in bonobos (Pan paniscus), who display this facial expression more during
social than solitary play, and more in the presence of a visually-attentive recipient (Demuru et al., 2015).
Thus, the audience effect supports the communication function of the play faces in these species and
their social-directedness may reveal both their emotional and intentional use. Moreover, four of
siamangs’ (Symphalangus syndactylus) facial expressions, mostly performed in combination with tactile
or visual gestures, were found to be recipient-directed and accompanied by response waiting or
persistence (Liebal et al., 2004c). Assumptions of intentional facial displays were also made for
orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus), with the same recipient-directedness and goal-directedness indices found
for both gestures and facial expressions (Cartmill and Byrne 2010).
Although observations of apes suggest the dual intentional and emotional use of facial
expressions, the question whether monkeys produce facial expressions intentionally to communicate
remains open. To our knowledge, even though the facial expressions of numerous catarrhine and
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platyrrhine monkey species have been described (e.g. Macaca genus: Hesler and Fischer 2007, Hinde
and Rowell 1962, Maestripieri 2005, Partan 2002, Thierry et al., 2000; grey-cheeked mangabeys:
Lophocebus albigena, Chalmers 1968a; hamadryas baboons: Papio hamadryas, Dube 2013; Talapoins:
Miopithecus talapoin, Wolfheim and Rowell 1972; capuchin monkeys: Cebus apella, De Marco and
Visalberghi 2007, Visalberghi et al., 2006, Weigel 1979; and see comparative studies of Redican 1975;
van Hooff 1967), there is no evidence that non-hominoid monkeys produce facial expressions in
association with behavioral markers of intentional communication, as reported for gestures. The
investigation of this topic is necessary to fill the gap in understanding both monkeys’ facial signal
functions and the evolutionary history of intentional communication, which is of prime interest in the
study of language origin (Fröhlich et al., 2019, Hauser 1996; Hauser et al., 2002).
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Methods
Twenty-five red-capped mangabeys (Cercocebus torquatus), born in captivity and housed at the
Station Biologique de Paimpont (University Rennes 1, France), were involved in the present study.
Subjects were 10 females and 15 males living in social groups composed of two to 13 individuals
(Table 1), whose compositions have been stable for at least 8 months. Individuals were classified as
juveniles when they were less than 4 years old for females and less than 7 years old for males, based on
demographic data on a closely related species, i.e. grey-cheeked mangabeys (Lophocebus albigena)
(Chalmers 1968b; Deputte 1992; Gautier-Hion and Gautier 1976). Old adults were also differentiated
from middle-aged adults (Bouchet et al., 2012) if they were more than 15 years old, corresponding to
the median lifespan of mangabeys in captivity (based on 45 years data from our breeding facility on
grey-cheeked and red-capped mangabeys). Kinship was known for every individual in this colony.
Social groups were housed in outdoor-indoor enclosures of different sizes (from 8 to 26.4 m²
for indoor enclosures, 14.7 to 37.2 m² for outdoor enclosures, and height from 2.5 m to 4.4 m).
Individuals were free to move in and out at all time, using connecting tunnels. Indoor enclosure
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temperature was maintained at 22°C. Each enclosure was enriched with wood and metal perches,
completed with chains or hessian ribbons. The floor of the indoor enclosures was covered with straw
and sawdust, while the floor of the outdoor enclosures was covered with cement or bark. Mangabeys
were fed twice a day with fresh fruits and vegetables in the morning and with monkey chows in the
afternoon. Water was available ad libitum in their indoor enclosures.
Observations
A total of 52.22 hours of observations, distributed from the end of January to the end of June
2018, was collected in order to describe facial displays produced by red-capped mangabeys. We applied
the individual focal sampling method (Altmann 1974), recording focal videos of about 15 minutes per
session (mean session duration ±SE = 15.67 ±0.10 min) using a JVC Full HD GZ-RX615 camcorder.
Each individual was observed during 8 sessions, for a total of more than 2 hours (125.33 ±0.75 min).
These sessions were scheduled semi-randomly, so that all individuals were observed at all times of day
(from 9 am to 6 pm) and at all feeding periods (before first feeding / between two feedings / after second
feeding). The experimenter recorded her vocal comments during the video recordings notably to identify
individuals interacting with the focal subject.
Videos were then extracted to a computer for further video analyses. Software BORIS v.6.0.6
(Friard and Gamba 2016) was used to play videos and to code each event of facial display and each
social interaction involving the focal individual. Because monkeys were free to move, the focal
individual was sometimes out of sight for few seconds on the camera field. Data were further analyzed
taking into account the exact observation durations when the focal subject was visible.
Facial displays
All the events of facial display produced by the focal individuals were recorded. We defined as
“facial displays” all facial movements (i.e. mouth and lips, eyebrows, ears) that could be produced either
alone or combined with others, during social interactions or not (Liebal et al., 2014c; van Hooff 1967;
Waller and Micheletta 2013). We included all the facial displays that were produced by at least two
individuals, discarding idiosyncratic signals.
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The social contexts in which facial displays occurred were categorized according to the
signaler’s and recipient’s behavior observed during the 5 seconds before and the 5 seconds after the
signal was produced, using the same timeframe as defined for our analysis of behavioral markers of
intentionality. The context was considered “non-social” when the signal was not physically directed
towards another subject, or when the facial display was accompanied only by non-social behaviors. This
yielded nine categories of social and non-social different contexts: affiliative, grooming, alarm,
agonistic, submissive, play, sexual, unclear and non-social (Table 2). In order to assess the overall
importance of each of these nine categories and to weight contextual data accordingly in our analyses,
we also established a population-level time budget. To do so, we coded every 10 sec (scan sampling
method, Altmann 1974) the social and non-social contexts in which the focal individual was involved,
for one session per individual (totalizing 2250 scans for the population).
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Table 2. Contexts of production of facial displays
Context Associated behaviors
Affiliative Physical proximity between subjects (at less than one arm length), calm approach of
recipient or gentle physical contact
Alarm Production of alarm calls by the signaler (i.e. so-called Whoop-gobble and WaHoo
calls - Bouchet et al., 2010)
Social play Play-fight, rough or gentle (involving manual fighting, biting, gentle or rough
touching and grabbing), or locomotor-rotational play (play with few physical
contacts, but involving pursuits, jumps, saltos)
Unclear Behaviors accompanying the signal were not sufficient to classify the context, or the
interaction could be classified in several categories.
Non-social The signal was not physically directed towards another subject, or the facial display
was accompanied only by non-social behaviors, directed towards the environment
(foraging, manipulation, visual, olfactory or gustative exploration of the
environment) or self-directed (self-grooming, feeding, peeing or defecation, sleep or
rest, solitary play).
Dominance relationships
Dominance relationships between subjects were determined to evaluate their effect on the
production of facial expressions. Dominance relationships were based on avoidance behaviors only (see
“contact rupture behaviors”: Baraud 2007), as physical aggressions were too rare to be used
systematically (Easley and Coelho 1991). All avoidance behaviors involving focal subjects were
analyzed. Avoidance was defined as turning away from another individual, avoiding an individual by
changing direction, avoiding contact with an individual by moving a body part away from the proximity
of another individual, fleeing an individual by walking or running in the opposed direction. The total
numbers of occurrences of these behaviors were adjusted for 120 minutes observation per focal
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individual. When at least 3 occurrences were observed for a dyad, we computed the percentage of
avoidance of subject A from subject B over the total number of avoidance behaviors between A and B
(Zumpe and Michael 1986). When this percentage was above 50%, subject A was considered
subordinate to subject B.
Using the framework proposed by Townsend et al. (2017), we evaluated whether facial displays
produced during dyadic interactions (see “prerequisite”) fulfilled the three intentionality criteria of being
(i) directed towards a recipient (“recipient-directed”), (ii) produced to reach a particular goal (“goal-
directed”), and (iii) if they produce a change in the recipient’s behavior (“followed by recipient’s
response”). Behavioral markers corresponding to these criteria and commonly used in gestural studies
were coded on a presence / absence basis for each occurrence of facial display (see details in Table 3).
Then, intentionality criteria were analyzed at the facial display-level based on the proportion of
occurrences accompanied by these behavioral markers (see the statistical analyses section). Some of the
markers relative to goal-directedness of signals were yet not included in the present framework, i.e.
persistence and elaboration (Cartmill and Byrne 2007; Leavens et al., 2005), because these markers
suppose that the observer is knowledgeable about signaler’s intention and were so not consistent with
this first study of red-capped mangabeys’ facial displays. In this line, changes in recipient’s behavior
that were directed to signaler were considered as estimates of consistent recipient’s responses to the
facial display.
Inter-observer reliability
To assess reliability of the video coding, two supplementary observers coded one random session per
individual, corresponding to 12.4% of the total duration of observation and 14.5% of the total number
of facial displays noted (77 occurrences). One observer coded the facial displays and the other coded
the intentionality markers and contextual variables. Cohen’s Kappa coefficients were computed (Siegel
and Castellan 1988), and good levels of agreement (Viera and Garrett 2005) were found for the
recognition of the facial displays and their variants (κ = 0.77, P < 0.001), all intentionality markers
(Directionality: κ = 0.94, P < 0.001; Audience checking: κ = 0.73, P < 0.001; Response waiting: κ =
0.69, P < 0.001; Attentive audience: κ = 0.66, P < 0.001; Response of receiver: κ = 0.73, P < 0.001) and
context categories (κ = 0.79, P < 0.001).
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Table 3. Behavioral markers used to assess intentionality of facial displays, based on criteria adapted
from Townsend et al. (2017)
(i.) Recipient- Directionality At least one of the following postural e.g. Schel et al., under
directed signal or physical markers of directionality review; Tomasello et al.,
accompanied the facial display: head 1985, 1994; Leavens and
or body is oriented towards the Hopkins 1998; Leavens et
recipient; a movement is produced in al., 2004a; Liebal et al,
the direction of the recipient; the 2004b, 2014b; Call and
signaler is approaching the recipient; Tomasello 2007
signaler and recipient are in physical
contact.
Audience During the 5 seconds preceding the e.g. Schel et al., under
checking production of the facial display, the review; Genty et al., 2009;
signaler looks in the direction of the Hobaiter and Byrne 2011
recipient (recipient is more or less
45° in front of the signaler’s face).
(ii.) Goal- Response The signaler maintains a look in the e.g. Schel et al., under
directed signal waiting direction of the recipient for at least review; Tomasello et al.,
1 second after the facial display was 1985, 1994; Pika et al.,
produced (recipient is more or less 2003; Liebal et al., 2004c;
45° in front of signaler’s face), Call and Tomasello 2007;
Cartmill and Byrne 2010;
Hobaiter and Byrne 2011;
Roberts et al., 2012, 2014;
Graham et al., 2017; Molesti
et al., 2019
while the recipient is visually e.g. Pika et al., 2003; Genty
attentive (signaler is more or less 45° et al., 2009
in front of recipient’s face).
(iii.) Signal Recipient’s Within the 5 seconds following the e.g. Liebal et al., 2004a, b,
followed by behavioral facial display, the receiver changes 2006; Roberts et al., 2014;
recipient’s change or his/her behavior compared to before Schel et al., under review
response signaling the signal, interacting socially with
the signaler or producing a
communication signal (vocalization,
gesture or facial expression) directed
towards the signaler.
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Statistical analyses
Given our sample size, non-parametric statistics were used for data analyses. All tests were two-
tailed and alpha-level was set at 0.05. We used R. 3.5.0 software (R Core Team 2018) to run all statistical
tests. The number of statistical units for each test is stated in the result section using the letter “N”.
First, we tested the effects of individual characteristics on the repertoire of facial displays. We
analyzed sex and age effects on the production of facial displays using non-parametrical model based
on permutation ANOVA (using package {lmPerm} on R.3.5.0). Models included sex and age categories
as fixed factors and were all run ten times, from which average p-values were computed for each fixed
factor. When homoscedasticity of variances was not verified, as for the total number of facial displays,
the number of “open mouth fully” and yawns of second and third types, age and sex effects were
analyzed separately using non-parametrical univariate tests. Kruskal-Wallis one-way analyses of
variance by ranks and post-hoc Mann-Whitney tests were used to compare numbers of facial displays
produced between age categories and Mann-Whitney tests were used to compare numbers of facial
displays produced between males and females.
Second, the social use of facial displays was evaluated based on the contexts in which signals
were produced. The number of occurrences in each context was weighted based on the general time-
budget (Nonsocial context typically representing 83.29% of total time; Affiliative: 2.40%; Agonistic:
0.53%; Alarm: 0.22%; Grooming: 5.82%; Play: 0.62%; Sexual: 0.09%; Submissive: 2.13%; Unclear:
4.89%). Thus, the weighted frequencies were compared between social and non-social contexts using
Wilcoxon signed rank tests, and p-values were adjusted for multiple comparisons using “False
Discovery Rate” (FDR) method, controlling the proportion of false significant p-values (Noble 2009).
Then, the weighted frequencies of facial displays produced by subjects were compared between the
different context categories using Friedman tests and post-hoc Wilcoxon signed rank tests, completed
by FDR correction. The same tests were used to analyze the effects of other contextual factors
corresponding to the relationship between the signaler and the recipient. We tested the effects of
dominance, kinship and age differences on the numbers of facial expressions produced, except for “ears
back” and “stick tongue out” for which the numbers of subjects producing them in dyadic interactions
were not sufficient (N<5).
Finally, to assess the intentionality of each type of facial displays, we computed the proportion
of occurrences observed in social contexts for which the criteria of intentionality were fulfilled. In order
to verify that the markers were not randomly associated to the facial displays, we tested whether the
distribution of the cumulative criteria of intentionality differed from a theoretical distribution using
Fisher’s exact test for count data. Moreover, to complete this assessment of intentionality based on the
presence / absence of behavioral markers, we also explored the social-dependency of facial signals by
testing if they were more produced in front of attentive than inattentive recipients. We computed the
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proportion of occurrences in a presence of a visually attentive audience, and compared it to a random
distribution using exact binomial tests.
Results
On a total of 531 occurrences of facial displays recorded, we described six different facial
displays, that had all been produced by at least five different signalers (Table 4). These facial displays
involved mouth, eyebrows or ear movements and were produced in combination or independently. Some
were clearly categorized and stereotyped whereas two of them, “open mouth” and “yawn”, seemed
graded in relation to their intensity. This potential gradation was reported as different variants of form
in the repertoire. We assume that the present repertoire of red-capped mangabeys’ facial displays is
complete at the population-level. Indeed, while the total number of hours of observation was quite low
compared to what may be needed to describe the entire gestural repertoire of a group (e.g. above “15
hours of active gestures or 150 full days of observation”: Hobaiter and Byrne 2011), the cumulative
number of described facial displays reached an asymptote (Molesti et al., 2019; Pika et al., 2005) at the
31st session of observation, as no new display was observed up to the final 200th session.
Individual characteristics affected facial display repertoires (Table 5). Sex had a significant
effect on the size of repertoires and numbers of facial displays produced, males producing more facial
displays than females (permutation model on repertoire size: Nmales = 15, Nfemales = 10, P = 0.022;
and Mann-Whitney test on number of facial displays produced: Z = -2.33, P = 0.007). Age had a
tendency to affect repertoire size (Njuveniles = 3, Nmiddle-aged = 14, Nold = 8, P = 0.053), as the
repertoire of old individuals was significantly smaller than the one of juveniles (P = 0.021) and middle-
aged adults (P = 0.033). Moreover, old individuals also had a tendency to produce fewer facial displays
than middle-aged adults (Mann-Whitney test: Z = 2.18, P = 0.087).
Analyses of data for each facial display separately showed that the numbers of occurrences
varied with age and sex of the signaler (Table 5). Juveniles produced significantly more “open mouth”
displays than middle-aged (Mann-Whitney test: Z = 2.66, P = 0.012) and old adults (Z = 2.67, P =
0.012). Furthermore, this age effect was found for both “open mouth fully” and “open mouth half”
displays. Juveniles produced “open mouth half” more frequently than did middle-aged (permutation
model: P < 0.001) and old adults (P < 0.001), and tended to produce “open mouth fully” more frequently
(Mann-Whitney test, comparing juveniles to middle-aged: Z = 2.20, P = 0.077; juveniles to old adults:
Z = 1.95, P = 0.077). However, numbers of “open mouth” did not differ significantly between sexes
(open mouth fully: Mann-Whitney test, Z = -1.07, P = 0.284; open mouth half: permutation model, P =
0.120).
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Table 4. Facial displays of red-capped mangabeys and sample size. Nb: Number of occurrences;
N: Number of signalers.
Stick tongue out - Signaler sticks his/her tongue out and retracts it 15 9
briefly (not repeated).
We found no effect of age and sex on the production of yawns as a whole (permutation model,
sex effect: P = 0.132; age effect: P = 0.126), but these individual characteristics affected differently the
production of variants of yawns. Although yawns of the first type were not affected by age and sex of
subjects (sex effect: P = 0.727; age effect: P = 0.385) (Table 5), males produced significantly more
yawns of the second type than did females (Mann-Whitney test: Z = -2.68, P = 0.007). Moreover,
subjects’ age and sex had both an effect on the production of yawns of the third type, as middle-aged
males produced this display more frequently than did other individuals (Mann-Whitney tests, comparing
males to females: Z = -3.039, P = 0.002; middle-aged to juveniles: Z = -2.12, P = 0.034; old adults to
juveniles: Z = -1.42, P = 0.156; middle-aged to old adults: Z = 1.769, P = 0.077).
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Table 5. Facial displays produced depending on individual characteristics. N: Number of subjects; n: Number of subjects of each age and sex category,
which produced the facial display; *: Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance by ranks and Mann-Whitney tests; others: non-parametrical mixed model
based on permutation ANOVA. a and b indicate respectively significant age and sex effects (P ≤ 0.05).
Sex and age N Reper- Median numbers of facial display occurrences ±IQR (n)
groups toire Total* Open Open Open Raise Ears Lip- Stick Yawn - Yawn Yawn Yawn
size (b) mouth – mouth mouth eye- back smack tongue All Type 1 Type 2* Type 3*
(a+b) All* fully* half brows out (b) (a+b)
(a) (a) (a)
Males 15 5 ±2 22.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.95 0.00 2.86 0.00 10.40 1.91 0.95 5.09
±33.89 ±4.73 ±0.92 ±4.73 ±2.97 ±0.98 ±4.86 ±0.98 ±11.79 ±3.91 ±3.67 ±8.58
(6) (4) (6) (8) (6) (14) (6) (14) (10) (8) (13)
Females 10 3 ±4 10.04 0.48 0.00 0.48 0.48 0.00 4.84 0.00 0.97 0.97 0.00 0.00
±10.86 ±2.48 ±0.00 ±1.98 ±1.23 ±0.00 ±3.57 ±0.97 ±5.30 ±4.35 ±0.00 ±0.76
(5) (1) (5) (5) (1) (9) (3) (5) (5) (0) (2)
Juveniles 3 4 ±4 43.52 38.58 13.85 24.13 1.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
±62.24 ±58.04 ±40.92 ±17.72 ±2.97 ±0.00 ±1.98 ±2.10 ±1.05 ±1.05 ±0.00 ±0.00
(3) (2) (3) (2) (0) (1) (1) (1) (1) (0) (0)
Middle- 14 5 ±2 18.78 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.95 0.00 3.83 0.96 10.45 1.93 0.48 5.38
aged ±22.34 ±2.16 ±0.00 ±1.87 ±2.35 ±1.20 ±4.61 ±0.99 ±13.36 ±4.38 ±4.18 ±10.03
(6) (2) (6) (8) (5) (14) (8) (13) (10) (7) (11)
Old adults 8 3 ±3 8.38 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.94 0.00 3.98 0.96 0.00 0.48
±9.74 ±0.74 ±0.00 ±0.74 ±1.74 ±0.73 ±4.76 ±0.00 ±5.75 ±3.44 ±0.00 ±4.58
(2) (1) (2) (3) (2) (8) (0) (5) (4) (1) (4)
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Individual characteristics did not affect the production of the other facial displays, as age and
sex had no significant effects on the numbers of “ears back” (permutation model: age effect: P = 0.432;
sex effect: P = 0.951), “lipsmack” (age effect: P = 0.278; sex effect: P = 0.820), “raise eyebrows” (age
effect: P = 0.862; sex effect: P = 0.603) or “stick tongue out” (age effect: P = 0.284; sex effect: P =
0.959) (Table 5).
Figure 2. Facial displays produced by red-capped mangabeys in relation to non-social and social
contexts. Post-hoc Wilcoxon signed rank tests: capital letters (A, B) indicate significant differences with
other contextual categories (P ≤ 0.05).
All facial displays were produced in social contexts, but lipsmacks, “stick tongue out” and
yawns were also observed in non-social contexts. Lipsmacks were produced significantly more in social
than non-social contexts (Wilcoxon signed rank test: N = 23, V = 30.5, P = 0.003), but this was not
significant for “stick tongue out” (N = 9, V = 7, P = 0.124), and yawns of second (N = 8, V = 18, P =
1.000) and third types (N = 15, V = 61, P = 0.978). However, yawns of first type were produced
significantly more in non-social than social contexts (N = 15, V = 102.5, P = 0.002). All other facial
displays were produced exclusively in social contexts.
123
Moreover, the different facial displays were associated with particular social contexts (Figure 2)
(Friedman tests: open mouth (all): N = 11, X2 = 38.59, P < 0.001; open mouth fully: N = 5, X2 = 35.69,
P < 0.001; open mouth half: N = 8, X2 = 38.59, P < 0.001; raise eyebrows: N = 13, X2 = 58.60, P <
0.001; ears back: N = 7, X2 = 25.14, P = 0.001; lipsmack: N = 23, X2 = 54.95, P < 0.001; yawns (all):
N = 19, X2 = 81.129, P < 0.001; yawns of first type: N = 15, X2 = 84.58, P < 0.001; yawns of second
type: N = 8, X2 = 34.66, P < 0.001; and yawns of third type: N = 15, X2 = 60.21, P < 0.001), except for
“stick tongue out” (N = 9, X2 = 13.61, P = 0.092), for which contexts of production were unclear.
We also evaluated contextual effects of the relationships between signaler and recipient. We
found that neither dominance relationship nor kinship affected the numbers of any of the facial
expressions produced during dyadic interactions (Wilcoxon signed rank tests: Dominance relationship:
5 < N < 18, 5 < V < 38, P = 1.000; Kinship: 5 < N < 18, 1 < V < 65, P > 0.375). Age difference between
individuals influenced the production of lipsmacking as it was emitted more frequently towards older
individuals than towards same-age subjects (N = 18, V = 12.5, P = 0.039). Age difference between
signaler and recipient had no significant effect on all the other types of facial expressions (5 < N < 13,
2 < V < 34, P > 0.11).
All the facial displays of our repertoire, except yawns, were in some cases associated with the
behavioral markers of all criteria of intentionality. These markers were indices of social-directedness
(i.e. physical directionality and/or audience checking), goal-directedness (i.e. response waiting towards
an attentive recipient) and change in recipient’s behavior. However, distributions of these behavioral
markers differed depending on the facial displays produced in social contexts (Figure 3). These
distributions differed significantly from a random theoretical distribution for “open mouth” (all variants
summed: N = 138, P = 0.001), “open mouth fully” (N = 64, P < 0.001), “open mouth half” (N = 74, P <
0.001), “lipsmack” (Fisher’s exact test: N = 81, P < 0.001), yawns (all types summed: N = 98, P <
0.001), as well as for the third type of yawns (type 1: N = 5, P = 0.211; type 2: N = 14, P = 0.211; type
3: N = 63, P < 0.001). The highest level of association with intentional cues was for “open mouth fully”
and “half open” displays that were generally accompanied by markers of all criteria of intentionality
(95/138 occurrences). The distribution of the cumulative behavioral markers did not differ from a
random distribution for “raise eyebrows”, “ears back”, and “stick tongue out”. Lipsmacks and yawns
were sparsely or never displayed in association with markers of goal-directedness (20/81 occurrences
for lipsmacks, and 2/98 occurrences for yawns). However, lipsmacks were mainly produced in the
direction of a recipient (71/81 occurrences), whereas all types of yawns seemed disentangled from
dyadic interactions (85/98 occurrences non directed).
Finally, we found that “open mouth” and “raise eyebrows” were mainly displayed in the
presence of a visually attentive recipient (Exact binomial tests: open mouth (all): N = 134, P < 0.001;
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open mouth fully: N = 64, P < 0.001; open mouth half: N = 70, P < 0.001; raise eyebrows: N = 19, P <
0.001), and that yawns of second and third type were produced less in the presence of a visually attentive
recipient (yawns (all): N = 88, P < 0.001; yawns of second type: N = 12, P = 0.010; and third type: N =
59, P < 0.001), and it was a tendency for yawns of first type (N = 5, P = 0.063) (Figure 4). We found
no significant difference with a theoretical distribution for “ears back” (N = 4, P = 0.188), “lipsmack”
(N = 64, P = 1.000), and “stick tongue out” (N = 5, P = 1.000).
125
Discussion
This study explored the repertoire of six facial displays of a captive population of red-capped
mangabeys, and tested whether these displays were produced socially and accompanied by indices of
intentional communication. This preliminary assessment of first-order intentionality in mangabeys’
facial displays was based on behavioral markers similar to those used in gestural studies, to evaluate
whether signals were (i) directed towards a recipient, (ii) produced in order to reach a specific goal and
(iii) led to a change in the recipient’s behavior (Townsend et al., 2017). The social condition of
mangabeys’ facial displays, as well as the effects of individual characteristics on the repertoire, supports
their communication function. The playful “open mouth” displays were produced exclusively in social
contexts and in most cases in the direction of an attentive recipient, with all defined markers of
intentional communication. We discuss below the significance of these results regarding the potential
intentionality of these displays, given the current limitations of the behavioral method used to assess
first-order intentionality in animal communication (Graham et al. 2019). Although other cognitive
mechanisms may explain our observations, the present results constitute a first step to address the
potential intentionality of red-capped mangabeys’ facial displays, particularly the “open mouth”. While
not meeting criteria for goal-directed signals for all occurrences, other facial displays (“raise eyebrows”,
“ears back”, lipsmacks and “stick tongue out”) except yawns were at least recipient-directed in most
cases. Finally, yawns seemed not associated with dyadic communication, and thus did not fulfill the
defined criteria for intentional communication. Interestingly, these displays presented different variants
of intensity, which were presumably associated with different functions.
We described six facial displays produced by red-capped mangabeys, which involve movements
of the ears, eyebrows or mouth, and can be produced in combination or independently one from the
other. One noticeable point of the present repertoire is the description of unitary ear displays used
socially by red-capped mangabeys. While non-human primates’ ear musculature is controlled by facial
nerves (Müri 2016), few studies of facial displays describe ear movements (but see in rhesus and long-
tailed macaques, Macaca mulatta and fascicularis : Chance et al., 1977; Hinde and Rowell 1962; Partan
2002). Although most facial displays of the repertoire are discrete, we distinguished variants for two of
them, corresponding to different intensities of mouth displays. The repertoire size and this possible
gradualness of the morphology of some facial displays suggest that red-capped mangabeys’
communication relies strongly on complex visual cues (Dobson 2009; Freeberg et al., 2012).
Thus, the “open mouth” displays, highly related to play contexts, appeared graded. Some facial
displays are indeed graded signals that can be associated with different motivations of the signaler
(Marler 1965; Parr et al., 2005; Preuschoft and van Hooff 1996; Waller and Micheletta 2013). In
primates, the variants “open mouth fully” and “half” have been largely described as playful facial
displays ( Chevalier-Skolnikoff 1994; van Hooff 1967). Moreover, subjects’ age influenced the
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production of “open mouth fully” and “half”, as younger subjects were involved in playful interactions
more frequently and were possibly more emotionally involved in play than adults (Demuru et al., 2015).
Although primate gestures are used in variable contexts (Byrne et al., 2017; Call and Tomasello 2007;
Hobaiter and Byrne 2013; Liebal et al., 2014c), the fact that facial displays are more context-specific
allows us to hypothesize that their function is to help elucidate the meaning of associated signals used
in multimodal communication. These facial displays may act as “metacommunicative signals” (Altmann
1967; Bateson 1955), notably because play might involve agonistic-like gestures (Demuru et al., 2015;
Palagi 2008; Waller and Cherry 2012).
Red-capped mangabeys generally produced “open mouth fully” and “open mouth half” in
association with all previously defined behavioral markers of intentionality, and significantly more in
situations when the receiver was visually attentive. Therefore, our results on red-capped mangabeys’
directed “open mouth” are consistent with previous observations of great apes. Bonobos’ (Pan paniscus:
Demuru et al., 2015) and orangutans’ (Pongo pygmaeus: Waller et al., 2015) homologous facial displays
were suggested to be dependent on audience attentional state, indicating that these facial expressions are
not an automatic response to play.
However, we should be careful before drawing the conclusion that these “open mouth” displays
are produced intentionally, given some alternative explanations to audience effect. For instance, the
production of “open mouth” preferentially in front of an attentive recipient could be the result of a learnt
discrimination. Individuals may be more likely to produce a facial display in these conditions because
they have learnt that seeing the face of a recipient is necessary to obtain a response from their signal
(Graham et al., 2019). Moreover, the social use of “open mouth” and the sensitivity to the recipient’s
attentional state cannot rule out an emotional-based production of these displays. Eye gaze is an
emotional stimulus in primates (Emery 2000), and arousal is prone to be higher in the presence of others
compared to alone (Zajonc 1965). Thus, these factors could induce changes in the signaler’s emotional
state, resulting in the production of the facial expressions. Besides, observations in apes suggest that the
production of play faces has a strong emotional component. This expressions can be observed during
bonobos’ (Pan paniscus) solitary play (Demuru et al., 2015), and the example of a female gorilla
(Gorilla gorilla) hiding her play face (Tanner and Byrne 1993) suggests that she was not able to inhibit
this facial display, as it is the case of humans experiencing intense emotions (Porter et al., 2012). We
found concomitant markers of other criteria of intentional communication (i.e. waiting for a response
from the signaler and recipient’s consistent behavioral response) accompanying red-capped mangabeys’
“open mouth”, but one particular limit of the present observations is that “response waiting” should be
cautiously interpreted as a goal-directedness marker per se (Graham et al., 2019; Liebal et al., 2014b).
As a first insight in the intentionality of facial displays in red-capped mangabeys, the present framework
about “goal-direction” did not include markers related to goal-dependent cessation of communication
or persistence and elaboration, because these aspects of signal’s “aboutness” require that the observer is
127
knowledgeable of the signal function and thus presumed signaler’s intention displaying it. Thus, we
must remain cautious when concluding about the possible intentionality of the signals studied, given
that criteria of recipient-directedness and goal-directedness were both assessed based on markers related
to visual attention only. Moreover, while analyzing intentionality at the signal-level, this study did not
address yet the question of inter-individual variability in intentional communicative facial displays. In
this sense, the present results will need to be supplemented by further investigations of the goal-
directedness of “open mouth fully” and “half”, which presumably corresponds to an invitation to play
or to maintain a playful interaction. We believe that a multimodal approach would be beneficial in this
regard, addressing goal-persistence by taking into account associated vocalizations and gestures.
Overall, there are current validity limitations in the behavioral method used to assess first-order
intentionality in animal communication (see the above-mentioned examples of other cognitive processes
possibly underlying the behaviors identified as intentionality markers). The framework proposed by
Townsend et al. (2017) has the advantage to be widely applicable to diverse species and communication
modalities, although it does not permit to conclude with certainty that signals are intentionally produced.
Graham and colleagues (2019) suggested some perspectives in light of this methodological problem,
such as experimentally address second-order intentionality (which implies mental-state attribution, see
Dennett 1983), or complete observational studies with valid measures of arousal during signal
production. Until such approaches are applicable, behavioral assessment of first-order intentionality still
permits to gather meaningful information, such as the present results, which we believe constitute a first
step in assessing the intentionality of red-capped mangabey facial displays, particularly for “open
mouth”.
Other facial displays “raise eyebrows”, “ears back”, lipsmacks and “stick tongue out” appeared
only partially accompanied by defined behavioral markers of intentionality. However, these displays
were at least recipient-directed in most of the cases, thus indicating their communicative function (Call
and Tomasello 1994; Leavens et al., 1996). Eyebrow raising and ears back were exclusively produced
in social contexts, i.e. agonistic and affiliative contexts respectively, and mostly directed to a visually
attentive recipient. Lipsmacks were produced more in social than non-social contexts, particularly in
affiliative and grooming situations, but not more in front of an attentive than an inattentive recipient, as
found for “stick tongue out”. While lipsmacks’ production was not dependent on recipient’s visual
attention, we may hypothesize that this signal can also be acoustically perceived (as the “audible
smacking sound” produced by macaques: Maestripieri and Wallen 1997; Maestripieri 2005), and
therefore visual attention would not be necessary. We note that most of the above-cited facial displays
described, except “stick tongue out”, were preferentially or exclusively produced in social contexts.
Lipsmacks were produced in affiliative and grooming contexts, as found for instance in olive baboons
(Papio anubis: Easley and Coelho 1991), but also in non-social contexts, especially during auto-
grooming. This enabled us to hypothesize that lipsmacking may be an automatic response to grooming
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actions and, as for non-social production of yawns, might indicate a prominent emotional component
driving the production of this facial display.
Yawns, as opposed to the other facial displays, seem to be disentangled from dyadic interactions,
as even in social contexts we found almost no signs of recipient-directed use. The high frequency of
yawns in non-social context is in agreement with the hypothesis that yawns are strongly linked to internal
states of the signaler (Deputte 1994). Moreover, regarding their production in social conditions, yawns
may have an informative function, for conspecifics, on the signaler’s emotional state during agonistic
and alarm contexts (Bolwig 1959; Deputte 1994). An interesting point concerning this particular display
lies in the relationship between its form and function, as red-capped mangabeys produced different types
of yawns, with regard to mouth opening and teeth uncovering, in different contexts. These variations
are known and characterized for grey-cheeked mangabeys (Lophocebus albigena: Deputte 1994), as
well as for macaque species (Macaca fascicularis: Deputte 1994; Zannella et al., 2017), geladas
(Theropithecus gelada: Palagi et al., 2009) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes: Vick and Paukner 2010).
Yawns of the first type, with mouth less open, were used only in non-social contexts and might
correspond to physiological regulators during transition between activity and resting or during feeding
anticipation (Deputte 1978). Some yawns of the second and third types, with mouth more open and teeth
more visible were associated with alarm calls, as described also for grey-cheeked mangabeys
(Lophocebus albigena: Deputte 1994), apparently because of high arousal and social tension. Moreover,
yawns of the third type were mainly produced in agonistic contexts, as visible canines are hypothesized
to play the role of threat or pre-threat (Altmann 1967; Redican 1975). Yawns of the third type were
produced more frequently by middle aged and old adult males, while individual characteristics did not
affect the production of yawns of the first type. In our sample, the males were not equally distributed in
the social groups, most of them living in all-male groups. However, as sex influenced some variants of
yawns and not the others, we assume that male group membership did not bias the analysis of the effect
of sex on facial display repertoire. These results on sex effects are consistent with the hypothesis of a
threat value of the yawns with visible canines (Leone et al., 2014; Zannella et al., 2017), particularly
because red-capped mangabeys exhibit an important sexual dimorphism in canine size that becomes
evident with sexual maturity (Deputte 1986; Hill 1974). This hypothesis is supported by similar sexual
differences of yawn production by macaque species (Macaca fuscata and tonkeana: Zannella et al.,
2017), taken that this difference was not found for primate species such as lemurs (Propithecus verreauxi
and Lemur catta: Zannella et al., 2015) or humans (Homo sapiens: Schino and Aureli 1989), with absent
or slight sexual dimorphism in canine-size. Moreover, the age effect on yawn production may be
associated with testosterone level changing with sexual maturity since testosterone was correlated with
yawn production in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta: Phoenix and Chambers 1982; Robinson et al.,
1975; Wallen and Goy 1977). The relationship between yawn morphological variability and function,
highlighted by the contexts of production and by the effect of individual characteristics, is in agreement
129
with previous results for geladas (Theropithecus gelada: Leone et al., 2014). In macaques, this was
associated with communication redundancy observed in species showing more tolerant social styles
(Zannella et al., 2017) which also exhibit larger meaningful communicative repertoires (Dobson 2012).
Moreover, we found no dominance or kinship effects on any of the facial expressions displayed,
presumably in relation with the sociality of red-capped mangabeys, which have been shown to adopt
both despotic and egalitarian behaviors (Dolado and Beltran 2012). Despite a steep hierarchy within
their groups, red-capped mangabeys have indeed relatively dynamic dominance relationships (Dolado
and Beltran 2011) with some propensity to counter-attack, as do tolerant macaque species (de Waal and
Luttrell 1989; Thierry 2007).
Conclusion
In sum, the repertoire of red-capped mangabeys’ facial displays is composed by six different
displays that could be graded in intensity. We characterized the social-dependent production of facial
expressions by red-capped mangabeys, and brought to light behavioral indices of intentionality
accompanying facial displays. Particularly, playful “open mouth” appeared strongly associated with
some intentionality indices, as previously noticed in ape species. We believe that the present repertoire
provides a basis for further research on function and intentionality of red-capped mangabeys’ facial
expressions. As the gestural, vocal and facial signals are now described in this species, we also believe
that it will constitute a useful tool for a multimodal approach for the study of catarrhine monkeys’
intentional communication, a key feature for evolutionary research on language origins.
Conflict of interests: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgements: We thank Arnaud Rossard and Philippe Bec for taking care of the monkeys and
for their flexibility regarding our observation schedule. Thanks to Loïc Pougnault and Pablo Pezzino for
the second observation of our videos. We also thank Véronique Guyot for her helpful advice on
statistical analyses, and are grateful to Ann Cloarec for correcting the English writing.
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Chapitre IV
Latéralité gestuelle
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Article 3
1. Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie animale et humaine) - UMR 6552, F-35000
Rennes, France
2. Institut Universitaire de France
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SYNTHESE DE L’ARTICLE 3
Contexte
La communication verbale et non-verbale humaine est latéralisée en faveur du côté droit du corps, en
raison d’une spécialisation de l’hémisphère gauche pour le contrôle du langage. L’hypothèse d’une
origine gestuelle du langage a été formulée au regard de l’utilisation préférentielle du côté droit pour
produire des gestes chez plusieurs singes catarrhiniens. Ainsi, afin de comprendre les causes distales et
proximales de la latéralisation du langage, nous nous intéressons à la latéralité gestuelle des primates
non-humains, tentant de déterminer les facteurs dont elle dépend.
Méthode
Les gestes brachio-manuels intraspécifiques de 25 mangabeys à collier captifs ont été décrits, à partir
d’observations en focal. Nous avons d’abord testé l’existence d’une latéralité gestuelle à échelle
individuelle voire populationnelle pour la globalité des gestes étudiés. Nous avons ensuite analysé l’effet
de différents facteurs sur la main utilisée par les mangabeys pour communiquer, en particulier des
facteurs contextuels, sociodémographiques, et relatifs à la forme des gestes.
Résultats
Conclusion
Cette première analyse de la latéralité gestuelle des mangabeys à collier souligne l’importance du
contexte interactionnel sur ce trait, comme mis en évidence chez les chimpanzés et les gorilles. Ces
résultats devront être complétés par un échantillon plus important, permettant notamment d’analyser
plus finement la latéralité à échelle individuelle.
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Multifactorial analysis of gestural laterality
in captive red-capped mangabeys (Cercocebus torquatus)
Juliette Aychet1*, Noémie Monchy1, Catherine Blois-Heulin1, Alban Lemasson1,2
1. Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie animale et humaine) - UMR 6552, F-35000
Rennes, France
2. Institut Universitaire de France
* corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
Several catarrhine primates gesture preferentially with their right hand, which led to the hypothesis of a
gestural origin of human left-hemispheric specialization for language. In order to test for this assumption
and elucidate the proximate and ultimate causes of language lateralization, it is needed to characterize
gestural communication in a higher diversity of primate species. Recently, studies showed that
chimpanzees and gorillas’ gestural laterality was modulated by factors related to social context and
gesture characteristics as well as by socio-demographic factors. Although a right-handedness has been
evidenced in the gestural communication of several non-hominoid species, factors influencing this
laterality remain understudied, particularly in intra-specific contexts. We present here a preliminary
investigation of intraspecific gestural laterality in catarrhine monkeys, red-capped mangabeys. We
observed five social groups of captive subjects and described the spontaneous production of their
brachio-manual intentional gestures. We did not evidence any significant gestural lateralization neither
at the individual level nor at the population level. However, corroborating previous findings from ape
studies, we found that mangabeys preferentially used their right hand to gesture in negative social
contexts such as aggressions. They also adapted to the position of their receiver by preferentially using
their ipsilateral hand to communicate. By contrast, factors related to gesture form and socio-
demographic characteristics of signaler and receiver did not affect gestural laterality. To understand
better the relationships between gestural laterality and brain lateralization from an evolutionary
perspective, we suggest that the gestural communication of other monkey species should be examined
with this multifactorial approach.
Keywords: Catarrhine monkeys, gestures, manual laterality, social laterality, language origins
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Introduction
Different hypotheses have been formulated concerning the emergence of manual laterality.
Notably, the “postural origin theory” (MacNeilage et al. 1987; MacNeilage 2007) proposes that manual
laterality results from adaptations of the right hand for complex tasks in terrestrial species, free from
postural constraints implied by arboreal locomotion. Some authors also hypothesized that manual
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laterality evidenced in captive non-human primates was the by-product of experimental biases and
captivity (“artefactual hypothesis”: Warren 1980; McGrew and Marchant 1997, 2001). Moreover, the
“task complexity hypothesis” suggests that manual laterality is stronger for tasks requiring high level of
manipulation, i.e. involving multiple acts such as bimanual coordination (Fagot and Vauclair 1991).
Looking specifically at communicative gestures, different factors might influence manual laterality in
primates. Firstly, gestural laterality may depend on factors related to the interactional context, such as
its emotional valence. Prieur and colleagues (2016a, 2017a, c) evidenced a preferential use of the right
hand for gestures associated to negative emotions in chimpanzees and gorillas, whereas theories on brain
asymmetries for emotion perception and expressions would predict left-lateralized behaviors in negative
contexts (see “right hemisphere theory” and “valence theory”, reviewed by Demaree et al. 2005). The
relative position of the signaler and receiver during the interaction can also affect gestural laterality, as
shown in chimpanzees and gorillas (Prieur et al. 2016a, 2017b, c), presumably because of gesture
directionality (which may imply a preferential use of the ipsilateral hand) and to asymmetrical emotional
signals from recipient which could drive gesture production (e.g. Wallez et al. 2012; Prieur et al. 2016a).
Secondly, gesture characteristics may affect hand preference, such as the type of gesture, as shown in
chimpanzees and gorillas (Hopkins and Leavens 1998; Hopkins and Wesley 2002; Hobaiter and Byrne
2013; Prieur et al. 2016a, 2017b, c), or the sensory modality on which it is delivered (i.e. visual only,
acoustic or tactile: Prieur et al. 2016a, 2017b). Moreover, in line with the “postural origin theory”, it can
be hypothesized that the hand used to gesture depends on whether hands are engaged for signaler posture
stability. This postural effect on laterality has notably been evidenced for manual tasks in red-capped
mangabeys (Blois-Heulin et al. 2006) and grey-cheeked mangabeys (Lophocebus albigena, Blois-
Heulin et al. 2007). Thirdly, sociodemographic characteristics of the signaler and receiver may affect
gestural laterality. Although no or slight effects of dominance and kinship have been found in
chimpanzees and gorillas (Hopkins et al. 2005; Prieur et al. 2016a, 2017c), the age of the signaler affects
gestural laterality in several species, as right-handedness increases with age (e.g. in chimpanzees:
Hopkins and Leavens 1998; Hobaiter and Byrne 2013; Prieur et al. 2016a; gorillas: Prieur et al. 2017a,
c; olive baboons: Meguerditchian and Vauclair 2006).
To understand how all these factors may affect gestural laterality, it seems judicious to observe
non-human primate gestures occurring in intraspecific contexts. Prieur and colleagues (2016a, 2017c)
were the first to adopt a multifactorial approach to characterize intraspecific gestural laterality, in
chimpanzees and gorillas. To our knowledge, such method has never been adopted to study catarrhine
monkeys’ gestural communication. Yet, right-handedness for communicative gestures have been
evidenced in cercopithecid species (Tonkean macaques: Meunier et al. 2013a, b; Campbell’s mona
monkeys and red-capped mangabeys: Maille et al. 2013), including for intraspecific gestures (olive
baboons: Meguerditchian and Vauclair 2006; Meguerditchian et al. 2011), suggesting that it could be
investigated beyond the great ape clade. Moreover, our understanding of the causes of gestural laterality,
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and thus to a greater extent our understanding of language evolutionary origins, benefits from
comparisons between primates with different social systems and ecologies (Meguerditchian 2014).
Methods
This study was purely observational and did not imply any modification of the living conditions
of the captive mangabeys housed at the Station Biologique de Paimpont (University Rennes 1, France),
where animal facilities and animal care procedures are regularly monitored by the responsible local
authorities (Housing agreement for research D35-211-18, delivered by the “Direction Départementale
de la Cohésion Sociale et de la Protection des Populations” (DDCSPP)).
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and 8 old adults (Aychet et al. in press, Table 1). They were housed in outdoor-indoor enclosures of
different sizes (from 8 to 26.4 m² for indoor enclosures, 14.7 to 37.2 m² for outdoor enclosures, and
height from 2.5 m to 4.4 m), and were free to move in and out at all time, using connecting tunnels.
Indoor enclosure temperature was maintained at 22°C. Each enclosure was enriched with wood and
metal perches, completed with chains or hessian ribbons. The floor of the indoor enclosures was covered
with straw and sawdust, while the floor of the outdoor enclosures was covered with cement or bark.
Mangabeys were fed twice a day with fresh fruits and vegetables in the morning and with monkey chows
in the afternoon. Water was available ad libitum in their indoor enclosures.
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Data collection
Focal observations
Observations of captive mangabeys took place from the end of January to the end of June 2018. We
applied the individual focal sampling method (Altmann 1974), recording focal videos of about 15
minutes per session (mean session duration ±S.E. = 15.67 ±0.10 min) using a JVC Full HD GZ-RX615
camcorder. Each individual was observed during 8 sessions, for a total of more than 2 hours (125.33
±0.75 min) per individual and 52.22 hours of observations overall. These sessions were scheduled
randomly, and then balanced so that all individuals were observed at all times of day (from 9 am to 6
pm) and at all feeding periods (before or during the first feeding / between two feedings / after or during
the second feeding). We then transferred videos to a computer for further analyses. Software BORIS
v.6.0.6 (Friard and Gamba 2016) was used to code each event of manual gesture and each social
interaction involving the focal individual. Because subjects were free to move, the focal individual was
sometimes out of sight for few seconds on the camera field, hence data were analyzed taking into account
the exact observation durations when the focal subject was visible.
Brachio-manual gestures
The social contexts of gesture production were determined based on the signaler and receiver’s
behavior within the 5 seconds before and after the signal (Aychet et al. in press). Six different contexts
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were distinguished, and then categorized according to their assumed emotional valence (Table 2).
Aggression and submission contexts were assumed to be “negative”, in contrast to affiliation, grooming,
social play and socio-sexual contexts that were qualified as “positive or neutral”. We note that the latter
contexts may involve ambiguous behaviors, falling within “positive” contexts while possibly eliciting
negative emotions in interactants.
Social laterality
For each gesture instance, we also recorded the relative positions of the signaler and the receiver in
each other’s visual field (Prieur 2015; Prieur et al. 2016a, 2017a, b, c). The receiver position was coded
as “front” if it was positioned more or less 60° in front of either signaler’s face (Baraud et al. 2009), and
“right” or “left” depending on whether it was in the signaler’s right or left visual field. The position of
the signaler was similarly coded from the receiver’s point of view.
For each gesture occurrence, we noted the hand used (left or right), the type of gesture produced
(Aychet et al. under review; Schel et al. under review) and the sensory modality on which it could be
perceived. Gestures were classified as “visual” if they were silent and distant brachio-manual
movements, “audible” if they provoked a sound and “tactile” if they involved a physical contact with
the receiver (Aychet et al. under review; Fröhlich et al. 2016; Liebal et al. 2004b; Pika et al. 2003; Pika
2008; Schel et al. under review). According to the “postural” theory on gestural laterality origins
(MacNeilage et al. 1987; MacNeilage 2007), signaler posture may constraint the availability of hands
to gesture and so be a determining factor shaping gestural laterality. To test for this effect in red-capped
mangabeys, we categorized the signaler posture when gesturing, depending on whether one hand was
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“engaged” in posture as a support (subject walking or standing quadrupedally, standing bipedally with
hand on substrate, climbing or hanging on cage) or hands were “free” (subject sitting, laying, jumping
or standing bipedally without other support).
In order to assess the effect of social factors on the hand used to gesture, we characterized the
relationship between the signaler and the receiver in terms of dominance and kinship. Dominance was
deduced from avoidance behaviors (Easley and Coelho 1991), i.e. turning away from another individual,
avoiding an individual by changing direction, avoiding contact by moving a body part away from the
proximity of another individual, fleeing an individual by walking or running in opposed direction
(Baraud 2007). All avoidance behaviors involving focal subjects were analyzed, and when at least 3
occurrences were observed for a dyad, we computed the percentage of avoidance of subject A from
subject B over the total number of these behaviors between A and B (Zumpe and Michael 1986). Subject
A was considered subordinate to subject B if this percentage was above 50%. Moreover, kinship was
known for all individuals in the colony, and the signaler and the receiver were considered as “kin” if
they were first-degree relatives (parents or siblings). Finally, we noted whether the signaler and the
receiver were of same age or not (based on age categories: juveniles, middle aged and old adults) and
of same sex or not.
Statistical analyses
We used R v.3.6.2 (R Core Team 2018) for all statistical analyses. All tests were two-tailed and
alpha-level was set at 0.05.
We first tested the presence of an overall gestural laterality in our captive red-capped
mangabeys. To assess gestural laterality at the individual level, and for each individual that produced at
least 6 manual gestures, we performed binomial tests to compare the proportion of right and left hand
gestures to a theoretical proportion of 0.5. For each of these subjects, a handedness index (HI) was also
computed using the following formula: HI = (R-L) / (R+L), where R corresponds to the number of
gestures produced with the right hand and L with the left hand. This index, between -1 and 1, is
commonly used to assess laterality (e.g. Hamilton and Vermeire 1988), as its sign reveals the potential
bias direction: toward the right if it is positive, and the left if it is negative. We tested whether HI differed
from null values using a Wilcoxon signed-rank test. The strength of individuals’ hand preference was
estimated by the absolute value of HI (ABSHI). Gestural laterality was assessed at the population level
based on the proportion of lateralized individuals in the population and the average ABSHI value.
Moreover, we compared the number of gestures that mangabeys produced with the right or left hand
using a Wilcoxon signed rank test.
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Secondly, we tested which factors affected hand use in red-capped mangabey gestural
communication, among contextual factors (valence of social context, signaler and receiver positions in
each other’s visual field), gesture production characteristics (gesture sensory modality, signaler posture)
and socio-demographic factors (dominance and kinship between the signaler and receiver, signaler age
category and sex). To do so, we used a Generalized Linear Mixed Model (GLMM) of the binomial
family to analyze the hand used to produce gestures (right or left) depending on the above-cited
variables. The identity of the signaler was included as a random effect, and the model quality was
verified by checking for the absence of data overdispersion.
Results
Manual gestures
Table 3. Manual gestures observed in captive red-capped mangabeys (adapted from Aychet et al.,
under review). Nb: number of instances; N: number of different signalers; *: previously described as
intentional gesture, Schel et al. under review.
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None of the red-capped mangabeys were significantly lateralized for their manual gestures
(Binomial test, Table 4). Thus, there was no laterality bias at the population-level. The HI did not overall
differ from null values (Wilcoxon signed rank test: N = 11, V = 30, P = 0.823), and the mean ABSHI
value was low (ABSHI ±S.E. = 0.24 ±0.04), as mangabeys produced as much manual gestures with the
right than with the left hand (Wilcoxon signed rank test: N = 20, V = 98, P = 0.320).
Table 4. Hand use in red-capped mangabey gestures. Nb: number of unimodal gestures; Prop.R:
proportion of gestures produced with the right hand; HI: handedness index; P: binomial test p-values
Although mangabeys were not lateralized in their overall production of manual gestures,
contextual factors affected the hand they used to communicate (GLMM Binomial, detailed comparison
results in Table 5). Particularly, we found a significant effect of the emotional valence of context in
which the gestures were produced (GLMM Binomial, Type II Wald Chi-square test: X²1= 6.383, P =
0.011) with more right-hand gestures in “negative” contexts than in others (Figure 1). Moreover, the
relative receiver and signaler’s positions had a significant effect on the hand used to gesture (receiver
position: X²2= 29.233, P < 0.001; signaler position: X²2= 7.068, P = 0.029). Signalers adapted the side
used to communicate to the position of the receivers, using more the right hand when the receivers was
155
in their right visual field and conversely (Figure 2a). Moreover, they used less the right hand when they
gestured in the right visual field of receivers than when they were in front of them (Figure 2b).
Interestingly, we found no effect of the sensory modality of gestures on hand use (X²2= 3.148, P = 0.207),
nor of the signaler posture (X²1= 1.373, P = 0.241) or socio-demographic factors (Dominance:
X²2= 0.500, P = 0.779; Kinship: X²1= 0.005, P = 0.941; Age difference: X²1= 1.670, P = 0.196; Sex
difference: X²1= 0.065, P = 0.799; Signaler’s age: X²2= 0.718, P = 0.698; Signaler’s sex: X²1= 0.246, P =
0.620).
Table 5. Fixed effects of the GLMM Binomial. The first factor cited for each comparison corresponds
to the reference factor. Positive values of the estimate indicate that the reference factor drives higher
proportion of right-hand gestures, and conversely.
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Figure 1. Percentage of gestures produced with the left or right hand depending on the emotional
valence of context. “Negative” valence corresponds to aggression and submission contexts, and
“positive/neutral” corresponds to affiliation, grooming, play and sexual contexts. GLMM Binomial: *:
P < 0.05
Figure 2. Percentage of gestures produced with the left or right hand depending on (a) receiver
position in the signaler’s visual field; (b) signaler position in the receiver’s visual field. GLMM
Binomial: ns: non-significant difference; #: 0.05< P < 0.1; **: P < 0.01; ***: P < 0.001.
Discussion
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communicate, corroborating previous findings from ape studies. On the contrary, factors related to
gesture production and socio-demographic characteristics of the signaler and the receiver did not affect
mangabey gestural laterality.
We found that contextual factors affected the hand used by red-capped mangabeys to
communicate with their conspecifics. As found in chimpanzees and gorillas (Prieur et al. 2016a, 2017a,
c), mangabeys used more their right hand to gesture in contexts associated with negative emotional
states (i.e. aggression and submission contexts). These findings seem to contradict theories on brain
asymmetries for emotion processing (reviewed by Demaree et al. 2005). The “right hemisphere theory”
proposes that the right hemisphere controls perception and expressions of emotions (Borod et al. 1983),
and the “valence theory” or “approach/ withdrawal theory” suggests that the right and left hemispheres
control negative and positive emotions respectively (Silberman and Weingartner 1986; Ehrlichman
1987), thus both would predict a left-hand preference for negative contexts. Prieur and colleagues
hypothesized that the observed right-hand bias of apes in negative contexts originates from the same
mechanisms that underlie left prefrontal brain region activation in humans during negative events, such
as aggressions (Rohlfs and Ramírez 2006). Taking the perspective that aggression contexts involve not
only negative emotions (e.g. anger), but also motivation for “approaching” behaviors (Rohlfs and
Ramírez 2006), this seems actually in accordance with the “approach/withdrawal” theory on brain
asymmetries, which could explain results on chimpanzees, gorillas and red-capped mangabey gestures.
Aside from the effect of emotional context, we found that gestural laterality was significantly affected
by the relative positions of the signaler and the receiver. Red-capped mangabeys preferentially used
their ipsilateral hand to gesture toward conspecifics, probably to direct more efficiently their signal. This
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is in accordance with observation of captive chimpanzees and gorillas (Prieur et al. 2016a, 2017b, c),
who preferentially performed visual and tactile gestures with their right hand when their recipient was
in their right visual field. These results highlight the importance of taking into account receiver position
when studying intraspecific gestural laterality of primates, or to control this parameter in experimental
conditions, given its substantial effect on hand use.
Factors related to the gesture production in itself did not affect gestural laterality, since we found
no effect of the sensory modality involved (visual only, acoustic or tactile) nor of the signaler posture
while signaling. Experimental studies brought to light an effect of red-capped mangabeys’ postures for
manual tasks, and this was particularly true for complex tasks (Blois-Heulin et al. 2006). We can
hypothesize that this postural effect is not found for communicative gestures because they are less
demanding in terms of movement precision, compared for instance to bimanual manipulation tasks
(“task complexity hypothesis”: Fagot and Vauclair 1991). Interestingly, socio-demographic
characteristics of the signaler and the receiver had no effect on gestural laterality. The signaler’s sex did
not affect the hand used to gesture, as found in apes and olive baboons (Hopkins et al. 2005;
Meguerditchian and Vauclair 2006, 2009; Meguerditchian et al. 2011; Prieur et al. 2016b). Although
right-hand preference has been found to increase with age in apes and olive baboons (Hopkins and
Leavens 1998; Meguerditchian and Vauclair 2006; Hobaiter and Byrne 2013; Prieur et al. 2016a, 2017a,
c), we did not found this effect in red-capped mangabeys. This is not surprising regarding the absence
of lateralized individuals in our population, but these aspects should be further investigated with an
increased sample size. Finally, the absence of dominance or kinship effect on mangabey gestural
laterality was in accordance with the results obtained from ape studies (Hopkins et al. 2005; Prieur et al.
2017c). One study showed an effect of social hierarchy on gestural laterality of primates, describing
more right-handedness in subordinate captive chimpanzees than in other individuals (Prieur et al.
2016a). This was hypothesized to result from the higher level of psychological stress in these
individuals, in line with the effect of negative context on right-handedness.
Conclusion
This first investigation of captive red-capped mangabey gestural laterality did not highlight any
bias at individual or population level, possibly because of the sample size. However, our results
corroborate previous findings from ape gesture studies, particularly regarding the effect of interactional
context on hand use, which suggests that social factors shape manual preference in non-human primate
gestural communication. These promising results should be completed with further observational studies
of mangabey gestures, and by similar investigations in other monkey genera, with the view to understand
the evolutionary roots of modern human language and handedness.
Conflict of interests: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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Chapitre V
Communication multimodale
et multicomposante
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Article 4
1. Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie animale et humaine) - UMR 6552, F-35000
Rennes, France
2. Institut Universitaire de France
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SYNTHESE DE L’ARTICLE 4
Contexte
L’étude de la communication des primates non-humains s’est jusqu’alors principalement portée sur un
système communicatif à la fois (gestuel, facial, ou vocal), bien qu’une approche « multimodale » semble
plus pertinente, notamment dans la perspective d'étudier les racines évolutives du langage humain. La
compréhension des fonctions ultimes de la communication multimodale (impliquant différentes
modalités sensorielles) et multicomposante (impliquant différents types de signaux) nécessite une
description plus systématique des combinaisons de signaux et de leurs contextes de production dans la
communication spontanée des primates.
Méthode
A partir d’observations en focal de 25 mangabeys à collier en captivité, nous avons cherché à décrire
les combinaisons de signaux produites par cette espèce, en nous intéressant en particulier à leur
communication multimodale et multicomposante. Nous avons alors décrit les vocalisations, gestes et
expressions faciales produits par les mangabeys dans différentes modalités (audible, visuelle, tactile),
complétant la description du répertoire communicatif de cette espèce. Nous avons utilisé une analyse
originale, adaptant des méthodes d’analyses de séquences et de réseaux d’association pour décrire et
quantifier la production de combinaisons de signaux. Nous avons ensuite testé l’effet du contexte social
et des caractéristiques sociodémographiques des sujets sur cette communication.
Résultats
Nous avons montré que les mangabeys à collier combinent fréquemment différents types et modalités
de signaux de manière flexible, et ce en fonction du contexte social, de l’âge et du sexe du signaleur et
du receveur, ainsi que de leur relation de dominance et leur apparentement. En particulier, les contextes
de jeu social et d’agression élicitent une communication plus complexe, avec davantage de
combinaisons multimodales et multicomposantes. Nous avons pu représenter les combinaisons de
signaux les plus fréquentes grâce à un diagramme de réseau, et avons montré que tous les types et
modalités de signaux étudiés y étaient intégrés de manière égale.
Conclusion
Complétant les descriptions « unimodales » de la communication intraspécifique des mangabeys à
collier, nos résultats soulignent l’importance de l’approche « multimodale » pour comprendre la
complexité de la communication des primates. Nos résultats permettront par la suite de s’intéresser à la
fonction des combinaisons de signaux. Enfin, nous suggérons que la méthodologie utilisée ici puisse
servir à décrire la communication d’autres espèces, dans une perspective comparative.
171
Using sequential and network analyses to describe
multimodal and multicomponent communication
in captive red-capped mangabeys
1. Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie animale et humaine) - UMR 6552, F-35000
Rennes, France
2. Institut Universitaire de France
* corresponding author: [email protected]
Highlights
Captive red-capped mangabeys flexibly combine signal types and sensory modalities.
Play and aggression contexts elicit more multimodal and multicomponent signalling.
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CHAPITRE V – COMMUNICATION MULTIMODALE ET MULTICOMPOSANTE
Abstract
Although studies on primate communication have mainly focused on single communication systems
(gestural, facial or vocal), there is an increasing claim for a multimodal approach to describe the
communication of our closest relatives, particularly from the perspective to investigate the evolutionary
roots of human language. The understanding of the ultimate functions of multimodal communication
(involving different sensory modalities) and multicomponentiality (combination of different signal
types) needs more systematic description of signal combinations in primate species, with details on the
circumstances leading to such complex signalling. In the present study, we describe the multimodal and
multicomponent use of communicative signals in a captive population of catarrhine monkeys, the red-
capped mangabeys (Cercocebus torquatus). We applied existing analysis methods from other
disciplines to define, systematically describe and quantify the production of communicative
combinations. We notably used sequence analysis tools (based on dissimilarity measures) to identify the
typical signal sequences produced by mangabeys, and network analysis to describe signal combinations
among these sequences. The focal observation of five social groups of mangabeys allowed us to identify
479 communicative sequences, which could be grouped in ten main categories, and whose complexity,
multimodality and multicomponentiality, were depending on contextual and socio-demographic factors.
Overall, captive mangabeys frequently combined communication signals of all types (body, facial and
vocal signals) and modalities (visual, audible and tactile), in a flexible way. Our results complete
previous findings arising from “unimodal” studies, and highlight the need for a multimodal and
multicomponent approach to understand the complexity of primate communication. Moreover, we
propose the method we used as a way to enhance primate communication analysis, in the frame of
comparative research.
Keywords
Gestures, Facial expressions, Flexibility, Monkeys, Network analysis, Sequence analysis, Signal
combination, Vocalizations
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Introduction
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communication that implies combinations of different production types of signals (notably gestures or
body postures, facial expressions, vocalisations) delivered on one or more sensory channels, while
“multimodal communication” refers to signal combinations perceived on more than one sensory channel
(notably visual, acoustic or tactile). We note that some signals can be perceived on different sensory
channels in their inherent form, in a way that one modality is inevitably associated to the other (“fixed”
multimodality, Partan & Marler, 2005). For instance, some vocal signals, even though they are perceived
on the acoustic modality, are necessarily associated to specific facial movements that are perceived on
the visual channel (Ghazanfar et al., 2005; Ghazanfar & Logothetis, 2003; Izumi & Kojima, 2004). In
contrast, we will focus here on “free” multimodality (Fröhlich & van Schaik, 2018; Higham & Hebets,
2013; Partan & Marler, 2005), which implies signal modalities that are not obligatory associated, and
whose combinations may be then meaningful of a flexible use of communication signals, depending on
social and environmental factors (Fröhlich & van Schaik, 2018). The “free” combination of signal
types and modalities have been mainly investigated in animals other than primates (e.g. in the courtship
displays of jumping spiders, Habonattus dossenus, and wolf spiders, Schizocosa genus: Elias et al.,
2005; Uetz & Roberts, 2002; in birds such as brown-headed cowbirds, Molothrus ater, and Barbary
dove, Streptopelia risoria: Cooper & Goller, 2004; Hutchison et al., 1997; in the alarm behaviour of
Eastern gray squirrels, Sciurus carolinensis: Partan et al., 2010), yet reports of multimodal and
multicomponent communication in primates are still rare and concern few species (i.e., captive and wild
chimpanzees: Hobaiter et al., 2017; Leavens et al., 2004, 2010; Pollick & De Waal, 2007; Taglialatela
et al., 2015; Wilke et al., 2017; bonobos: Genty, 2019; Genty et al., 2014, 2015; Pollick & De Waal,
2007; orangutans: Knox et al., 2019; siamangs, Symphalangus syndactylus: Liebal et al., 2004; crested
and Rhesus macaques, M. nigra and mulatta: Micheletta et al., 2013; Partan, 2002; howler monkeys:
Briseño-Jaramillo et al., 2015; Jones & van Cantfort, 2007).
Different hypotheses have been formulated on the ultimate functions of combining signals of
different types and modalities, based on selection pressures which could act at the content-level or
efficacy-level of signal production (Guilford & Dawkins, 1991; Hebets & Papaj, 2005; Partan & Marler,
2005; reviewed in Fröhlich & van Schaik, 2018). Regarding the content-level, different combined
signals could notably convey the same information, and be associated to increase the accuracy of
receiver response (“redundant signal hypothesis”, Moller & Pomiankowski, 1993; Partan & Marler,
1999). In primate species, numerous evidence of communication persistence or elaboration in case of
first-attempt failure are in accordance with this hypothesis (e.g. in apes: Byrne et al., 2017; Cartmill &
Byrne, 2007; Genty & Byrne, 2010; Leavens et al., 2005; Liebal et al., 2004; Tomasello & Call, 2018).
In contrast, combined signals could convey different information that complement each-others
(“multiple messages hypothesis” or “complementarity hypothesis”, Fröhlich & van Schaik, 2018;
Johnstone, 1996; Moller & Pomiankowski, 1993; Partan & Marler, 1999). This is the case in human
multimodal communication, in which meaning can arise from the integration of signals produced on
175
different channels (Vigliocco et al., 2014). Moreover, hypotheses have been formulated regarding the
efficacy of multimodal communication. The “efficacy-backup hypothesis” states that producing
multimodal signals instead of unimodal single signals permits to increase the probability of being
perceived (and so to receive a response) under the presence of environmental constraints, such as lack
of visibility or ambient noise (Fröhlich & van Schaik, 2018; Hebets & Papaj, 2005). This has been
suggested in non-primate species, for instance in wolf spiders (Schizocosa retrorsa), whose multimodal
visual and vibratory courtship signalling permits a detection both in light and dark environments (Hebets
& Uetz, 1999; Hebets et al., 1996). Finally, the “increased detection and discrimination hypothesis”
(Fröhlich & van Schaik, 2018; Hebets & Papaj, 2005) proposes that one signal increases either the
probability of a second signal to be perceived or to be accurately understood (“refinement”, Fröhlich &
van Schaik, 2018). Several primate studies support the latter assumption, either showing that multimodal
and multicomponent signalling is more likely to receive a response than single signals (e.g.
multicomponent lipsmacks in crested and rhesus macaques: Micheletta et al., 2013; Partan, 2002; facial
and gestural signal combinations in siamangs: Liebal et al., 2004; vocal-gesture combinations in
chimpanzees and bonobos: Genty et al., 2014; Pollick & De Waal, 2007; Wilke et al., 2017), or
suggesting that some signals are used to disambiguate another signal meaning (e.g. vocal-gesture
combinations in wild chimpanzees: Wilke et al., 2017; and bonobos: Genty et al., 2014).
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only if the signals produced by a same individual overlap (e.g. Wilke et al., 2017), while some others
will consider both overlapping and sequences of signals, i.e. signals separated by a pause up to an
arbitrary value (e.g. 1 sec: Genty, 2019; Genty et al., 2015; Hobaiter et al., 2017; Knox et al., 2019; 2
sec: Taglialatela et al., 2015; and in gestural studies 1 sec: Genty & Byrne, 2010; Hobaiter & Byrne,
2011; 5 sec: Liebal et al., 2004, 2006; Tempelmann & Liebal, 2012), or signals which initiations are
separated by an arbitrary latency (e.g. 10 sec: Pollick & De Waal, 2007). This may lead to identify more
or less instances of multimodal or multicomponent signal use, which prevent reliable comparisons on
their frequencies in different species and under different conditions. Despite this consistency issue, one
methodological problem that can arise when describing multimodal and/or multicomponent
communication in a population is whether we should account for slight variations in sequential signal
production. The less frequent signal combinations could either be random variations of more frequent
ones, or could be biologically relevant by themselves, hence it is important to analyse them in their
integrity without transformation (Baraud et al., 2016). One approach to acknowledge this variability in
signal combinations’ production, without missing their similarities, can be to focus on one unique signal
and report all possible use, with all possible combinations and their contexts (for instance, see the
description of “pout-call” use in young bonobos: Genty, 2019). However, this approach needs a
preliminary selection of one signal of interest, and is likely to be time-consuming if applied to the entire
communication repertoire of a species. Thus, another method is to use sequence analysis tools to
describe the structure of such signal use (Baraud et al., 2016), taking into account signals of all types
and modalities, and all slight variations observed in the population.
In the present study, we used a new approach to define and systematically describe the
multimodal and multicomponent use of communicative signals in a captive population of catarrhine
monkeys, the red-capped mangabeys (Cercocebus torquatus). Red-capped mangabeys are semi-
terrestrial monkeys (Mitani et al., 2012) originating from West African rainforest coastal regions
(Cooke, 2012; Gautier-Hion et al., 1999; Jones & Sabater-Pi, 1968; Orimaye, 2017), and naturally living
in large multi-male, multi-female groups from 10 to 25 individuals (Gautier-Hion et al., 1999; Jones &
Sabater-Pi, 1968). In captivity, they are organised in steep linear hierarchy (Ruth Dolado & Beltran,
2011) and exhibit aggression and affiliation patterns both observed in despotic and more relaxed
macaque societies (Dolado & Beltran, 2012; e.g. unidirectionality of aggressions, high rate of
aggressions, low aggression intensity, reciprocal grooming behaviour. Thierry, 2007; Thierry et al.,
2000). Communicative signals of captive red-capped mangabeys have been previously described,
bringing to light a rich set of innate gestures and body signals (produced either on the visual, audible or
tactile channel, Schel et al., under review), as well as facial (Aychet et al. 2020) and vocal signals
(Bouchet et al., 2010). Moreover, a first description of their multimodal interactions, centred on their
use of vocal signals, suggest flexible multimodal and multicomponent signalling in this species (Baraud
et al., 2016).
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Our objective here was threefold. First, we attempted to complete the communicative repertoire
of captive red-capped mangabeys, by describing the typical sequences of signals they spontaneously
produce in their intraspecific dyadic interactions. Second, our aim was to quantify multimodality and
multicomponentiality in mangabeys’ communicative sequences, and assess the effect of social context
and socio-demographic factors on the production of complex signalling. In order to address the above-
cited methodological issues, we applied methods that we propose as a way to enhance future
comparisons between descriptions of primate species multimodal and multicomponent communication.
We notably propose to base the temporal definition of signal sequence on a less-arbitrary criterion, but
also adapted to the study species. Based on the method used in vocal exchange studies (Alban Lemasson
et al., 2010, 2018; Levréro et al., 2019), we established the sequence definition time-window on the
distribution of latencies between two signals that was actually observed in the studied population.
Additionally, we used a sequence analysis methodology (Gabadinho et al., 2011) to describe red-capped
mangabey sequences of signals, and network analysis (Whitehead, 2008) to describe signal
combinations among these communicative sequences, and particularly investigate how signal types
(body, facial, vocal signals) and modalities (visual, audible, tactile) were integrated in complex
communication events.
Methods
Ethical note
This purely observational study was conducted without modifying the living conditions of the
captive mangabeys housed at the Station Biologique de Paimpont (University Rennes 1, France), where
animal facilities and animal care procedures are regularly monitored by the responsible local authorities
(Housing agreement for research D35-211-18, delivered by the “Direction Départementale de la
Cohésion Sociale et de la Protection des Populations” (DDCSPP)).
Subjects
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Mangabeys were housed in outdoor-indoor enclosures of different sizes (from 8 to 26.4 m² for
indoor enclosures, 14.7 to 37.2 m² for outdoor enclosures, and height from 2.5 m to 4.4 m). Individuals
were free to move in and out at all time, using connecting tunnels. Indoor enclosure temperature was
maintained at 22°C. Each enclosure was enriched with wood and metal perches, completed with chains
or hessian ribbons. The floor of the indoor enclosures was covered with straw and sawdust, while the
outdoor enclosure floor was covered with cement or bark. Mangabeys were fed twice a day with fresh
fruits and vegetables in the morning and with monkey chows in the afternoon. Water was available ad
libitum in their indoor enclosures.
Data collection
Observations
We collected 52.22 hours of observations, from the end of January to the end of June 2018.
Applying the individual focal sampling method (Altmann 1974), we recorded focal videos of about 15
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minutes per session (mean session duration ±SE = 15.67 ±0.10 min) using a JVC Full HD GZ-RX615
camcorder. Each subject was observed during 8 sessions, for a total of more than 2 hours (125.33 ±0.75
min). These sessions were scheduled semi-randomly, so that all individuals were observed at all times
(from 9 am to 6 pm) and all periods of day (before or during first feeding / between two feedings / after
or during second feeding). We transferred the videos to a computer for further video analyses. Software
BORIS v.6.0.6 (Friard and Gamba 2016) was used to play videos and to code each event of
communicative act and each social interaction involving the focal individual.
Communicative signals
We recorded and identified every occurrence of body, facial or vocal signal produced by or in
the direction of the focal individual. Communicative signals were considered as such, only if the
signaller physically directed it toward a receiver, i.e., if at least one of the following markers of
directionality was observed during signal production: signaller’s head or body was oriented towards the
receiver; the signal was a movement produced in the direction of the receiver; the signaller was
approaching the receiver; the signaller and the receiver were in physical contact (Aychet et al., in press;
Call & Tomasello, 2007; Leavens & Hopkins, 1998; Liebal et al., 2004; Tomasello et al., 1985, 1994;
Schel et al., under review). We identified 48 different signals, categorized in three types (Table 2):
“body signals”, including brachio-manual gestures, body movements and postures (Schel et al., under
review); “facial signals”, including facial displays (Aychet et al., in press) and actions such as biting;
and “vocal signals” (Bouchet et al., 2010). The modality on which these signals could be perceived by
the receiver were classified as: “visual” if they were silent distant movements of the face or the body;
“tactile” if they included physical contact between the signaller and the receiver; “audible” if they
included vocal or nonvocal sound production (Fröhlich et al., 2016; Liebal, Call, et al., 2004; Pika, 2008;
Pika et al., 2003; Schel et al., under review)
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Table 2. Repertoire of communicative signals observed in captive red-capped mangabeys. Modality: main modality on which the signal could be perceived;
Nb: total number of occurrences observed, with number of occurrences recorded within communicative sequences (as opposed to single occurrences) indicated
within brackets; N: number of signallers.
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Throw arm Signaller throws one or two arms in the receiver's direction. Visual 232 (190) 22
Throw leg Signaller throws one leg in the receiver's direction. Visual 3 (2) 2
Body postures Bang object Signaller jumps on cage wall or perches after having taken a run- Audible 47 (21) 16
and movements up, or grabs and shakes cage wall or perches (with hands only or
with hands and feet), producing tremors and noise.
Crouch Signaller bent his/her four limbs, belly touching the ground. Visual 11 (8) 6
Hang Signaller hangs with arms or legs to the cage or perches, in front Visual 6 (5) 3
of the receiver.
Hop Signaller jumps repetitively, in one position or moving around. Visual 3 (3) 3
Jump Signaller jumps and land in front of the receiver or on him/her. Visual 39 (18) 10
Prepare to jump Signaller is oriented toward receiver, limbs bent, in tension, Visual 2 (0) 2
staring at the receiver.
Lie down Signaller lays down on his/her back, in front of the receiver. Visual 2 (2) 1
Present body part Signaller exposes one particular body part (head, neck, limb, Visual 170 (49) 22
back, chest, belly, side or crotch) to the receiver, by orienting
his/her body appropriately in the direction and/or close to
him/her.
Present rear Signaller puts his/her rear in the direction and/or close to the Visual 376 (227) 24
receiver.
Roll on ground Signaller rolls on ground in front of the receiver. Visual 2 (1) 1
Salto Signaller jumps and turns in the air in front of the receiver. Visual 4 (3) 2
Shove away Signaller produces a brief movement with a body part that the Tactile 3 (0) 3
receiver is touching, to push him away.
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Vocal A+ / Ti+ Signaller produces series of "A" or "Ti" vocal units (“food call”, Audible 18 (8) 5
signals3 “contact call”).
Oe+ Signaller produces series of "Oe" vocal units (“sexual call”). Audible 13 (5) 4
Ro+ Signaller grunts, producing series of "Ro" vocal units (“contact Audible 126 (92) 19
call”, “grunt”).
Un+ Signaller produces series of "Un" vocal units (“threat call”). Audible 87 (64) 20
Alarm Signaller produces WaHoo calls (“alarm calls”) or Whoop- Audible 1 (1) 1
Gobble (“loud call”).
Scream Signaller screams, producing "Wi" vocal unit (“distress call”). Audible 2 (2) 1
ND Signaller produces unidentified vocalisations. Audible 12 (12) 5
1
Schel et al., under review; 2Aychet et al., in press; 3Bouchet et al., 2010
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We categorized the social contexts in which signals were produced according to the signaller
and recipient’s behaviours observed within the 5 seconds before and the 5 seconds after the signal
production (Aychet et al., in press). Six social context categories were distinguished: affiliative,
grooming, sexual, playful, aggressive, and submissive (Table 3). Moreover, for the purpose of
weighting contextual data in our analysis according to the overall importance of each of these
categories, we also established a population-level time budget. Thus, we also coded every 10
sec (scan sampling method, (Altmann, 1974) the social and non-social contexts in which the
focal individual was involved, for one session per individual (totalizing 2250 scans for the
population).
In order to evaluate their potential effect on the production of signal sequences, we determined the
relationship between signaller and receiver in terms of dominance relationship, kinship, age difference
and sex difference. The dominance relationship was based on avoidance behaviours (Easley & Coelho,
1991). All avoidance behaviours involving focal subjects were analysed, considering turning away from
another individual, avoiding an individual by changing direction, avoiding contact with an individual
by moving a body part away from the proximity of another individual, fleeing an individual by walking
or running in the opposite direction (see “contact rupture behaviours”, Baraud, 2007). When at least 3
occurrences were observed for a dyad, we computed the percentage of avoidance of subject A from
subject B over the total number of avoidance behaviours between A and B (Zumpe & Michael, 1986);
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and subject A was considered subordinate to subject B if this percentage was above 50%. Kinship was
known for all individuals in the colony, and signaller and receiver were considered as “kin” if they were
first-degree relatives (parents or siblings). Finally, age difference was not assessed based on the absolute
number of years old but on the age category (juveniles, middle-aged and old adults).
Sequence analysis
We defined as “sequence of signals” a series of signals that were directed by a same signaller
towards a same receiver, and whose initiations were separated by latencies from 0 to 8 seconds. We
determined this time window graphically (Lemasson et al., 2010, 2018; Levréro et al., 2019), based on
the observed frequency distribution of latencies between two consecutive signal initiations by a same
signaller toward a same receiver in our red-capped mangabeys (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Distribution of the latencies between two consecutive signal productions from a same
signaller toward a same receiver (n = 2081 latencies). Black arrow: threshold indicating the maximum
latency between two signals from the same communicative sequence.
We extracted all the so-defined communicative sequences from our data set, and used the package
{TraMineR} (Gabadinho et al., 2011) from the software R v.3.6.2 (R Core Team, 2018) to visualize and
analyse them. Communicative sequences were characterized based on their length (number of signals
within the sequence), diversity (number of different signals within the sequence), and complexity. The
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complexity index, ranging from 0 to 1, is based on longitudinal entropy and number of transitions within
the sequence (Gabadinho et al., 2010, 2011). Thus, sequences composed of few different signals,
consecutively repeated, will have low complexity indices; in contrast, the index will raise if signals are
less repeated among the sequence and more diverse. Moreover, we defined as “multicomponent”, as
opposed to “unicomponent”, the sequences that were composed of more than one type of signal (for
instance those that were composed of both body and facial signals). We also defined as “multimodal”,
as opposed to “unimodal”, the sequences that were composed of more than one modality of signal (i.e.
“free” multimodality, Fröhlich & van Schaik, 2018; Higham & Hebets, 2013; Partan & Marler, 2005:
for instance visual and tactile signals, or visual and audible signals).
For each sequence group, we extracted a set of representative sequences based on the
“neighbourhood density” criterion (Gabadinho et al., 2011; Gabadinho & Ritschard, 2013). This method
permits to define an as small as possible set of non-redundant representatives which cover a minimum
percentage of the sample sequences in their “neighbourhood”. Here, we chose to set this minimum
coverage at 50%, but we dropped this threshold to 25% for the most heterogeneous groups, i.e. when
the needed number of representatives to cover 50% of the group was about half of the group size. Were
considered as “neighbours” the sequences for which the distance was under 10% of the maximum
theoretical distance (radius = 0.10).
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Sequence context
The contexts of production of the communicative sequences were determined based on the
context category already assigned to the signal occurrences they were composed of (see above, Table
3). When more than one context were identified, we categorized the overall sequence context following
the one that was the most represented among the given sequence, and in case of equal representation the
one that was attributed to the first signal of the sequence.
Signal combinations
In order to represent and quantify the combinations of different signals, signal types and signal
modalities among the communicative sequences of red-capped mangabeys, we applied graphical and
statistical methods of network analysis. We discarded here the communicative sequences composed of
a unique repeated signal, given that they did not imply different signal combinations. We used
SOCPROG 2.9 software (Whitehead, 2009) to compute association indices (simple ratio, Ginsberg &
Young, 1992) for each signal dyad, based on the idea that signals produced within a same
communicative sequence were combined and thus associated. We then computed four different network
statistics for each of the studied signal, in order to test for possible differences of combination potential
between signal types and modalities. For each signal we computed: (i) the degree, which corresponds
to the number of associates, so the number of different combinations including the corresponding signal;
(ii) the strength, which is the sum of all signal’s association index (high values thus indicating frequent
and/or numerous associations with other signals); (iii) the affinity, which corresponds to the average
strength of the signal’s associates, weighted by their association indices with the signal (Whitehead,
2008, 2009); and (iv) the clustering coefficient, which represents the extent to which a signal’s associates
were themselves associated within the signal combination network (Holme et al., 2007; Sosa, Sueur, et
al., 2020; Whitehead, 2008, 2009). Finally, we used GEPHI 0.9.2 (Bastian et al., 2009) to represent
graphically the network of the most common signal combinations we observed. We represented signal
combinations observed in at least two signallers (discarding idiosyncratic associations), and for which
association indices were greater or equal to the third quartile value.
Statistical analyses
Besides the descriptive approach explained above, statistical tests were run to complete the
description of communicative sequence groups, to test for factors affecting communicative sequence
production, multimodality and multicomponentiality, and to compare signal types and modalities’
integration in the “combination network”. We used R v.3.6.2 (R Core Team, 2018), all tests were two-
tailed and alpha-level was set at 0.05. For all multiple comparisons, p-values were adjusted using “False
Discovery Rate” (FDR) method (Noble, 2009).
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Firstly, after having grouped the sequences depending on their composition similarities, we
completed the description by comparing the main sequence characteristics depending on groups:
sequence length, diversity and complexity were compared using Kruskal-Wallis rank sum tests and post-
hoc Mann-Whitney tests.
Secondly, we analysed the effect of social context on sequence production. The frequency of
communicative sequence of each group was weighted for each focal signaller based on the general time
budget (affiliative context typically representing 2.40% of total time; grooming: 5.82%; sexual: 0.09%;
play: 0.62%; aggressive: 0.53%; submissive: 2.13%; unclear: 4.89%; other –nonsocial- contexts:
83.51%). These weighted frequencies were then compared between social contexts using Friedman rank
sum tests and post-hoc Wilcoxon signed rank tests. Moreover, we tested the effect of social contexts on
sequence characteristics. We used Generalised Linear Mixed Model (GLMM) of the Gamma family,
Poisson family and a Linear Mixed Model (LMM) to analyse this effect on sequence length, diversity
and complexity respectively. In each model, the context was included as a fixed effect and identities of
signaller and receiver were taken into account as random effects. Model quality was assessed by
verifying the normality of the residuals, using normal probability plots. The proportions of
multicomponent and multimodal sequences were compared to a theoretical proportion of 0.5 in each
context, using exact binomial tests. Then, the proportions of sequences involving different combinations
of signal types and signal modalities were compared to theoretical distributions in each context using
Fisher exact tests (except for the submissive context, for which the number of sequences observed was
not sufficient, i.e. < 35).
Finally, after having described the main signal combinations occurring among communicative
sequences, we tested whether different types and modalities of signal had different potentialities of being
combined with other signals. To do so, we compared signal network statistics (degree, strength, affinity
and clustering coefficient) between types and modalities using Mann-Whitney tests.
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Results
Figure 2. (a) Dendrogram of the hierarchical clustering (Ward method) made on sequence
dissimilarities (N = 479). (b) Representation of the dendrogram inertia. The 10-group solution
(indicated by a dotted line in both graphs) presented the best between-cluster distance.
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Figure 3. Sequence index plot and sequence group characteristics. Each sequence is represented by
a line and each signal by a colour. Sequences are sorted by groups, and characteristics are given on the
left as mean values ±S.E. Gp.: group number; Length: number of signals within the sequence; Div.:
diversity (number of different signals within the sequence); Compl.: complexity index (from 0 to 1,
based on longitudinal entropy and number of transitions within the sequence. Gabadinho et al., 2010,
2011). Different capital letters indicate significant differences between groups (Mann-Whitney tests
with FDR correction: P < 0.05).
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Table 4. Sequence group description and summary of production context. Gp.: group number; Nb (%): number of sequences within the group, and
corresponding percentage of the total sample; N: number of different signallers; Nb.sq: number of representative sequences. Representative sequences are
ordered by respective coverage importance. Each representative sequence is described by separating consecutive signals by a semicolon, and if signals are
consecutively repeated, “x k” indicates the number k of consecutive instances.
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8 46 12 11 50% - Throw arm x2 Play and Juveniles Same age category
(9.6%) - ND; Throw arm aggressive Male-to-male
- Throw arm; ND
- Throw arm; ND; Throw arm
- ND; Throw head; Grabbing movement;
Throw arm x7; Throw body; Throw arm; Grab
body part; Throw arm
- Throw arm x2; ND x2; Grab body part;
Throw arm; ND; Grab body part
- Throw arm; Slap object
- Throw arm; Lipsmack; Throw arm
- Throw arm; Grab body part
- Throw body; Throw arm; Grabbing
movement
- Throw arm; Bite x2
9 103 12 15 25.2% - Open mouth; Grab body part Play and Juveniles Kin
(21.5%) - Grab body part; Open mouth aggressive Same age category
- Open mouth x2 Male-to-male
- Grab body part; Bite; Open mouth
- Embrace; Bite; Embrace
- Jump; Throw arm
- Grab body part x2; Open mouth
- Jump; Open mouth
- Grab body part; Bite
- Open mouth; Grab body part; Open mouth;
Throw arm
- Mouth-to-mouth; Embrace; Bite; Grab body
part; Open mouth
- Embrace; Open mouth
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Social contexts of sequence production
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Figure 5. Sequence characteristics depending on social contexts. (a) Sequence length (number of
signals within the sequence), (b) diversity (number of different signals within the sequence) and (c)
complexity (indices from 0 to 1, based on longitudinal entropy and number of transitions within the
sequence. Gabadinho et al., 2010, 2011) were compared between contexts using a GLMM of Gamma
family, of Poisson family and a LMM respectively. Different capital letters indicate significant
differences between contexts. (d) Multimodality and (e) multicomponentiality of communicative
sequences. Proportion of sequences combining different signal types and modalities were compared to
theoretical distributions using Fisher exact tests with FDR correction: *: P < 0.05; **: P < 0.01; ***: P
< 0.001. V: “visual only” signals; A: audible signals; T: tactile signals; F: facial signals; Vc: vocal
signals; G: gestural and body signals. Plain filling indicates unimodal or unicomponent sequences,
hatching indicates multimodal or multicomponent sequences.
Age and sex of subjects did not have any effect on the overall frequency of communicative
sequences produced (Mann-Whitney tests: N males = 14, N females = 10, N juveniles = 3, N middle-aged = 14, N old
= 7; 20 < W < 94, P > 0.05 for all sex and age category comparisons), however these characteristics
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affected the group of sequences produced. Particularly, males produced more sequences of group 1 than
females (W = 37, P = 0.038), and females produced more sequences of group 2 (W = 117, P = 0.005),
and sequences of group 10 (W = 107.5, P = 0.016), than males. Old adults produced more sequences of
group 3 than middle-aged (W = 15.5, P = 0.027), juveniles produced more sequences of group 4 than
middle-aged adults (W = 42, P = 0.004), and more sequences of group 8 (juveniles vs middle-aged: W
= 41, P = 0.015; juveniles vs old adults: W = 21, P = 0.015) and 9 (juveniles vs middle-aged: W = 41, P
= 0.017; juveniles vs old adults: W = 21, P = 0.030) than other individuals.
Moreover, the relationship between the signaller and the receiver (dominance relationship,
kinship, difference of age and sex) had some significant effects on the production of communicative
sequences (all summarised in Table 4). Notably, sequences of group 1 were more produced toward
subordinate (Exact binomial tests: P = 0.002), non-kin (P = 0.008) receivers, and mainly produced by
males toward other males (Fisher exact tests: male-to-male vs male-to-female: P = 0.006). Sequences
of group 2 were more produced by subordinates (Exact binomial test: P = 0.002), toward non-kin (P =
0.002), and sequence of group 3 toward receivers of different age categories (P < 0.001). Sequences of
group 5 were more produced by dominant signaller toward non-kin (P = 0.014) subordinate receivers
(P = 0.001), and more produced from males to females than females to males (Fisher exact tests: P =
0.034). Sequences of group 6 and 7 were more produced toward receivers of the same sex (Exact
binomial tests: P < 0.001 and P = 0.002 respectively). Sequences of group 8 were mainly produced by
males toward other males (Fisher exact tests: male-to-male vs female-to-female: P = 0.006; vs female-
to-male: P = 0.004; vs male-to-female: P = 0.050), and mainly of the same age (Exact binomial test: P
< 0.001). Finally, sequences of group 9 were more produced toward kin receiver (P < 0.001) of same
age (P < 0.001).
Signal combinations
We found that 367 of the 479 sequences were composed of at least two different signals. They
involved 37 different signals of the repertoire, and on the 1081 theoretically possible combinations
associations, we observed 166 different combinations that were produced by at least two signallers
(combination network density = 15%). The main combinations of signals that were observed, i.e. for
which association indices were above the third quartile value (median association index ±IQR = 0.04
±0.05; third quartile = 0.07), involved 28 different signals of the repertoire and are represented in Figure
6. On the whole, the signals that were combined with the most others were the body signals “grab body
part” (degree (D) = 34, strength ±S.E (S) = 2.29 ±0.12), “throw arm” (D = 32, S = 1.94 ±0.14), and
“present rear” (D = 27, S = 1.07 ±0.08), as well as the facial signal “open mouth” (D = 32, S = 2.29
±0.13) and the vocal signals “Ro+” (D = 27, S = 1.42 ±0.13) and “Un+” (D = 27, S ) 1.43 ±0.18).
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We then tested whether the potentiality of signals of being combined with others was dependent
on their types or modalities, by comparing their network measures. We found no significant differences
between signal types and modalities regarding these network statistics (degree strength, affinity and
clustering coefficient, Table 5), except that the clustering coefficient was higher for tactile signals than
for audible ones (Mann-Whitney test: N tactile = N audible = 10, W = 11, P = 0.031).
Figure 6. Network of signal combinations among communicative sequences. Are represented only
combinations produced by at least 2 signallers, and for which association indices are above or equal to
the third quartile value (0.07). Signal types are indicated by node forms (circles: body signals; squares:
facial signals; hexagons: vocal signals), and signal modalities are indicated by node colours (yellow:
“visual only”; red: tactile; blue: audible).
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Table 5. Signal network statistics. Values are given as median ±IQR for each category. Different letters
in superscript indicate significant differences (Mann-Whitney tests with FDR correction: P < 0.05)
Discussion
We applied sequential and network analyses to describe systematically the use of multiple
signals in the spontaneous communication of captive red-capped mangabeys. Sequential analysis, based
on dissimilarity measures, permitted to identify rigorously the typical sequences of communicative
signals produced by red-capped mangabeys, completing previous descriptions of gestural, facial and
vocal communication in this species (Schel et al., under review; Aychet et al. in press; Bouchet et al.
2010). We found that captive mangabeys frequently produce communication signals in sequences,
particularly combining different signal types and modalities in a flexible way. Our results brought to
light contextual and socio-demographic effects on such complex communication, which gives
perspectives to test for current hypotheses on multimodal communication functions. Network analysis
permitted to visualize the signal combinations among communicative sequences, and network measures
showed equal relative importance of signal types and modalities in those combinations. We believe that
applying the present analysis methods to the communication of other species and in different
environments should permit reliable comparisons to investigate the causes leading to multimodal and
multicomponent communication.
One first aspect that could permit to enhance the reliability of these future comparisons of
multimodal and multicomponent communication is the temporal definition used to identify signal
combinations. Instead of using different arbitrary criterion to identify signal combinations, basing the
temporal definition on observed between-signal latencies would allow to both use a relevant analysis
time-window in regard of the species biology, while using the same method from one study to another.
Applying here the same graphical method as in studies on vocal exchanges (Lemasson et al., 2010, 2018;
Levréro et al., 2019), we identified 479 communicative sequences in total in our sample, which could
then be grouped in 10 categories based on their composition. This clustering of communicative
sequences was performed using the toolbox {TraMineR} on R (Gabadinho et al., 2011), initially
developed for social science but which could be applied to any sequence analysis. The clustering of
communicative sequences based on their similarities allows identifying the typical signal sequences
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produced in a population, while conserving the observed variability in the analysis. Moreover, sequence
index plots and network diagrams permit rapid visualisation of communicative sequence variability and
of common signal combinations. To analyse the signal combination network in a population, numerous
network analyses softwares exist, such as SOCPROG 2.9 software (Whitehead, 2009) that we used, and
a new package was recently developed in R, permitting both statistical measures and network
visualisation (Sosa, Puga-Gonzalez, et al., 2020), which could even facilitate such approach. Overall,
the method we used permitted systematic description of multimodal and multicomponent
communication in an integrated way, taking into account body, facial and vocal signals of their
repertoire (completed from Schel et al., under review, Aychet et al., in press and Bouchet et al. 2010),
that were delivered on the visual, audible and/or tactile modality. We focused here on these three
sensory modalities, which are the most investigated in primate communication (Liebal et al., 2014b),
but we note that red-capped mangabey communication may even encompass other sensory channels,
which would need specific methods to be measured. For instance, although this has rarely been
investigated in catarrhine species, “presenting rear” in sexual context may be a way for females to
deliver olfactory signals (Dixson, 2015; Liebal et al., 2014b; Reichert et al., 2002), and some other
mangabey body signals are likely to be perceived on the seismic modality, such as “bang object”, which
typically provoke tremors of substrates, in addition of noise.
We found that the major part of mangabey signal instances were produced in sequences, i.e.
70% of their body signals, 79% of facial ones and 71% of vocalisations, and most sequences were
multicomponent and/or multimodal. Captive mangabeys of all sex and age categories produced
communication signals in sequences. Nevertheless, the typical communicative sequences produced by
captive red-capped mangabeys (grouped in 10 categories) were generally produced under specific social
contexts, and we found significant effects of signaller’s age, sex and relationship with the receiver on
the production of communicative sequence types. This permits to refine the previous descriptions of
mangabeys’ communication from “unimodal” studies. For instance, even though we did not found any
effect of dominance relationship and kinship between the signaller and the receiver regarding the
production of facial displays when studied alone (Aychet et al. in press), we report here significant
effects of these social factors on the production of communicative sequences involving facial signals.
The context-specificity of sequence production may be in favour of the “refinement hypothesis”, which
suggest that combining one signal with another permits the first one to be accurately understood by the
receiver (Fröhlich & van Schaik, 2018). As a matter of fact, when looking at the contexts of signal
production, facial expressions and vocalizations were identified as context-specific (Aychet et al., in
press; Bouchet et al., 2010), but red-capped mangabeys have been suggested to produce gestures in a
flexible way across different contexts (Schel et al. under review). This “means-ends dissociation”
(Bruner, 1981) may imply that some gestures have different possible meanings and need to be combined
with facial expressions or vocalizations to encode the specific signaller’s intention (Moore, 2014).
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Investigation at the signal-level, using the same approach as proposed by Genty (2019), should permit
to test for this hypothesis, comparing receiver response to one specific signal when produced alone, or
in combination with whether one or another signal. The present description permits to identify, in the
repertoire of red-capped mangabeys, the signals that are the most frequent, and the most frequently
produced alone and in combinations with others. We thus believe that the “refinement hypothesis” could
be tested in future studies by investing specifically the meanings of these signals under different uses.
Aside from the context-specificity of each sequence type, we found that different social contexts
affected the production and characteristics of communicative sequences. Playful contexts, and
aggression context in a slightly lower extent, elicit longer, more diverse and complex communicative
sequences, and favour both multimodal and multicomponent communication. Particularly, play elicited
a wide use of body and facial signal combinations, produced on the visual and tactile modalities. Playful
interactions are known to elicit a wider and more flexible use of communication signals in primates than
other contexts, with more diverse signals (e.g. gesture use in apes: Call & Tomasello, 2007; Liebal et
al., 2006; Pika et al., 2003), production of idiosyncratic gestures (e.g. in gorillas: Pika et al., 2003) and
frequent use of signal combinations (e.g. in orangutans Liebal et al., 2006). Thus, more complex
signalling in red-capped mangabeys during play compared to other contexts, particularly for juveniles,
corroborates theories proposing social play as a way to develop behavioural flexibility, notably by
exploring and exercising communicative actions (e.g. Fagen, 1982, 2002; Tomasello et al., 1989). The
length of communicative sequences in play and aggression events may also result from the high level
of arousal in those contexts, compared to affiliation or grooming, as hypothesized for orangutans
gestural sequences (Tempelmann & Liebal, 2012). Another explanation for the observed
communication complexity and multimodal/multicomponent use of signals is the higher need for
context disambiguation in play and aggression, which both imply close contact between interactants
(“refinement hypothesis”). The high proportion of body and facial signal combinations during play
might reflect the use of “open mouth” having the role of metacommunicative signals (Altmann, 1967;
Bateson, 1955; Bekoff, 1975) to elucidate the meaning of agonistic-like gestures (Demuru et al., 2015;
Palagi, 2008; Waller & Cherry, 2012; Waller & Dunbar, 2005). Other contexts, such as grooming or
sexual interactions, elicited less complex communication and mainly unimodal (visual or tactile) and
unicomponent (mainly gestures) sequences of signals. Studies in apes previously report significantly
less signal sequences (e.g. Tempelmann & Liebal, 2012) and less or no multimodal combinations (e.g.
Liebal et al., 2006) in such situations, maybe because of more context-specific signals. Despite being
rare, signal type combinations (particularly body and vocal signals) in sexual context may support the
“complementarity hypothesis”. Indeed, vocalizations in grooming and socio-sexual contexts have been
hypothesized to add informative values to other sensory signals, increasing the efficiency of interactions
and decision making process (Baraud et al., 2016).
203
On the whole, all signal types and modalities seem to have important role in red-capped
mangabey communication and are equally integrated in complex signalling events: most sequences were
multimodal and/or multicomponent; the most frequent signals that were combined with others were of
all types and modalities; the proportion of body, facial and vocal signals produced in sequences were
almost equal. Additionally, we found no difference in combination network measures between signal
types and modalities, except that the clustering coefficient of tactile signals was higher than for audible
ones (possibly because of their wide use in playful interactions). These results show that the
communication of captive mangabeys relies on all these channels with equal importance, suggesting
their complementary roles in communication. This complementarity between signal types, sometimes
distinguished as different “communication systems”, is one key argument for the “multimodal theory”
of language origins, which advocates that human language emerged from the co-evolution of gestural,
vocal and oro-facial communication in the primate lineage, under different ecological and social
constraints (e.g. Arbib et al., 2008; Fröhlich et al., 2019; Ghazanfar et al., 2012; Lemasson & Barbu,
2011; Levinson & Holler, 2014; Liebal et al., 2014; Masataka, 2008; Prieur et al., 2019; Vauclair, 2013).
Therefore, our results confirm that red-capped mangabey communication has to be studied in an
integrated way to take into account its whole complexity, and this might be true for all species
particularly when addressing the origin of complex communication and human language.
In that respect, we believe that the descriptive and quantitative method we used to study
multimodal and multicomponent communication should permit to make reliable comparisons between
species and environments, by enhancing the objectivity of signal sequence description. This should
permit to understand the evolutionary determinants leading to more or less frequent use of multiple
signalling, such as species sociality or arborealism. Indeed, according to the “social complexity
hypothesis” (Dunbar, 2009; Freeberg et al., 2012), species organized in larger groups, with more
complex social interactions, might be more likely to use multimodal or multicomponent signalling than
others. Additionally, arboreal species may rely less on multicomponent communication than others,
because of constraints on the use of gestures, but the modality of signals might be adapted to the distance
of communication (Call & Tomasello, 2007; Lemasson, 2011; Liebal, Pika, et al., 2004). Environmental
factors might also influence the use of multimodal signalling, which is particularly appropriate for short-
distance communication and when animals live in dense habitats (see “efficacy-backup hypothesis”,
Fröhlich & van Schaik, 2018; Hebets & Papaj, 2005; Partan & Marler, 2005), as it is the case for red-
capped mangabeys which naturally live in high and swamp forest (Gautier-Hion et al., 1999; Jones &
Sabater-Pi, 1968; Orimaye, 2017). Comparisons of primate populations living in different environments
could also permit to assess the effect of captivity on the frequency of multimodal and multicomponent
signalling, giving important insights into the function of multimodal communication. Specifically, the
“multiple message hypothesis”, which suggest that multiple signals convey different information that
complete each-others (Fröhlich & van Schaik, 2018; Johnstone, 1996; Moller & Pomiankowski, 1993;
204
CHAPITRE V – COMMUNICATION MULTIMODALE ET MULTICOMPOSANTE
Partan & Marler, 1999), predicts that multimodal and multicomponent communication would be more
frequent in captivity, due to more socially complex environments and short-distance interactions
(Fröhlich & van Schaik, 2018). On the contrary, the “efficacy-backup hypothesis”, which states that
multimodality serves to overcome environmental constraints and increase the perceptibility of signals
(Fröhlich & van Schaik, 2018; Hebets & Papaj, 2005), predicts that less-dense captive environments
would elicit more frequent visual and unimodal signals than in the wild (Fröhlich & van Schaik, 2018).
Conclusion
Conflict of interests: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgements : We are thankful to Arnaud Rossard and Philippe Bec for taking care of the
monkeys and for their flexibility regarding our observation schedule, and to Véronique Guyot for her
advice on statistical analyses.
205
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Analyses complémentaires
Suite à la description des séquences de signaux produits par les mangabeys, des analyses
complémentaires de nos données d’observation ont été réalisées afin d’explorer la fonction des
combinaisons de signaux chez les mangabeys à collier, en termes d’efficacité de la communication.
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Hypothèse 1 : Les combinaisons de signaux sont le reflet d’une persistance ou d’une
élaboration de la communication en cas d’échec d’un premier signal.
Selon cette hypothèse, un signal qui ne recevrait pas de réponse de la part du receveur devrait
plus probablement être suivi de nouveaux signaux communicatifs de la part de l’initiateur, en
comparaison à un signal ayant reçu une réponse. Ces nouveaux signaux seraient soit des répétitions du
signal initial (persistance), soit des signaux différents (élaboration). Pour chaque mangabey ayant
produit des séquences de signaux (N = 24), nous avons extrait les occurrences de signaux dits
« indépendants », c’est-à-dire produits seuls ou initiant une séquence communicative. Nous avons
ensuite comparé la probabilité qu’un signal initie une séquence communicative, selon qu’une réponse
du receveur soit observée ou non, une réponse étant définie comme un changement de comportement
de la part du receveur entre les 5 secondes précédant et suivant le signal. Pour cela, un modèle linéaire
généralisé mixte (GLMM) de type binomial a été utilisé, avec pour effets aléatoires le signal utilisé, le
contexte de production, et les identités du signaleur et du receveur. Nous n’avons alors pas trouvé d’effet
significatif de la réponse du receveur sur la probabilité que le signal initie une séquence communicative
(Figure 1, X21 = 2.554, P = 0.110).
L’hypothèse 1 ne semble donc pas vérifiée. Néanmoins, une analyse plus détaillée de la réponse
du receveur serait nécessaire pour l’écarter complètement. En effet, les mangabeys pourraient chercher
à améliorer l’efficacité de leur communication non seulement en l’absence de réponse du receveur, mais
également lorsque celui-ci donne une réponse qui est insatisfaisante. Nos précédentes observations ont
mis en évidence la capacité des mangabeys à persister dans leur communication gestuelle lorsqu’ils
n’atteignaient pas leur but (voir Article 1). Si cette capacité à produire davantage de signaux de manière
tactique existe chez les mangabeys à collier, elle ne semble en tout cas pas être la seule fonction des
combinaisons de signaux.
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Selon cette hypothèse, un même signal ne devrait pas être observé dans le même contexte selon
qu’il soit produit seul ou combiné à d’autres, et ne devrait pas éliciter les mêmes réponses chez le
receveur. Afin d’étudier cette hypothèse, nous nous sommes intéressés aux signaux les plus
communément combinés à d’autres et produits dans une variété de contextes sociaux chez les
mangabeys à collier : les gestes « grab body part » et « throw arm ».
Nous avons tout d’abord comparé la distribution des différents contextes de production de ces
signaux, selon qu’ils soient produits seuls ou au sein de séquences communicatives, grâce à des tests
exacts de Fisher dont les p-values ont été corrigées avec la méthode FDR. Dans les deux cas, la
distribution des contextes de production des gestes « grab body part » et « throw arm » différaient d’une
distribution théorique basée sur le budget temps des mangabeys (tests exacts de Fisher : P < 0.001 pour
chacune de ces comparaisons). De plus, les contextes n’étaient pas les mêmes selon que ces gestes soient
produits seuls ou combinés à d’autres signaux (Figure 2). En particulier, les ratio de « grab body part »
produits en contexte socio-sexuel et en contexte de jeu différaient (P < 0.001), ce geste étant davantage
produit seul en contexte sexuel et combiné à d’autres signaux en contexte de jeu. Le même effet a été
trouvé pour les ratio de « throw arm » produits en contextes de jeu et d’agression (P = 0.048), ce geste
étant davantage retrouvé en contexte d’agression lorsque produit seul, et en contexte de jeu lorsque
combiné à d’autres signaux.
Ces résultats supportent l’hypothèse que certains signaux permettent de clarifier le sens de ceux
auxquels ils sont combinés. Ils sont appuyés par les observations préliminaires que nous avons faites
des comportements des receveurs suite à la production de « grab body part » et « throw arm » seuls ou
au sein de séquences communicatives. La Figure 3 représente les proportions de comportements du
receveur relevés dans les 5 secondes suivant la production du signal, lorsqu’une réponse était observée.
Le nombre d’occurrences des gestes seuls étant trop faible pour permettre une analyse statistique, ces
résultats sont uniquement descriptifs. Alors que les gestes « grab body part » et « throw arm » seuls
semblent principalement provoquer la fuite du receveur, ainsi que l’acceptation d’un contact sexuel dans
le cas de « grab body part », leur utilisation en combinaison à d’autres signaux paraît éliciter plus
fréquemment des comportements de jeu.
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Figure 2. Distribution des contextes de production des gestes « grab body part » (a) et « throw arm »
(b) seuls ou combinés à d’autres signaux communicatifs. Les proportions des différents contextes de
production des signaux seuls ou en combinaison ont été comparés entre eux et à une distribution
théorique grâce à des tests exacts de Fisher. *** : P < 0.001 ; N : nombre d’occurrences du geste.
Figure 3. Comportements du receveur observés dans les 5 secondes suivant la production des gestes
« grab body part » (a) et « throw arm » (b) seuls ou en combinaisons, lorsqu’une réponse a été observée.
N : nombre d’occurrences du geste.
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Chapitre VI
Intentionnalité et
multimodalité des gestes :
Approche expérimentale
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CHAPITRE VI – APPROCHE EXPERIMENTALE
Article 5
1. Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie animale et humaine) - UMR 6552, F-35000
Rennes, France
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-69847-6
Cette étude a fait l’objet d’une communication orale au 32ème colloque de la Société Francophone de
Primatologie (SFDP), 2-5 Octobre 2019, Parc de Branféré, France.
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CHAPITRE VI – APPROCHE EXPERIMENTALE
SYNTHESE DE L’ARTICLE 5
Contexte
La sensibilité à l’état attentionnel du receveur et l’adaptation de la communication au comportement de
celui-ci sont des marqueurs clés de communication flexible et intentionnelle. De précédentes
observations ont montré que la communication gestuelle intraspécifique des mangabeys à collier
présentait des marques d’intentionnalité. De plus, une première expérience a été mise en place,
impliquant une communication avec un humain, et a montré que la fréquence des gestes des mangabeys
dépendait de l’état attentionnel de leur receveur (perçu via l’orientation de sa tête et de son corps).
Méthode
Cherchant à caractériser plus finement l’effet du comportement du receveur sur la communication
gestuelle et multimodale des mangabeys, nous avons réalisé une expérience impliquant une quémande
alimentaire envers un humain. Un nouveau dispositif a été mis au point, permettant aux mangabeys de
se déplacer autour de l’expérimentateur et d’utiliser différentes modalités (visuelle ou acoustique) pour
communiquer. Quinze mangabeys à collier ont été testés, selon plusieurs conditions expérimentales en
faisant varier l’état attentionnel de l’expérimentateur (i.e. posture de la tête et du corps) ou sa réponse
aux gestes des mangabeys, satisfaisante ou non (i.e. récompense alimentaire donnée ou non).
Résultats
Les mangabeys ont produit des gestes de quémande en face de l’expérimentateur uniquement, et en
alternant le regard entre leur receveur et la récompense alimentaire. Quand l’expérimentateur leur
tournait le dos, les mangabeys se déplaçaient de manière à se repositionner dans le champ visuel de
celui-ci, mais n’ont pas utilisé de signaux acoustiques pour attirer son attention. A la différence des
grands singes dans des conditions similaires, les mangabeys n’ont pas élaboré leur communication en
cas d’absence de réponse satisfaisante de leur receveur. En revanche, ils ont répété leurs gestes lorsque
leur but n’était pas atteint (persistance), et n’ont pas produit de gestes lorsque les positions du receveur
et de la récompense étaient dissociées.
Conclusion
Ces résultats permettent de confirmer la capacité des mangabeys à adapter leur communication visuelle
au comportement de leur receveur : leurs gestes sont dirigés, dépendant de l’attention visuelle du
receveur, et répétés en cas d’échec d’un premier signal. Cependant, les mangabeys semblent ne pas
utiliser la modalité acoustique de manière flexible pour attirer l’attention ou élaborer leur
communication.
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www.nature.com/scientificreports
Intentionality of non-human primate communication is a key feature for the study of language origins1,2. The
first degree of intentionality, first formulated by Dennett3 and studied in animal communication, corresponds to
a signal voluntarily transmitted by a signaller toward a recipient in order to change the latter’s behaviour4,5, the
signaller choosing between different strategies to achieve its social goal6. Behavioural indicators, mainly adapted
from human developmental studies (e.g.7), enable the assessment of the intentionality of a communication signal,
notably by evaluating whether the signaller acts as if the signal is social- and goal-directed or not8–10. Among these
indicators, the social use of the signal, the sensitivity to and manipulation of recipient’s attentional state, as well as
the goal-dependent persistence and elaboration in signalling, are critical markers of intentional communication.
Therefore, intentionality may be reflected by the effect that the presence and characteristics of a recipient
may have on the communication, including the adaptation of the signaller to the recipient’s attentional state or
its understanding of the signal (e.g.8–11). Studies addressing this topic on primate gestural communication have
focussed mainly on apes, showing that their gestures can be intentional (see reviews:5,12,13), while few studies
focus on other non-human primate species9,14. Intentionality markers accompanying non-human primates’
gestural communication can be studied by observing intraspecific interactions (e.g.15–20), however control of
the recipient’s behaviour cannot be applied practically in this context to evaluate rigorously the effects of dif-
ferent characteristics. Consequently, intentionality of non-human primate gestures is often investigated at an
interspecific level through an experimental approach, using setups in which subjects produce learnt begging or
pointing gestures directed towards a human, in order to obtain a food reward (e.g.21–33).
Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie animale et humaine) - UMR 6552, 35000 Rennes, France.
*
email: [email protected]
Vol.:(0123456789)
www.nature.com/scientificreports/
The social use of begging gestures, that is, the effect of the mere presence of a recipient on the production of
the gestures, is a requirement to qualify them as communicative, and thus to study their intentionality9,10,12,34,35.
It has been evidenced in great apes (chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes, bonobos, Pan paniscus, orangutans, Pongo
pygmaeus, gorillas, Gorilla gorilla: e.g.21,24,34,36), but also in several monkey species (Tonkean, rhesus and bonnet
macaques, Macaca tonkeana, M. mulatta and M. radiata31,33,37,38; olive baboons, Papio anubis28,29; capuchins,
Cebus apella39,40; and squirrel monkeys, Saimiri sciureus26). Moreover, pointing and begging gestures in great
apes are accompanied by gaze alternations between the recipient and the food21,35,36,41,42, considered an indica-
tor of intentional communication acquisition during human development43,44. This has been evidenced also in
some monkey species’ interspecific gestures (i.e. squirrel monkeys45; olive baboons46,47; Tonkean and rhesus
macaques31,38).
While the effect of recipient’s presence reveals the social-dependency of a signal, sensitivity to recipient’s
attentional state also reflects the fact that signaller intends to direct its signal in order to reach its goal9,10. In
that regard, Roberts et al.48–50 suggested that intentional gestures themselves evolved from the need to direct
effectively the recipient’s attention to the goal. To adapt its gestural communication to its recipient’s attentional
state, a signaller can use different modalities (visual, acoustic, tactile) or display attention-getters before produc-
ing a visual gesture51. The first demonstration was made by Tomasello and colleagues52, based on observations
of chimpanzees displaying different gestural modalities depending on the recipient’s visual attentional state.
Then this trait was reported for all great ape genera based on both observational and experimental data (e.g.
chimpanzees19,22,34,53,54; bonobos15,55; orangutans16,20,56; and gorillas18,56). Another strategy to deal with recipi-
ent’s attentional state is to move to a position in the recipient’s visual field before gesturing. Reports showed that
chimpanzees moved so that they could stay in front of their human recipient before gesturing23, and a recent
study demonstrated this ability in wild bonnet macaques33. To our knowledge, this has not yet been investigated
in other catarrhine or platyrrhine monkeys, although several species are known to be sensitive to a recipient’s
attentional state for displaying begging gestures, based on the human’s head or body posture (olive baboons28;
red-capped mangabeys27; Tonkean and rhesus macaques31,38; capuchin monkeys39,40).
Moreover, the flexibility of monkeys’ gestural communication regarding their strategy to deal with their
recipient’s response has been poorly studied (but see recent reports on olive baboons57 and bonnet macaques58).
Indeed, after a signal has been emitted the recipient can either respond favourably regarding the signaller’s goal,
not respond at all, or respond in an incongruent way. In an intentional communication event, a signaller can be
expected to act strategically in order to reach its goal, and so to persist (by repeating the signal) or to elaborate
its communication (by modulating the signal or using new ones) when the recipient does not give a satisfying
answer9,10. Both persistence and elaboration were brought to light in great apes12,13,59,60, notably using experimen-
tal paradigms of interspecific communication where a human either does not give a response or gives a partial
response to an ape’s begging gestures8,25.
In the current study, we addressed all these aspects of intentionality on the gestural communication of a still
poorly studied species of catarrhine monkeys, the red-capped mangabey (Cercocebus torquatus), via an experi-
mental approach in captivity. An observational study previously showed that red-capped mangabeys’ gestures
were adapted to their recipient’s attentional state and accompanied by other indices of intentionality such as
goal persistence [Schel et al., under review]. Moreover, a first study in controlled conditions showed that red-
capped mangabeys produced learnt begging gestures towards a human experimenter preferentially when the
latter was facing them27. Our aim here is to characterise more precisely the gestural communication strategies
that mangabeys adopt to deal with changes of the recipient’s attentional state, and complete the previous find-
ings by evaluating other aspects of intentional communication. For this purpose, we used a novel experimental
setup that allowed the subjects to move freely around the experimenter and to use different sensory modalities
(visual and audible) to communicate. First, we investigated the social-dependency of learnt begging gestures in
red-capped mangabeys, in order to confirm that they were communicative. We hypothesised that (i) red-capped
mangabeys would produce them only in the presence of a human recipient and (ii) would display gaze alternation
while gesturing. Second, we studied the effect of changes in the recipient’s attentional state, based on change of
head and body postures. We hypothesised that mangabeys (iii) would produce less begging gestures in front of
an inattentive than an attentive recipient, (iv) would position themselves in the visual field of their recipient to
communicate, or (v) would use audible attention-getters when gesturing in front of the recipient was not pos-
sible. Third, we tested the effect of different recipient’s response on the gestural communication of mangabeys,
hypothesising that (vi) they would persist in gesturing if the recipient did not respond favourably to their beg-
ging, or (vii) would elaborate their communication visually (by changing their gesture amplitude, or producing
other visual signals) or acoustically (by producing audible gestures or vocalisations).
Methods
Ethical note. The current study and its experimental procedure have been approved by the Rennes Ethical
Committee for Animal Experiment (Authorization N°2019012915271260). The living conditions of the captive
mangabeys at the Station Biologique de Paimpont (University Rennes 1, France) follow all applicable interna-
tional, national and institutional guidelines for the care and use of animals, and are regularly monitored by the
local responsible authorities [Housing agreement for research D35-211-18, delivered by the “Direction Départe-
mentale de la Cohésion Sociale et de la Protection des Populations” (DDCSPP)].
Subjects and housing conditions. We tested the effect of a recipient’s presence and characteristics on the
gestural communication of fifteen red-capped mangabeys (C. torquatus). Our subjects were ten females and five
males between 4 and 31 years old (Table 1), living in social groups of two to thirteen individuals, whose compo-
sitions had been stable for at least 20 months. These mangabeys were housed in outdoor-indoor enclosures of
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different sizes (from 8 to 26.4 m2 for indoor enclosures, 14.7–37.2 m2 for outdoor enclosures, and height from
2.5 to 4.4 m). Indoor temperature was maintained at 22 °C, and enclosures were enriched with wood and metal
perches, chains and hessian ribbons. The floor of the indoor enclosures was covered with straw and sawdust,
while the floor of the outdoor enclosures was covered with cement or bark. Mangabeys were fed twice a day with
fresh fruits, vegetables and monkey chow, and water was available ad libitum.
These experiments were conducted between January and April 2019, in the morning or in the afternoon,
always before feeding. The tests took place in two outdoor enclosures (A and B, Table 1), depending on the
focal social group, each time in the subjects’ home cage or an adjacent one. Subjects were trained and tested
alone, in physical isolation from their social group but this setup allowed visual and auditory contact with their
conspecifics.
Experimental setup. The experimenter was placed in a cubic cage (1.70 × 1.70 × 1.70 m), built for the occa-
sion, in the centre of the test area, thus allowing the subjects to move freely around the experimental setup
(Fig. 1a). The experimenter was seated on a 20 cm-high platform, and was able to turn his body towards one side
of the cage or another. The metallic grid composing the cage was tight enough to prevent the mangabeys from
sticking an arm directly through it (dimensions 2 × 2 cm). Plates of Plexiglas (20 × 40 cm) were hooked on two
opposite sides of the cage, with two apertures (diameter 6 cm, 7 cm apart horizontally) through which mang-
abeys could produce begging gestures (Fig. 1b). The height of the begging-plates was adjustable in relation to the
size of the subject (i.e. positioned at the level of the subject’s shoulders: 35 cm for juveniles and adult females,
and 50 cm for adult males). Velcro strips were placed above ‘begging apertures’, allowing the experimenter to fix
a row of four hanging metallic bells, thus begging through the corresponding aperture was audible. During the
tests, the bells were hung only above one aperture of each begging plate, so that the mangabeys could chose to
beg through an aperture with or without bells. Moreover, an opaque PVC plate could be fixed on the apertures,
to prevent begging gestures on one side of the cage.
Training and habituation. Begging gesture training. Begging gestures studied here correspond to an
extension of the arm with hand open in the direction of a recipient in order to obtain a reward. Given that
red-capped mangabeys do not naturally produce this type of gesture, all our subjects were trained to produce
them before conducting the tests. Some subjects had already been trained to produce pointing and/or begging
gestures for previous experiments and others were naive (Table 1), yet we used the same methodology for all
individuals, ritualizing reaching actions into gestures. Applying the same procedure as in previous studies28,29,31,
each training session was composed of three steps during which the experimenter presented a peanut in front
of the mangabey, increasing progressively the distance between the reward and the subject. First, the mangabey
was able to grasp the reward directly on the hand of the experimenter; second, the reward was held at the limit
of the subject’s reach, and given as soon as the extension of the arm was produced; finally, the peanut was out of
subject’s reach and was given only when the arm was extended towards it with hand open, without any grasping
movement. Daily training sessions of 5–20 min were performed until the criterion of two consecutive sessions
with only valid begging gestures was reached (between 2 and 5 sessions were needed, depending on the subject),
and were then regularly performed until the experiments took place. Begging gestures were considered valid if
they did not imply any rotation of the subject’s body to reach the reward and any grasping actions at the end
of arm extension. Training sessions were performed in the indoor enclosure of the subjects’ home cage, using
the same begging-plates as the ones used subsequently during the experiments, but without the bells (Fig. 1b).
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Figure 1. Experimental setup and procedure. (a) The experimenter was placed in a cubic cage in the centre of
the test area and presented a peanut in his hands. The mangabey could thus beg for the reward and move freely
around the experimenter. (b) Begging-plates were fixed on two opposite sides of the cage, with two apertures
above which it was possible to fix a row of bells so that begging gestures would be audible. (c) The presence and
attentional state of the experimenter, as well as his responsiveness (i.e. rewarding behaviour) varied with the
experimental condition.
Habituation to the bells. Once the mangabeys had acquired the begging gesture, we habituated them to beg
with bells hanging in front of the begging apertures, for them to experiment the sound production resulting
from the manipulation of the bells, and to reduce neophobia of these objects. Thus, rows of bells were hung above
both apertures of the begging-plates (Fig. 1b). We followed the same training procedure as before, alternating
training sessions with and without bells, and the same criterion of two consecutive valid sessions was required
(between 2 and 7 sessions were needed depending on the subject). These training sessions were then repeated
regularly until the experiments took place.
Habituation to the test area and to the cage setup. Two sessions of 10 min—habituation to the test area and
to the cage setup were carried out for each individual. Subjects were introduced individually into the test area
where the experimenter was sitting inside the cage, presenting a peanut in his hand in front of one of the beg-
ging-plates. Subjects could explore the area freely and were encouraged to produce begging gestures, as during
the trainings, alternatively through the two accessible sides of the cage.
Experimental procedure. The experimenter sat in the centre of the cage and presented a peanut in his
hands at an unreachable distance from the ‘begging apertures’ (50 cm), hands always joint and approached
at the same time to the subject when rewarding him, to avoid any laterality bias. The experimenter’s head and
body positions and his rewarding behaviour varied with the experimental condition (Fig. 1c). Each subject was
exposed to seven different experimental conditions. At the end of each trial, the subject was rewarded regardless
of its response. All test trials started when the mangabey positioned itself in front of one begging plate, where it
had been rewarded during the preceding trial to standardize the beginning of the trials.
During the positive control condition (C+), the experimenter held a reward in front of him in a standardized
position (as during training), with his head and eyes directed towards the subject. The reward was given to the
mangabey after 10 s, regardless of its gestural communication27. The “head up” condition (HU) was the same as
the positive control condition and lasted 10 s, but the experimenter had modified his attentional state by chang-
ing the direction of his head and eyes, to look upwards. In the “body turned” (BT) condition, the experimenter
also modified his attentional state by turning his body and head in the opposite direction, but maintained the
reward on the same side, i.e. holding the peanut behind his back. After 10 s, the experimenter moved back to his
initial position and rewarded the subject. To evaluate mangabeys’ use of attention-getters when they were not
able to communicate facing their recipient, we presented a condition where the experimenter’s body and head
were turned away from the subject and the ‘begging apertures’ in front of the experimenter were blocked with
an opaque plate (BTP condition). The “no response” condition (NR) was similar to the positive control, except
that the experimenter did not respond (i.e. give the reward) after the first 10 s (NR.a), and waited instead for
10 supplementary seconds (NR.b) before rewarding the subject. During the “wrong response” condition (WR),
the experimenter mimicked giving a reward after 10 s (WR.a) and then took up again the same position as in
the positive control condition for 10 more seconds (WR.b) to evaluate whether the subjects would persist or
elaborate their begging gestures after not receiving the expected response. In this condition, in order to carry
the exact same action of rewarding but without making the peanut reachable to the monkey, the reward was put
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on the ground in front of the experimenter instead of in the experimenter’s hands (see Supplementary Video S1
for examples of each experimental condition).
Each mangabey was subjected to two experimental sessions (2 × 9 trials in a row), each one included the six
abovementioned conditions plus three “motivational trials” (as in Maille et al.’s study27) presented in a random
order. Motivational trials were similar to the positive control trials but, contrarily to the experimental trials, the
subjects were rewarded as soon as they produced a begging gesture. Moreover, before or after each session, we
carried out a negative control trial (C−) for which the experimenter was absent but a reward was visible in the
centre of the cage, to evaluate whether begging gestures would be performed in the absence of a human recipient.
The two experimental sessions were separated by 1–12 days according to the subject.
We randomized the order of the conditions within a session, and semi-randomized the order in which
the individuals were tested (taking into account subjects’ social groups and dominance rank within groups).
Moreover, we balanced, between sessions of each subject, the position of the bells (above the left or right begging
aperture), the direction of rotation of the experimenter when he turned his body (towards the left or towards the
right), and the order of the negative control trial (before or after presentation of the other conditions).
Data collection. Video recording and coding. The experimental sessions were recorded from inside the test
cage by two GoPro White Hero 7 cameras attached to the experimenter’s chest and back, so that monkeys were
visible on videos of both ‘begging sides’ of the cage. Moreover, a JVC Full HD GZ-RX615 camcorder was posi-
tioned outside the test area. Videos were then extracted and coded by a first observer using the software BORIS
v.5.1.061. Videos taken from inside the cage were used to code the gestures and gazes of the mangabeys during
the experiment, and the videos taken from outside were used to code the movements of the subjects around
the cage. The detailed variables collected are presented in Table 2. In order to characterize mangabeys’ begging
gestures depending on experimental conditions, as well as the potential communication elaboration or use of
attention-getters, we recorded: the number of begging gestures produced, the latency for first gesture, the gesture
amplitude, the aperture chosen to beg and the number of any other communicative signals. We quantified gaze
alternations, which are indicator of intentional communication43,44, and upward gazes, which were considered as
indices of monkeys’ perception of the experimenter’s attentional state in HU condition. Finally, in order to assess
whether mangabeys preferred to position themselves in the visual field of their recipient, we quantified the time
spent in different locations, and recorded whether they circumvented the cage and on which side.
Inter‑observer reliability. In order to assess the reliability of the video coding, a second observer coded the
behavioural variables for eight random experimental sessions, corresponding to 27% of the total amount of
data. We computed Kendall’s coefficients of concordance for the quantitative variables (gazes, begging gestures,
latency for first gesture, time spent in different locations) and Cohen’s kappa coefficients for the qualitative
one (gesture amplitude)62. A strong agreement63,64 was found between the two observers (Gaze alternations:
W = 0.833, P < 0.001; Upward gazes: W = 0.886, P < 0.001; Begging gestures: W = 0.958, P < 0.001; Latency for first
gesture: W = 0.882, P < 0.001; Time spent in front, in the back of the experimenter and away from begging sides:
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Figure 2. (a) Number of begging gestures produced and (b) time spent away from the ‘begging side’ of the cage
(in seconds) in relation to the experimenter’s presence and attentional state. Individual data are plotted as means
of sessions A and B. C− experimenter absent, C+ experimenter facing reward and subject, HU head up, BT body
turned, BTP body turned and opaque plate blocking begging apertures in front of the experimenter. GLMM
negative binomial was used to analyse the number of begging gestures (a) and LMM to analyse the time spent
away from the ‘begging side’ of the cage (b). Different lower-case letters indicate significant differences between
conditions (P < 0.05).
W = 0.944, P < 0.001, W = 0.964, P < 0.001 and W = 0.919, P < 0.001 respectively; Gesture amplitude: κ = 0.841, ,
P < 0.001).
Data analysis. We used R. 3.5.0 software65 to run all statistical tests and models. All tests were two-tailed
and alpha-level was always set at 0.05. First, to assess the effect of the recipient’s presence and attentional state, we
compared the mangabeys’ behaviour between C− (absence), C+ (presence), HU (head up), BT and BTP (body
turned without and with opaque plate) conditions. Then, we analysed the effect of the recipient’s responsiveness.
Within the NR condition, we compared the first 10 s (NR.a) and the last 10 s (NR.b) to assess the effect of receiv-
ing no response from the recipient on the mangabeys’ communication gestures. Similarly, C+, WR.a and WR.b
conditions were compared to assess the effect of a wrong response from the recipient.
Therefore, generalized linear mixed models (GLMM) and linear mixed models (LMM) were used to ana-
lyse the following behavioural variables depending on the relevant experimental conditions (see Supplemen-
tary Table S1 for detailed list of models used): number of begging gestures, latencies for first begging gestures,
proportions of inhibited and amplified begging gestures, proportions of audible begging gestures, change of
begging apertures when gesturing, number of gaze alternations, number of upward gazes, as well as the time
that mangabeys spent in front or behind the experimenter, or away from the begging sides of the cage. In each
statistical model, the individual, the experimental session and the order of the different conditions within the
session were taken into account as random effects. Model quality was assessed by verifying the normality of the
residuals, using normal probability plots. When comparing more than two conditions, p-values were adjusted
for multiple comparisons using the “False Discovery Rate” (FDR) method, controlling the proportion of false
significant p-values66.
We tested the correlation between the number of begging gestures and the number of gaze alternations using
a Spearman correlation test. Finally, the proportions of individuals who circumvented the cage when the experi-
menter turned his body, and the proportions of individuals who followed the same side as the experimenter when
circumventing the cage, were all tested to differ from a random distribution using exact binomial tests, and were
compared between conditions using Fisher’s exact tests for count data.
Results
Effect of presence and attentional state of the recipient. Presence of a recipient. Red-capped man-
gabeys produced approximately 4.5 begging gestures (Median ± IQR = 4.5 ± 2.5) per trial when the experimenter
was present and facing them (C+), while no begging gestures were produced when the experimenter was absent
(Fig. 2a, GLMM negative binomial C− vs C+: Z = − 3.915, P < 0.001. See Supplementary Table S2 for detailed
results of all models). Moreover, when the experimenter was absent, the subjects spent more time away from the
‘begging side’ of the cage than during the C+ condition (Fig. 2b, LMM C− vs C+ : t = 7.095, P < 0.001). Further-
more, the number of begging gestures produced during the C+ condition was significantly positively correlated
with the number of gaze alternations between the reward and the experimenter (Fig. 3, Spearman correlation:
S = 179.65, rs = 0.679, P = 0.005).
Attentional state of the recipient: change of head position. Neither numbers of begging gestures (GLMM nega-
tive binomial C+ vs HU: Z = 1.487, P = 0.196) nor latencies before first begging gesture differed significantly
between C+ and HU (Fig. 2a, GLMM Gamma C+ vs HU: t = − 0.247, P = 0.960). However, mangabeys exhib-
ited significantly less gaze alternations when the experimenter held his head up than in the control condition
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Figure 3. Begging gestures produced by mangabeys in relation to number of gaze alternations between the
experimenter and the reward in the positive control condition.
Figure 4. Upward gazes in relation to the experimenter’s presence and head position. Individual data are
plotted as means of sessions A and B. C− experimenter absent, C+ experimenter facing reward and subject; HU:
Head up. GLMM Poisson: ***P < 0.001; ns non-significant difference.
(GLMM Poisson C+ vs HU: Z = − 2.679, P = 0.007), and they exhibited more upward gazes (Fig. 4, GLMM Pois-
son C+ vs HU: Z = 3.630, P < 0.001).
Attentional state of the recipient: change of body position. Red-capped mangabeys produced few or no begging
gestures when the experimenter turned his body away (Fig. 2a, GLMM negative binomial BT vs C+: Z = − 6.954,
P < 0.001, BT vs C−: Z = − 2.865, P = 0.006), and there were no significant differences between BT and BTP condi-
tions (GLMM negative binomial BT vs BTP: Z = 0.417, P = 0.846). Almost all individuals circumvented the cage
when the experimenter turned his body, despite the position of the reward (Exact binomial tests: P < 0.001 for
BT and BTP), while none of them changed side during C+ trials (Fisher exact tests BT vs C+: P < 0.001, BT vs
BTP: P = 1.000). Thus, red-capped mangabeys spent more time away from the ‘begging sides’ of the cage during
BT and BTP than during C+ trials (Fig. 2b, LMM BT and BTP vs C+: t = 5.231 and t = 5.434, P < 0.001), but it
tended to be less than during C− trials (LMM BT and BTP vs C−: t = 2.554, P = 0.062, and t = 2.409, P = 0.066).
Moreover, when circumventing the cage, individuals preferred to use the same side as the experimenter (Exact
binomial tests: P = 0.035 for BT and P = 0.007 for BTP). Taking into account all conditions, subjects spent more
time in front of the experimenter than behind him (LMM ‘Front’ vs ‘Back’: t = 13.607, P < 0.001).
Effect of recipient’s responsiveness. No response. After 10 s without a response from the experiment-
er, subjects produced less begging gestures (Fig. 5a, GLMM Poisson NR.a vs NR.b: Z = − 4.624, P < 0.001), and
the number of gaze alternations decreased (GLMM negative binomial NR.a vs NR.b: Z = − 2.502, P = 0.012). The
amplitude of the gestures did not vary when the experimenter did not answer (Fig. 5b, LMM NR.a vs NR.b:
Z = 1.082, P = 0.285 for Beg−, Z = 1.619, P = 0.114 for Beg+). Moreover, when comparing NR.a and NR.b, subjects
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Figure 5. (a) Begging gestures and (b) proportions of lesser (Beg−) and amplified (Beg+) begging gestures
when the experimenter did not answer. Individual data are plotted as means of sessions A and B. NR.a: first 10 s;
NR.b: last 10 s. GLMM Poisson was used to analyse the numbers of begging gestures and LMM to analyse the
proportions of lesser and amplified begging gestures. ***P < 0.001; ns non-significant difference.
Figure 6. (a) Number of begging gestures and (b) proportion of lesser (Beg−) and amplified (Beg+) begging
gestures when the experimenter gave a wrong response. Individual data are plotted as means of sessions A
and B. WR.a: first 10 s; WR.b: last 10 s, after a false response. GLMM Poisson was used to analyse the number
of begging gestures (a), and LMM to analyse the proportion of lesser and amplified begging gestures (b).
***P < 0.001; *P < 0.050; ns non-significant difference.
did not use more the ‘begging apertures’ with bells (LMM NR.a vs NR.b: t = 0.153, P = 0.879) and did not pro-
duce other communication signals in the direction of the experimenter (visual or vocal).
Wrong response. Numbers of begging gestures produced by the subjects when the experimenter gave a wrong
response, i.e. mimicked rewarding them (Fig. 6a, GLMM Poisson WR.a vs WR.b: Z = 0.511, P = 0.610), and
latencies before first begging gesture (GLMM Gamma WR.a vs WR.b: t = − 0.016, P = 0.988) did not differ sig-
nificantly between WR.a and WR.b. In addition, amplitude of gestures did not vary significantly between WR.a
and WR.b (LMM WR.a vs WR.b: t = − 0.595, P = 0.556 for Beg−, t = 0.616, P = 0.543 for Beg+) and none of the
subjects used the begging aperture with bells or produced other communication signals directed towards the
experimenter.
In fact, very few begging gestures were produced in these situations, i.e. when the reward was on the ground
in front of the experimenter instead of in his hands (Fig. 6a, GLMM Poisson WR.a vs C+: Z = − 8.577, P < 0.001),
and latencies before first beg thus increased (GLMM Gamma WR.a vs C+: t = 5.357, P < 0.001). Moreover, the
gestures produced then were of lesser amplitude than during positive control trials (Fig. 6b, LMM WR.a vs C+:
t = 2.978, P = 0.014), and we observed less gaze alternations (GLMM Poisson WR.a vs C+: Z = − 5.220, P < 0.001).
Discussion
The present study aimed to characterise the effect of recipient’s presence, attentional state and responsiveness
on red-capped mangabeys’ interspecific gestural communication. We showed that the production of learnt beg-
ging gestures depended on the presence and attentional state of the recipient, and our results helped refine our
knowledge on the visual cues used by mangabeys to perceive their recipient’s attentional state. We found that
when the recipient was not facing them, mangabeys moved to a position in their recipient’s visual field. Interest-
ingly, unlike great apes, our mangabeys did not elaborate their communication visually nor acoustically when the
experimenter did not respond or responded incongruently to their begging gestures. Finally, our results suggest
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that, when the recipient was not immediately available to answer (i.e. to give a reward), red-capped mangabeys
inhibited their begging gestures, which may indicate the goal-directedness of these displays.
The fact that begging gestures were produced only in the presence of the experimenter demonstrates that
they are for communication34,35. Moreover, the fact that they were accompanied by gaze alternations between
the recipient and the referent (i.e. reward) may reflect red-capped mangabeys’ ability to master joint attention,
which is notably associated with intentional communication in human infants43,67. In this way, mangabeys may
indeed direct the attention of the experimenter toward the food reward50. This corroborates previous results
showing that gaze alternations accompany learnt begging or pointing gestures in other non-human primate
species (e.g., orangutans21; chimpanzees35,36; olive baboons28,29,47; rhesus and Tonkean macaques31,36; squirrel
monkeys45). In olive baboons, the frequency of gaze alternations during requesting-gesture events was not asso-
ciated with an individual’s communication experience with humans46. Thus, we assume that present results on
gaze alternation in red-capped mangabeys were not conditioned by training but reflect features of spontaneous
visual communication.
Red-capped mangabeys produced begging gestures regardless of the upward direction of the recipient’s head
and eyes. This was surprising regarding previous results showing that they produced less gestures towards an
experimenter when she turned her head laterally27. In our experiment, this change of head posture was how-
ever discriminated since they produced more upward gazes when experimenter’s eyes and head were directed
upwards. Thus, in addition to their ability to follow conspecifics’ gazes68, red-capped mangabeys exhibit abilities
to follow a gaze in interspecific interactions, as do rhesus macaques69. Moreover, we assume that even when
subjects perceive the upward head direction of the experimenter, it does not necessarily mean to them that
the recipient is unable to see their gestures. In a terrestrial species of monkeys such as red-capped mangabeys,
which may keep monitoring their upward environment even during a social interaction, we hypothesise that
head posture is not the most significant cue to predict recipient’s incapacity to perceive their visual gesture.
Instead, we hypothesise that similarly to gorillas or orangutans, this assessment is mainly based on recipient’s
body orientation56,70.
Indeed, as Maille and colleagues27 showed previously, red-capped mangabeys perceived body posture as a cue
of a recipient’s attentional state, as they did not produce any begging gestures when the experimenter turned his
back to them. Moreover, this study sheds a new insight into the strategy that mangabeys adopt to deal with this
change of recipient’s attentional state. Similarly to great apes23 and wild bonnet macaques33, red-capped mang-
abeys moved to position themselves in front of the experimenter, regardless of the position of the reward. They
even chose preferentially the same side as the experimenter to turn around the setup, thus avoiding breaking
visual contact with him just to be able to attempt to grasp the food. Nevertheless, mangabeys did not produce
begging gestures once they had moved in front of the human experimenter in BT condition, and two explanations
could account for this. We believe that when the experimenter was facing the subjects but holding the reward in
his hands behind his back, the mangabeys did not perceive him as ‘available’ to give the food reward directly, so
therefore they did not beg for it. Additionally, together with the fact that mangabeys produced gaze alternations
when gesturing, this suggests that begging gestures could be functionally referential to the food reward35,47,71,
especially considering that previous research highlighted red-capped mangabeys’ ability for referential gestures72.
One could also say that the production of the learnt begging gesture is just not very flexible and that during BT
condition, the experimenter’s posture was too different from the human’s posture during training. Reports on
olive baboons suggest that associative learning plays an important role in their ability to discriminate human
attention cues, yet all communication features of learnt begging gestures do not rely exclusively on training73.
Here, mangabeys did gesture in HU condition, in which the experimenter’s posture was also different from the
one of training phase, which calls into questions the assumption that associative learning would be the only
explanation of our subjects’ behaviour in BT and BTP conditions.
Interestingly, we did not observe any use of vocalisations or auditory gestures as manipulators of the recipient’s
attentional state when the latter turned away, even when an opaque plate prevented begging gestures in front
of the experimenter. This agrees with observations in macaques (rhesus, Tonkean and bonnet macaques31,33,38),
gorillas and orangutans56, who did not produce vocalisations or auditory gestures as getters of attention in similar
interspecific communication contexts. Chimpanzees produce vocalisations preferentially to gestures in front of a
visually-inattentive human22,34; however in a setup when they had the choice to move into their recipient’s visual
field, they did not use any attention-getters23. We thus hypothesise that mangabeys did not use visual or auditory
attention-getters because they preferred to move directly in front of the human they were interacting with. A
supplementary hypothesis is that they do not resort to attention-getters to deal with a recipient’s inattentive state
in such contexts, or prefer to use tactile signals instead of auditory signals, as do olive baboons in intraspecific
communication57, but had no possibility to express them in the present situation.
Mangabeys repeated their gestures in the positive control condition, i.e. when, contrarily to training and
motivational trials, they were not immediately rewarded. However, considering the decrease of begging occur-
rences in NR.b condition, this persistence in gesturing seem to not extend after more than 10 s without receiving
a response from the recipient. Moreover, when the experimenter gave an incongruent response, we expected that
the subjects would persist in the production of begging gestures, as apes can do8,25,36,59,74,75. We noted that red-
capped mangabeys produced the same number of gestures before getting any reward (WR.a) and after obtaining
a wrong response (WR.b), although few gestures were performed in this specific experimental condition. Since
mangabeys did repeat their gestures in the absence of their goal being reached, our hypothesis on communica-
tion persistence as a function of recipient’s responsiveness seems partially verified, and two explanations could
account to explain that the number of begging gestures decreased with time. This could be due to a decrease in
their motivation to communicate with a non-responsive recipient, or be related to the steep hierarchical social
system of red-capped mangabeys76, in which requesting something for too long from a higher-ranking individual
(as could be the experimenter) would be avoided.
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Cartmill and Byrne25 showed that orangutans do not repeat a gesture that is not efficient, but instead elaborate
their communication when they are totally misunderstood by their recipient. Yet, contrary to what we expected
based on results for baboons28 and apes (chimpanzees8,23,36,64,74; bonobos15; gorillas77 and orangutans24), we did
not observe any elaboration in the visual or auditory modality when the recipient did not answer. Even if we
assume that due to the training and habituation to the bells, red-capped mangabeys were able to understand that
bells make a noise and can attract attention, as can do Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata78), they did not use
them as a way to elaborate their begging gesture through the auditory channel. Overall, one hypothesis could be
that red-capped mangabeys’ interspecific communication possesses only a weak flexibility, due to training or to
real interspecific differences with great apes. Other explanations of the absence of elaboration could be related
to a lack of possibility to elaborate in the tactile modality, or a lack of motivation from mangabeys to elaborate
their signalling, since the begging gesture they learnt is already efficient in most cases.
Finally, considering the few begging gestures recorded when the experimenter had his hands behind him (BT
and BTP) or when the reward was on the ground instead of held in his hands (WR), we believe that red-capped
mangabeys inhibited their begging when the recipient was not directly available to give the reward. Indeed,
Kaminski et al.79 suggested that the experimenter’s body posture is not only perceived as a cue of attentional state
but also encodes disposition to answer. Previous results suggested that great apes23,56, bonnet macaques33 and
capuchin monkeys39 produced less begging gestures when the experimenter and the food location were dissoci-
ated. Therefore, this inhibition of gesturing might reflect the fact that red-capped mangabeys are less motivated
to beg when communication is less likely to be efficient and may suggest the ‘aboutness’ of their begging gestures,
in other words their intentionality3,10.
Conclusion
To sum up, this study brings to light the adaptation of red-capped mangabeys’ interspecific visual communica-
tion to their recipient’s behaviour. We observed key features of social-directedness in their begging gestures (i.e.
gestures depend on the presence and visual attentiveness of a recipient and are accompanied by gaze alterna-
tions) and of potential goal-directedness (i.e. gestures depend on the likelihood of recipient to give a satisfying
response), which are indices of intentional communication. Furthermore, we refined our knowledge on the visual
cues mangabeys perceive as indicators of their recipient’s attentional state, and showed that they prefer moving
to maintain visual contact with the recipient instead of using acoustic attention-getters. However, mangabeys did
not exhibit any audible or visual elaboration of their interspecific communication when recipient did not respond
favourably to their gestures. Future research on this species should investigate to what extent the experimental
conditions may affect gesture flexibility, to elucidate the significance of the present results regarding red-capped
mangabeys’ ability to gesture intentionally.
Data availability
All data analysed during this study are available as a supplementary table (Supplementary Table S3).
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Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Maria Galet, Camille Coye and Audrey Maille for prior discussions about the setup design,
and to Ann Cloarec and Katie Collier for correcting the English writing. This study received funds from Rennes
1 University and CNRS, and we thank the Groupement d’Intérêt Scientifique “Nutrition, Alimentation, Métabo-
lisme, Santé” for their support.
Author contributions
J.A., P.P., C.B.H. and A.L. conceived, designed and coordinated the study. P.B. conceived the set-up, P.P. and A.R.
carried out the experiment. P.P. and J.A. performed the statistical analyses and J.A. drafted the manuscript with
C.B.H. and A.L. All authors gave final approval for publication and agreed to be held accountable for the work
performed therein.
competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Supplementary information is available for this paper at https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-69847-6.
Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to J.A.
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CHAPITRE VI – APPROCHE EXPERIMENTALE
Supplementary files
Supplementary Table S1. Mixed models used to analyse mangabeys' behaviour depending on
experimental conditions.
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6/MediaObjects/41598_2020_69847_MOESM1_ESM.pdf
https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41598-020-69847-
6/MediaObjects/41598_2020_69847_MOESM2_ESM.pdf
Supplementary Table S3. Data on red-capped mangabeys' behaviours during the experiment.
https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41598-020-69847-
6/MediaObjects/41598_2020_69847_MOESM3_ESM.xlsx
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6/MediaObjects/41598_2020_69847_MOESM4_ESM.mp4
239
240
Chapitre VII
Discussion générale
241
242
CHAPITRE VII – DISCUSSION GENERALE
1. Principaux résultats
Par une approche observationnelle et expérimentale (Articles 1 et 5), nous avons montré que les
gestes communicatifs des mangabeys sont accompagnés de tous les marqueurs comportementaux définis
pour identifier un signal intentionnel (Townsend et al. 2017). De plus, certains gestes sont utilisés de
manière flexible dans différents contextes (Article 1 et 4S : analyses supplémentaires de l’article 4), et
ce phénomène de « means-ends dissociation » peut être un indicateur d’utilisation stratégique de signaux
pour atteindre un but social précis (Bruner 1981). Conjointement aux résultats récents concernant les
gestes intraspécifiques des babouins olives et des macaques à bonnet (Molesti et al. 2019; Gupta et
Sinha 2019), cela suggère une capacité des cercopithécidés à communiquer intentionnellement grâce à
leurs gestes, y compris des gestes manuels « libres », une capacité jusqu’alors considérée comme unique
aux primates hominoïdes. Nos observations offrent également de premiers éléments en faveur d’une
production intentionnelle d’expressions faciales par les mangabeys à collier (Article 2), et soulignent la
valeur communicative de ces signaux, au-delà de simples indices de l’état émotionnel du signaleur.
Nous n’avons pas décelé de latéralisation significative à échelle individuelle ou populationnelle pour
la production de gestes brachio-manuels intraspécifiques. En revanche, l’analyse multifactorielle que
nous avons utilisée a permis de mettre en lumière un effet important du contexte social sur la main
utilisée par les mangabeys pour communiquer (Article 3). Ces résultats corroborent des observations de
gorilles et de chimpanzés dans leur communication gestuelle spontanée (Prieur et al. 2016a, 2017a), et
nous suggérons qu’une même méthode soit adoptée pour analyser la communication d’autres primates,
en particulier des cercopithécidés, dans la perspective d’une large approche comparative. Les substrats
cérébraux de la communication gestuelle intentionnelle des catarrhiniens sont supposément homologues
aux aires impliquées dans le langage chez l’humain, ainsi l’analyse des facteurs impactant leur latéralité
gestuelle nous renseigne sur les causes ultimes et proximales de la latéralisation du langage (e.g.
Meguerditchian et al. 2013a; Prieur et al. 2019a).
Enfin, nous avons montré que les mangabeys à collier combinent fréquemment différents types et
modalités de signaux dans leur communication intraspécifique, et ce de manière flexible, en fonction du
contexte et des caractéristiques sociodémographiques du signaleur et du receveur (Article 4). La
fonction d’une telle complexité de la communication chez les primates est encore indéterminée (e.g.
Fröhlich et van Schaik 2018). Nos résultats suggèrent une utilisation flexible de différents types et
243
modalités de signaux par les mangabeys non pas pour élaborer la communication en cas d’échec d’un
premier signal (Article 4S et 5), mais possiblement comme un moyen d’affiner le message convié par
un signal (notamment gestuel) lorsque celui-ci est associé à différents contextes (Articles 1, 4 et 4S).
Nos résultats soulignent l’importance d’étudier la communication des primates via une approche
multimodale pour en comprendre toute la complexité, en particulier dans le cadre de l’étude des origines
évolutives du langage. Nous avons décrit ici la communication multimodale et multicomposante des
mangabeys en utilisant une méthode d’analyse de séquences et d’analyse de réseaux. Pour favoriser de
futures comparaisons entre espèces, nous proposons cette méthode comme un moyen d’améliorer
l’objectivité de telles descriptions, en particulier dans la perspective d’élucider les causes et fonctions
de la communication multimodale.
Nous présenterons ici les implications qu’ont nos résultats pour la compréhension des capacités
sociocognitives sous-tendant la communication gestuelle et multimodale des cercopithécidés, dans le
cadre de l’étude des origines évolutives du langage. Nous discuterons également des limites et
perspectives méthodologiques, suggérées par le présent travail, concernant l’étude de l’intentionnalité,
de la latéralité et de la multimodalité de la communication des primates non-humains.
La communication gestuelle des grands singes est reconnue comme étant intentionnelle et flexible
(Liebal et al. 2014; Byrne et al. 2017; Tomasello et Call 2018). Une hypothèse a ainsi été formulée,
selon laquelle l’intentionnalité du langage humain a émergé de cette propriété de la communication
gestuelle chez l’ancêtre commun des hominoïdes actuels, il y a environ 20 millions d’années (e.g. Pollick
et De Waal 2007). Les résultats récents dont ceux présentés ici, émanant d’espèces de cercopithécidés
donc plus éloignés de l’humain phylogénétiquement (e.g. Perelman et al. 2011; Springer et al. 2012),
suggèrent cependant une origine encore plus ancienne de la communication intentionnelle, il y a au
moins 29 millions d’années, dont aurait émergé le langage.
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des critères d’intentionnalité (« social-directedness », Liebal et al. 2014; Townsend et al. 2017; Graham
et al. 2019). Récemment, deux études ont mis en évidence d’autres marqueurs d’intentionnalité dans la
production de gestes intraspécifiques des babouins olives (Papio anubis, i.e. directionnalité, attente
d’une réponse du receveur : Molesti et al. 2019) et des macaques à bonnet (Macaca radiata, i.e.
directionnalité, signal stoppé quand le but supposé est atteint, persistance ou élaboration dans le cas
contraire, changement de comportement chez le receveur : Gupta et Sinha 2019). Dans la présente thèse,
nous avons complété ces résultats en démontrant que les gestes communicatifs des mangabeys à collier
sont accompagnés de tous les marqueurs comportementaux définis pour identifier un signal intentionnel.
Les mangabeys produisent leurs gestes communicatifs de manière dirigée vers un receveur et
regardent en sa direction avant de produire le signal (« audience checking »). Les gestes visuels sont
préférentiellement produits en direction de receveurs attentifs (Articles 1 et 5), et les mangabeys
adaptent la modalité de leurs gestes dans le cas contraire (Article 1). Quand cela est possible cependant,
ils se déplacent dans le champ visuel de leur receveur plutôt que d’utiliser des signaux audibles
(Article 5), comme observé chez les macaques à bonnet et les chimpanzés (M. radiata et Pan
troglodytes : Liebal et al. 2004b; Deshpande et al. 2018). En contexte expérimental, contrairement au
contexte de communication intraspécifique, nous n’avons pas observé d’utilisation de signaux non-
visuels par les mangabeys pour attirer l’attention du receveur. Ces résultats sont possiblement dûs à
l’impossibilité pour les mangabeys durant l’expérience d’utiliser des signaux tactiles, qu’ils semblent
préférer aux signaux acoustiques en contexte intraspécifique (Article 1 et observations personnelles),
similairement aux babouins olives (Molesti et al. 2019). En situation expérimentale, les mangabeys ont
alterné leur regard entre le receveur et la récompense alimentaire, comme observé chez plusieurs espèces
de grands et petits singes (e.g. chez les chimpanzés : Leavens et al. 1996, 2004a ; les orang-outans,
Pongo pygmaeus : Call et Tomasello 1994 ; les babouins olives : Bourjade et al. 2013a; Meunier et al.
2013c; Lamaury et al. 2017 ; les macaques Rhésus et de Tonkéan, M. mulatta et tonkeana : Canteloup
et al. 2015a, b ; les singes écureuils, Saimiri sciureus : Anderson et al. 2007). Bourjade et al. (2015) ont
montré que des babouins olives, non entrainés à produire des gestes de quémande, pouvaient produire
ces gestes face à un humain et alterner leurs regards entre ce dernier et une récompense alimentaire, à la
même fréquence que des singes entrainés. La combinaison de ces alternances de regard avec les gestes
dépendaient toutefois de l’entrainement que les babouins avaient reçus, suggérant que les expériences
individuelles façonnent le développement de ces marqueurs d’intentionnalité (Bourjade et al. 2015). Ce
comportement d’alternance de regard, qui suggère une capacité des individus à communiquer de manière
référentielle (Franco et Butterworth 1996; Desrochers et al. 2014), n’a cependant pas été observé lors
d’interactions intraspécifiques, ni chez les mangabeys ni, à notre connaissance, chez d’autres
cercopithécidés, probablement en raison de l’extrême rareté des situations élicitant une communication
gestuelle triadique chez les primates (Liebal et al. 2014). Nous notons qu’une telle alternance de regard
peut cependant être observée conjointement à la production de vocalisations chez les mangabeys à
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collier, bien que la présence d’aucun autre marqueur d’intentionnalité n’ait jusqu’alors été testée dans
leur communication vocale. Les vocalisations « Un+ », produites par les mangabeys lors de conflits,
peuvent être accompagnées de regards alternés entre leur opposant et d’autres membres du groupe, de
manière à demander une alliance (« recruiting for help », Bouchet et al. 2010).
En plus des marqueurs précédemment cités, montrant la directionnalité sociale des gestes des
mangabeys, nous avons mis en évidence plusieurs indices suggérant qu’ils sont produits dans un but
précis (« goal-directed », Townsend et al. 2017). Similairement aux babouins olives (Molesti et al.
2019), les mangabeys à collier maintiennent leur regard en direction de leur receveur après avoir produit
leur geste, comme une attente de réponse (Article 1, « response waiting » : Liebal et al. 2014; Townsend
et al. 2017). Ce marqueur seul ne peut néanmoins pas permettre de démontrer avec certitude que le
signal est produit dans un but précis (Liebal et al. 2014; Graham et al. 2019), et doit être corroboré par
une utilisation stratégique d’autres signaux communicatifs pour atteindre ce but (« goal-persistence » :
Townsend et al. 2017). Il a récemment été montré, pour la première fois dans la communication
intraspécifique d’un non-hominoïde, que les macaques à bonnet persistaient ou élaboraient leur
communication gestuelle lorsque leur but n’était pas immédiatement atteint (Gupta et Sinha 2019). Nous
avons montré qu’il en était de même pour les mangabeys à collier, qui répètent leurs gestes
communicatifs lorsque leur premier geste ne reçoit pas de réponse satisfaisante (persistance) (Article 1
et 5). En contexte intraspécifique, nous avons montré que les mangabeys pouvaient également élaborer
leur communication, en produisant d’autres signaux communicatifs, bien que la persistance soit la
stratégie privilégiée (Article 1). En contexte expérimental, nous n’avons cependant observé aucune
élaboration de la communication, ni visuelle ni acoustique (Article 5). Une première explication est que
la communication des mangabeys puisse être moins flexible, en termes de capacités d’élaboration, que
celle des grands singes dans des conditions expérimentales similaires (e.g. Pan troglodytes, Gorilla
gorilla et Pongo pygmaeus : Liebal et al. 2004b; Leavens et al. 2005; Poss et al. 2006; Cartmill et Byrne
2007). Une autre possibilité est l’effet du contexte expérimental, empêchant les mangabeys de
communiquer sur la modalité tactile, ou ayant potentiellement un impact sur leur motivation. Enfin, les
résultats de notre expérience suggèrent que les mangabeys ne produisent des gestes que lorsque leur
receveur est perçu comme susceptible de leur répondre. En effet, nous avons noté qu’ils produisaient
moins de gestes lorsque la position de la récompense alimentaire et de l’expérimentateur humain étaient
dissociées, comme observé chez les grands singes (Povinelli et al. 2003; Botting et Bastian 2019), les
macaques à bonnet (Deshpande et al. 2018) ou les singes capucins (Sapajus paella, Hattori et al. 2010).
Ces résultats constituent un indice supplémentaire de la capacité des mangabeys à produire des gestes
intentionnellement.
Les gestes des mangabeys à collier remplissent donc les trois grands critères d’intentionnalité de
premier ordre (i.e. « social-directedness », « goal-directedness » et changement de comportement chez
le receveur : Townsend et al. 2017)(Articles 1 et 5). De plus, certains de ces gestes peuvent être utilisés
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de manière flexible dans différents contextes (Article 1 et 4S), comme observé chez les macaques de
Barbarie (Macaca sylvanus, Hesler et Fischer 2007), les macaques à bonnet (Gupta et Sinha 2019) et les
babouins olives (Molesti et al. 2019).
Les présents résultats obtenus chez les mangabeys à collier, et ceux obtenus récemment par l’étude
d’autres Papionini (Molesti et al. 2019; Gupta et Sinha 2019), sont des indices convergents en faveur
d’une intentionnalité des gestes des cercopithécidés. Il est à noter que ces études ne sont pas les
premières à mettre en évidence des marqueurs d’intentionnalité dans la communication spontanée
d’animaux non-hominoïdes, puisque de tels comportements accompagnent les signaux visuels d’oiseaux
(Corvus corax : Pika et Bugnyar 2011) et de poissons (Plectropomus pessuliferus et leopardus : Vail et
al. 2013) en contexte de coopération. En revanche, en raison de l’éloignement phylogénétique de ces
espèces avec les grands singes, cette similarité est sans doute le résultat d’une convergence évolutive
(Chen et al. 2012). Pour retracer l’histoire évolutive de l’intentionnalité de la communication telle
qu’elle existe dans le langage humain, nous recherchons ici des traits homologues au langage, ce qui
pourrait être le cas pour l’intentionnalité des gestes des cercopithécidés. Cette capacité sociocognitive
pourrait ainsi être plus ancienne que ce que nous pensions dans l’histoire évolutive des primates, et avoir
déjà existé dans la communication gestuelle des ancêtres des catarrhiniens, il y a environ 29 millions
d’années. Cette hypothèse pourrait être renforcée ou contredite par la description de la communication
gestuelle d’autres cercopithécidés, en dehors des Papionini, comme les colobinés dont la
communication visuelle n’est que très peu décrite (mais voir par exemple chez les langurs du Nilgiri,
Trachypithecus johnii : Poirier 1970).
Outre l’intentionnalité des gestes des cercopithécidés, l’une des implications importantes des
présents résultats pour les origines du langage concerne la description de gestes brachio-manuels dits
« libres », c’est-à-dire n’impliquant pas de contact avec un receveur ou un substrat. Les gestes brachio-
manuels intentionnels des grands singes ont attiré jusqu’alors une attention toute particulière pour
l’étude des origines du langage, en raison de leur latéralisation, ayant possiblement une origine
commune avec la spécialisation hémisphérique des humains pour les fonctions langagières (e.g. Call et
Tomasello 2007; Pollick et Dec Waal 2007; Hopkins et al. 2012; Roberts et al. 2012a; Meguerditchian
et al. 2013a; Prieur et al. 2019a). Bien que ces gestes brachio-manuels « libres » aient longtemps été
supposés absents du répertoire communicatif des singes non-hominoïdes (e.g. Call et Tomasello 2007;
Pollick et De Waal 2007; Roberts et al. 2012a, 2014a), nos observations chez les mangabeys (Articles
1, 3 et 4), et celles qui ont été faites chez des babouins olives (Molesti et al. 2019) montrent que de tels
gestes existent bel et bien dans leur communication intraspécifique. Nous pouvons faire l’hypothèse que
la production de ces gestes soit favorisée par les caractéristiques écologiques d’espèces telles que les
babouins olives ou les mangabeys à collier, à locomotion semi-terrestre ou terrestre (Jones et Sabater-
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Pi 1968; Patel et Wunderlich 2010; Cooke 2012; Mitani et al. 2012). En effet, les gestes visuels semblent
être davantage présents chez les espèces non-arboricoles, évoluant dans des environnements moins
denses qui facilitent la perception de cette modalité de signaux (Marler 1965; Gautier 2001; Lemasson
et Barbu 2011; Parr et al. 2015). Certains auteurs font l’hypothèse que cet effet de la densité de
l’environnement physique des primates ait constitué une contrainte évolutive déterminante pour
l’émergence du langage. Selon cette hypothèse, des changements d’habitats arboricoles à terrestres chez
les ancêtres communs aux humains et aux autres primates actuels, avec des changements de milieux
forestiers à des milieux ouverts, auraient fait partie des contraintes ayant favorisé une communication
gestuelle, intentionnelle et latéralisée, dont auraient émergé certaines propriétés langagières (e.g.
Gentilucci et Corballis 2006; McNeill 2012; Prieur et al. 2019a).
2.2. Intentionnalité des expressions faciales des cercopithécidés : des gestes pas comme
les autres ?
Certains auteurs incluent les expressions faciales des primates dans la description de leur
communication gestuelle (e.g. Altmann 1962; Maestripieri 1997, 2005; Call et Tomasello 2007; Hesler
et Fischer 2007; Molesti et al. 2019), tandis que d’autres considèrent les expressions faciales et les gestes
comme des signaux différents, considérant qu’ils ne sont peut-être pas sous-tendus par les mêmes
mécanismes cognitifs, en particulier en termes d’intentionnalité (e.g. Pollick et De Waal 2007; Genty et
al. 2009; Hobaiter et Byrne 2011b; Roberts et al. 2014a; Byrne et al. 2017). En effet, l’intentionnalité
de premier ordre des expressions faciales des primates non-humains est encore en question, et peu
explorée (e.g. Arbib et al. 2008; Hopkins et al. 2011b; Slocombe et al. 2011; Graham et al. 2019. Voir
introduction partie 3.1.3.). Nos observations ont permis de montrer que les expressions faciales des
mangabeys à collier pouvaient être dirigées vers un receveur, précédées de regards en direction du
receveur (« audience checking »), être produites préférentiellement face à un receveur attentif, être
suivies d’une attente de réponse (« response waiting »), et induire un changement de comportement chez
le receveur (Article 2). Ces mêmes marqueurs accompagnent la production de certaines expressions
faciales chez les babouins olives (Molesti et al. 2019). Cependant, bien que tous les marqueurs
comportementaux de directionnalité sociale soient présents (« socially-directed signal », Townsend et
al. 2017), ces résultats ne permettent pas encore d’affirmer que les expressions faciales des mangabeys
et des babouins remplissent les trois critères d’intentionnalité. En effet, le marqueur « response
waiting », qui correspond à un maintien du regard du signaleur en direction du receveur après avoir
produit le signal, ne peut être à lui seul une preuve que le signal est produit dans un but précis (« goal-
directed signal », Townsend et al. 2017). En effet, ce maintien de regard peut avoir d’autres explications
que l’attente d’une réponse, en particulier dans des contextes élicitant une grande attention sociale, et
doit être complété par d’autres marqueurs comme la persistance ou l’élaboration de la communication
en cas d’absence de réponse (Liebal et al. 2014; Graham et al. 2019). Les présents résultats, qui
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constituent un premier pas dans l’exploration de l’intentionnalité des expressions faciales des
cercopithécidés, devront donc être complétés par d’autres analyses testant la présence de ces marqueurs.
Nous pensons que cette perspective pourrait être facilitée par une approche multimodale /
multicomposante, pour permettre une analyse plus complète des évènements communicatifs impliquant
des expressions faciales.
Nos résultats ne permettent pas actuellement de considérer les expressions faciales comme faisant
partie de la communication gestuelle intentionnelle des cercopithécidés, mais fournissent de premiers
éléments en faveur d’une intentionnalité de premier ordre. De plus, nous avons montré que la plupart
des expressions faciales des mangabeys étaient socialement dirigées et induisaient un changement de
comportement chez le receveur (Article 2), soulignant leur valeur communicative, au-delà de simples
indices d’état interne du signaleur (e.g. Ruxton et Schaefer 2011).
Plusieurs perspectives sont envisageables pour améliorer notre approche concernant l’étude de la
communication visuelle intentionnelle des cercopithécidés. L’un des principaux axes d’amélioration
envisageables réside dans la méthode de description-même des expressions faciales. Nous avons décrit
ici le répertoire d’expressions faciales des mangabeys à collier en décrivant les mouvements directement
visibles de la bouche, des yeux, des oreilles (Article 2). Nous avons identifié, dans ce premier répertoire,
différentes variantes pour les expressions faciales impliquant des mouvements de la bouche (« open
mouth » et bâillements). Il est cependant très probable que cette première description soit une
simplification de la réelle diversité de mouvements faciaux produits par les mangabeys, et nécessiterait
d’être complétée par une mesure plus fine des variations d’amplitude de ces mouvements. Le codage
des expressions faciales par le système FACS (« Facial Action Coding System », Ekman 1997; Prince
et al. 2017), développé pour plusieurs espèces de primates non-humains (chimpanzés, gibbons, orang-
outans, macaques : Parr et al. 2007; Waller et al. 2012; Caeiro et al. 2013; Julle-Danière et al. 2015),
permet de coder les expressions faciales selon les mouvements de chaque faisceau de muscles faciaux
(identifiés comme des « Action Units »). Son utilisation chez les mangabeys pourrait permettre de
différencier ces variantes et d’analyser ainsi plus précisément l’effet du comportement du receveur sur
leur production. Chez les orang-outans, cette méthode a notamment permis de mettre en évidence un
effet de l’état attentionnel du receveur sur l’amplitude des expressions faciales de jeu (Waller et al.
2015). Cela pourrait également permettre de tester une possible élaboration de la communication faciale
par les primates non-humains en fonction de la réponse du receveur, car cette élaboration pourrait résider
dans une modulation fine des mouvements faciaux. Chez les macaques à crête (Macaca nigra), de
subtiles variations dans la morphologie de l’expression faciale « silent bared-teeth » induisent des
réponses différentes chez le receveur, correspondant à différents contextes (affiliation, socio-sexuel, jeu
social, soumission. Clark et al. 2020). Ainsi, différentes variantes d’une même expression faciale
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pourraient être associées à des intentions différentes de la part du signaleur, qui devraient être
distinguées les unes des autres pour pouvoir tester la présence de persistance ou d’élaboration pour
satisfaire cette intention.
L’analyse des marqueurs d’intentionnalité accompagnant les signaux des primates non-humains est
parfois faite à échelle des différents types de signaux, comptabilisant le pourcentage d’occurrences en
présence / absence des différents marqueurs (e.g. Call et Tomasello 2007; Cartmill et Byrne 2010; Gupta
et Sinha 2019), comme nous l’avons fait ici pour les expressions faciales et les gestes spontanés des
mangabeys (Articles 1 et 2). La prise en compte de la variabilité interindividuelle entre les différents
signaleurs, pas toujours accessible car nécessitant un échantillonnage important, serait cependant
pertinente. Des différences interindividuelles avaient par exemple été mises en lumière dans la capacité
des mangabeys à communiquer de manière référentielle (Maille et al. 2013), et nous pouvons faire
l’hypothèse que ce type de différences existe pour l’intentionnalité de leur communication. En
particulier, des caractéristiques comme l’âge du signaleur pourraient impacter sa capacité à produire des
signaux intentionnels. Molesti et al. (2019) ont par exemple mis en évidence des différences entre les
babouins olives nouveau-nés (moins d’un an) et les autres individus juvéniles et adultes, leurs gestes
étant moins fréquemment suivis d’une attente de réponse. Ces observations suggèreraient qu’il existe
chez les babouins olives, comme chez les humains, un développement des capacités de communication
gestuelle intentionnelle dans les premières années de vie des individus (e.g. Bretherton et Bates 1979).
Des études longitudinales, sur un plus grand nombre d’individus et sur différentes espèces, permettraient
d’éclaircir cet effet de l’âge sur l’intentionnalité de la communication gestuelle des primates non-
humains (Liebal et al. 2014, 2019). L’intentionnalité de la communication pourrait être acquise par un
apprentissage social, par exemple à travers le jeu (e.g. Fagen 1982; Demuru et al. 2015), les interactions
des jeunes individus avec leurs congénères renforçant peu à peu la directionnalité de leurs signaux et
leur capacité à s’adapter au comportement de leurs receveurs (Liebal et al. 2019). L’acquisition de cette
capacité pourrait aussi être le résultat d’une maturation des régions cérébrales contrôlant la
communication intentionnelle, comme suggéré par l’effet de l’âge des individus sur la latéralité gestuelle
chez les primates non-humains (e.g. Hopkins et Leavens 1998; Meguerditchian et Vauclair 2006; Prieur
et al. 2016a).
Outre ces perspectives pour compléter les présentes analyses, la méthodologie d’évaluation de
l’intentionnalité de la communication des primates non-humains, basée sur la présence de marqueurs
comportementaux, est elle-même actuellement discutée. Les marqueurs comportementaux utilisés pour
analyser l’intentionnalité de premier ordre dans la communication des animaux présentent certaines
limites de validité lorsqu’ils sont considérés individuellement (e.g. voir Introduction partie 3.1.2. Liebal
et al. 2014; Graham et al. 2019). En effet, chaque marqueur peut avoir une explication autre que
l’intentionnalité, et c’est la raison pour laquelle un maximum d’indices différents doivent être pris en
compte, plusieurs éléments convergents étant probablement le résultat d’un même mécanisme cognitif
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(e.g. Byrne et Bates 2006; Schel et al. 2013; Liebal et al. 2014; Townsend et al. 2017). Malgré tout,
l’intentionnalité de premier ordre ne peut jamais être prouvée de manière irréfutable, et certains auteurs
ont récemment suggéré des pistes de réflexion méthodologique pour améliorer la distinction entre
l’intentionnalité de premier ordre et d’ordre zéro (mécanismes non intentionnels) (Graham et al. 2019).
Bien que les émotions sous-tendant potentiellement les signaux communicatifs n’excluent pas une
production intentionnelle de ces derniers, les marqueurs comportementaux d’intentionnalité doivent
théoriquement être produits indépendamment de l’état émotionnel du signaleur pour être valides. Ainsi,
afin d’évaluer la part d’émotion et en particulier de niveau d’excitation du signaleur dans l’expression
de ces comportements, il est suggéré de compléter l’évaluation comportementale par des mesures
physiologiques. Le développement d’outils de mesures compatibles avec l’observation des primates est
encore nécessaire (i.e. permettant des mesures en temps réel, sur des individus en mouvement, sans
perturber leurs interactions sociales), mais pourrait représenter une nouvelle avancée dans l’évaluation
de l’intentionnalité de la communication (Graham et al. 2019). Enfin, il est proposé que des expériences
soient développées pour évaluer l’intentionnalité de second ordre plutôt que de premier ordre dans la
communication des primates, en testant l’effet du niveau de connaissance du receveur sur la
communication (Graham et al. 2019). L’évaluation de l’intentionnalité de second ordre semble moins
largement applicable à différentes espèces et à différents types de signaux communicatifs, car elle
implique une capacité des animaux à attribuer un état mental à leurs receveurs, et une fonction
informative plutôt qu’impérative des signaux (voir Introduction, partie 3.1.1., Liebal et al. 2014;
Townsend et al. 2017). Cependant, sa démonstration impliquerait une preuve d’une intentionnalité de
premier ordre, tout en contournant la nécessité de s'appuyer sur des critères comportementaux dont la
validité est limitée (Graham et al. 2019).
Après avoir identifié des gestes brachio-manuels remplissant les trois critères comportementaux
d’intentionnalité dans la communication intraspécifique des mangabeys à collier, nous avons cherché à
caractériser la potentielle latéralité de ces gestes. En nous intéressant aux gestes brachio-manuels
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intentionnels dans leur ensemble, nous n’avons pas mis en évidence de latéralisation significative, à
échelle individuelle ou populationnelle (Article 3). Etant donné la latéralité gestuelle à droite observée
chez plusieurs singes catarrhiniens (e.g. des babouins olives et des macaques de Tonkéan :
Meguerditchian et Vauclair 2006; Meguerditchian et al. 2011b; Meunier et al. 2012, 2013a, b), nous
faisons l’hypothèse que l’absence de latéralité significative à échelle individuelle ou populationnelle
dans la présente étude est due à la taille de notre échantillon, probablement trop faible pour permettre
de déceler un biais significatif s’il existe. Le faible nombre d’occurrences de gestes relevés par individu
dans cette étude exploratoire pourrait nous empêcher de déceler des latéralisations à échelle individuelle
(Hopkins et al. 2012). De plus, le nombre d’individus étudiés est souvent limitant pour pouvoir détecter
un biais à échelle populationnelle, en particulier lorsqu’il existe une forte variabilité interindividuelle
(Hopkins et Cantalupo 2005; Hopkins 2006; Chapelain 2010). Une précédente étude expérimentale avait
mis en évidence des préférences manuelles à échelle individuelle pour la production de gestes
communicatifs interspécifiques chez les mangabeys à collier (Maille et al. 2013). Cette expérience avait
montré que les mangabeys ayant les meilleures capacités à produire des gestes référentiels face à un
humain (i.e. pointage) étaient latéralisés à droite, mais une grande variabilité interindividuelle avait été
observée. Ainsi, cette variabilité pourrait exister également dans la communication gestuelle
intraspécifique des mangabeys. Nous suggérons qu’augmenter la taille d’échantillon permettrait
également de tester une potentielle latéralité gestuelle des individus pour chaque type de gestes
indépendamment les uns des autres. En effet, la direction et la force de la latéralité peuvent dépendre du
geste étudié (Hopkins et Leavens 1998; Hopkins et Wesley 2002; Hobaiter et Byrne 2013a; Prieur et al.
2016a, 2017a, b). Tester l’hypothèse d’une latéralité gestuelle à échelle populationnelle chez les
mangabeys, avec un échantillon plus important, pourra permettre des comparaisons avec d’autres
espèces. Cette approche comparative est un moyen de déterminer les facteurs écologiques et sociaux
impactant la latéralité gestuelle, comme le degré d’arboricolisme ou la complexité sociale (MacNeilage
2007; MacNeilage et al. 2009; Schaafsma et al. 2009; Hopkins et al. 2011b; Meguerditchian 2014).
Bien que nous n’ayons pas décelé de latéralisation significative à échelle individuelle ou
populationnelle pour la production des gestes des mangabeys, une analyse multifactorielle nous a permis
de mettre en évidence l’effet de certains facteurs contextuels sur la main utilisée pour communiquer.
Grâce à un modèle linéaire mixte généralisé, nous avons analysé l’effet de différents facteurs sur la
main utilisée par les mangabeys pour communiquer (Article 3). Les facteurs liés à la production du
geste (posture du signaleur, modalité sensorielle) ainsi que les caractéristiques sociodémographiques
des sujets (âge, sexe, relations de dominance et parenté entre le signaleur et le receveur) ne semblent
pas avoir d’influence sur la latéralité gestuelle des mangabeys. En revanche, la main utilisée par les
mangabeys pour produire leurs gestes dépend de facteurs liés au contexte social, en particulier de la
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valence émotionnelle associée à ce contexte et des positions relatives du signaleur et du receveur durant
leur interaction.
Les mangabeys à collier utilisent préférentiellement leur main droite pour produire des gestes en
contextes négatifs, c’est-à-dire d’agression ou de soumission. Ce même effet du contexte a été observé
chez les chimpanzés et les gorilles dans leur communication intraspécifique (Prieur et al. 2016a, 2017a).
Ces résultats sont étonnants au regard des théories formulées quant aux asymétries cérébrales pour le
traitement des émotions (Demaree et al. 2005). En effet, une première théorie propose que l’hémisphère
droit contrôle la perception et l’expression des émotions (« Right hemisphere theory » : Borod et al.
1983; Lindell 2013). La théorie de la valence ou d’approche / recul (« Valence theory » ou
« Approach/withdrawal theory » : Silberman et Weingartner 1986; Ehrlichman 1987; Davidson 1992)
quant à elle, propose que l’hémisphère droit contrôle les émotions négatives, associées à des
comportements de recul, et l’hémisphère gauche les émotions positives, associées à des comportements
d’approches. Selon l’une ou l’autre de ces théories, nous pourrions ainsi nous attendre à ce que le côté
gauche soit davantage utilisé en contexte social négatif. Rohlfs et Ramirez (2006) notent cependant que
les régions préfrontales de l’hémisphère gauche sont activées chez l’humain en contexte d’agression, et
que la théorie de la valence est pertinente pour expliquer ces observations. En effet, les contextes sociaux
d’agression ne sont pas seulement susceptibles d’induire des émotions négatives, mais impliquent
également de fortes motivations d’approches, associées à l’hémisphère gauche selon cette théorie
(Silberman et Weingartner 1986; Ehrlichman 1987). Chez d’autres espèces de vertébrés, des
comportements d’agression sont également latéralisés à droite et associés à un contrôle de l’hémisphère
gauche (e.g. chez des poissons, Gambusia holbrooki, Xenotoca eiseni, Betta splendens : Bisazza et de
Santi 2003 ; chez des reptiles comme les anoles verts, Anolis carolinesis, et anoles bruns, Anoles sagnei :
Deckel 1995 ; chez des mammifères non-primates comme le daim européen, Dama dama : Jennings
2012 ; mais voir à l’inverse chez les chevaux domestiques et les chevaux de Przewalski, Equus caballus
et E. przewalskii : Austin et Rogers 2012, 2014). Ainsi, la théorie de la valence ou « d’approche / recul »
pourrait ainsi expliquer les résultats obtenus sur la latéralité gestuelle intraspécifique des chimpanzés,
gorilles et mangabeys à collier (Prieur et al. 2016a, 2017a ; Article 3). Cette hypothèse est renforcée par
la corrélation entre la latéralité manuelle à droite chez les chimpanzés et des comportements d’approche
en contexte expérimental (Hopkins et Bennett 1994).
Nous pouvons également faire l’hypothèse que la latéralité gestuelle à droite des catarrhiniens est
plus marquée en contextes négatifs en raison d’une flexibilité moins importante induite par ces
contextes. Les vocalisations d’alarmes sont plus conservées et moins flexibles au sein d’une espèce que
des vocalisations associées à des contextes moins urgents (Bouchet et al. 2016). De même, les gestes
produits dans des situations d’agressions pourraient être plus latéralisés car moins soumis à l’influence
d’autres facteurs proximaux, et plus déterminés par des influences sociales au moment de leur
acquisition (théorie de l’origine sociale de la latéralité : Ghirlanda et Vallortigara 2004; Vallortigara et
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Rogers 2005; MacNeilage et al. 2009). Inclure l’effet du type de geste dans l’analyse chez les mangabeys
permettrait de tester cette hypothèse, en s’intéressant en particulier à la latéralité de mêmes gestes
produits en contextes négatifs ou positifs. En renouvelant les présentes analyses sur un échantillon plus
important, il serait également intéressant de tester l’interaction de plusieurs effets sur la latéralité
gestuelle, et notamment le possible effet conjoint du contexte et de la relation de dominance entre
signaleur et receveur, pouvant induire des niveaux plus ou moins importants de stress social (Prieur et
al. 2016a). Le même type d’analyse sur d’autres espèces de cercopithécidés permettrait également de
savoir si cet effet de la valence du contexte est généralisable ou non aux catarrhiniens, et ainsi évaluer
l’effet de ce facteur dans l’émergence de la latéralité gestuelle. Nous pouvons par exemple tester
l’existence de cet effet chez les babouins olives, une latéralité gestuelle à droite étant observée à échelle
populationnelle pour un geste produit en contexte agressif, le « hand-slapping » (Meguerditchian et
Vauclair 2006; Meguerditchian et al. 2011b).
En plus de l’effet de la valence du contexte, nous avons mis en évidence un effet significatif des
positions relatives du signaleur et du receveur sur la latéralité gestuelle (Article 3). Comme les
chimpanzés et les gorilles (Prieur et al. 2016a, 2017a, b), les mangabeys à collier communiquent
préférentiellement avec la main ipsilatérale à la position de leur receveur, probablement pour diriger
plus efficacement leur geste. En effet, chez les chimpanzés et les gorilles, la position du signaleur
impacte la main utilisée pour communiquer spécifiquement lorsque le geste utilisé est tactile ou visuel,
et donc supposément plus dirigé vers le receveur. De précédentes analyses de la latéralité sociale chez
les mangabeys captifs ont montré que les mangabeys approchent préférentiellement leurs congénères
dans leur champ visuel droit (Baraud et al. 2009). Nous pouvons ainsi faire l’hypothèse que les
signaleurs initiant une interaction soient plus susceptibles d’approcher le receveur en se positionnant à
sa droite, justement pour mieux diriger leurs gestes si ces derniers sont préférentiellement produits avec
le bras droit. Ce lien entre latéralité sociale et latéralité gestuelle pourrait être plus amplement exploré,
car potentiellement influencé par le contexte comme l’est la latéralité sociale et visuelle chez de
nombreux mammifères (e.g. chez les chevaux domestiques : De Boyer Des Roches et al. 2008; Farmer
et al. 2018 ; les daims européens : Jennings 2012 ; les chimpanzés et gorilles : Quaresmini et al. 2014 ;
les humains : Lemasson et al. 2018b, 2020). En outre, nos résultats soulignent l’importance de prendre
en compte la position du receveur lorsque nous étudions la latéralité gestuelle intraspécifique des
primates non-humains, ou de contrôler ce paramètre en conditions expérimentales.
Cette analyse exploratoire a mis en lumière l’importance du contexte interactionnel sur la latéralité
des gestes des mangabeys (Article 3), de la même façon que chez les chimpanzés et les gorilles (Prieur
et al. 2016a, 2017a, b), suggérant une importance particulière de facteurs sociaux dans l’émergence de
la latéralité gestuelle des catarrhiniens. De plus, l’influence de la valence du contexte sur la production
de gestes intentionnels souligne le lien étroit entre les mécanismes émotionnels et intentionnels pouvant
sous-tendre la communication (e.g. Liebal et al. 2014). Cette étude devra être complétée par l’analyse
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CHAPITRE VII – DISCUSSION GENERALE
d’un échantillon plus important de mangabeys à collier, et par une analyse multifactorielle de la latéralité
gestuelle d’autres espèces. Ainsi, une large approche comparative permettra de déterminer si les effets
observés sont généralisables ou non aux catarrhiniens (voire à d’autres primates), et d’identifier les
facteurs ayant pu représenter des contraintes évolutives pour l’émergence de la latéralité des gestes
intentionnels, possiblement à l’origine de la spécialisation de l’hémisphère gauche chez l’humain pour
les fonctions langagières.
Nous avons montré que les mangabeys à collier utilisaient leurs gestes de manière intentionnelle et
flexible vis-à-vis du contexte (Articles 1, 2 et 5), et que la latéralité de ces gestes dépendait de facteurs
contextuels (Article 3). Nous nous sommes alors intéressés à la flexibilité d’utilisation de leurs signaux
en termes de communication multimodale et multicomposante (Article 4, 4S et 5). Elucider la fonction
d’une telle complexité de la communication chez les primates, et les mécanismes cognitifs qui la sous-
tendent, pourrait permettre une meilleure compréhension des origines du langage, dans une perspective
multimodale et multicausale.
Nos observations ont montré que les mangabeys à collier captifs combinent fréquemment leurs
signaux communicatifs, en particulier différentes modalités (visuelle, acoustique, tactile) et types de
signaux (gestes, expressions faciales, vocalisations), et ce de manière flexible, en fonction du contexte
social et de facteurs sociodémographiques (Article 4). De plus, tous les types et modalités de signaux
utilisés par les mangabeys sont combinés à la même fréquence, et la plupart des séquences
communicatives que nous avons identifiées étaient multimodales et/ou multicomposantes. Nos résultats
montrent ainsi que la communication des mangabeys à collier captifs repose sur tous ces modes de
communication de manière égale, suggérant leur complémentarité, un argument clé en faveur de
l’hypothèse d’une origine multimodale du langage (e.g. Arbib et al. 2008; Masataka 2008a; Lemasson
et Barbu 2011; Ghazanfar et al. 2012; Vauclair 2013; Liebal et al. 2014; Levinson et Holler 2014;
Fröhlich et al. 2019; Prieur et al. 2019a). De plus, ces observations soulignent l’importance d’étudier la
communication de manière multimodale pour en comprendre la complexité et l’histoire évolutive (e.g.
Slocombe et al. 2011; Waller et al. 2013; Partan 2013; Liebal et al. 2014; Fröhlich et van Schaik 2018).
La comparaison de nos résultats avec des observations de mangabeys à l’état sauvage pourrait
permettre d’évaluer l’effet de l’environnement captif des mangabeys sur la multimodalité de leur
communication, pour en comprendre la fonction. L’hypothèse selon laquelle la communication
multimodale ou multicomposante permet de convier différents messages à la fois (« multiple message
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hypothesis » : Moller et Pomiankowski 1993; Johnstone 1996; Partan et Marler 1999, 2005; Fröhlich et
van Schaik 2018) prédit que ce type de communication soit favorisé en captivité. En effet, certains
auteurs suggèrent cet effet de la captivité en raison des courtes distances entre les individus, permettant
la perception de signaux sur plusieurs modalités sensorielles (Partan et Marler 2005; Wilke et al. 2017;
Fröhlich et van Schaik 2018). De plus, la proximité entre individus d’un même groupe en captivité
pourrait nécessiter l’utilisation d’une communication plus complexe pour limiter les tensions sociales
(Wilke et al. 2017). Au contraire, selon l’hypothèse d’une fonction de « backup » des signaux combinés,
la communication multimodale et/ou multicomposante serait plus fréquente dans des environnements
naturels, qui impliquent davantage de perturbations visuelles et acoustiques contraignant la
perceptibilité des signaux (Hebets et Papaj 2005; Fröhlich et van Schaik 2018). Cette fonction de
« backup » des signaux multimodaux, lorsque la communication est contrainte par des bruits
environnementaux, a été mise en évidence chez d’autres espèces animales. Par exemple, chez les
araignées-loups (Scizocosa retrorsa), la production de signaux multimodaux visuels et sismiques permet
une perceptibilité aussi bien dans des environnements sombres que lumineux, ou aussi bien sur des
substrats transmettant les vibrations que ne les transmettant pas (Hebets et al. 1996; Hebets et Uetz
1999).
Nos résultats suggèrent que la multimodalité de la communication des mangabeys n’est pas (ou pas
seulement) le reflet d’une élaboration de la communication en cas d’absence de réponse satisfaisante de
la part du receveur. En effet, les mangabeys ne produisent pas moins de signaux en séquence lorsque le
receveur répond à leur premier signal (Article 4S), et ne semblent pas privilégier l’élaboration de leurs
signaux sur d’autres modalités en cas d’échec de la communication (Article 1 et 5). Une autre hypothèse
pour expliquer la production fréquente de combinaisons de signaux, y compris de manière multimodale
et multicomposante, pourrait être liée à la nature exploratoire des contextes de jeu. En effet, les contextes
de jeu font partie des contextes dans lesquels les mangabeys produisent le plus de combinaisons de
signaux, produisant les plus longues et diverses séquences communicatives de leur répertoire
(Article 4). Le jeu social chez les primates élicite une utilisation plus riche et plus flexible de signaux
communicatifs que les autres contextes (e.g. chez les grands singes : Pika et al. 2003; Liebal et al. 2006;
Call et Tomasello 2007), avec davantage de gestes idiosyncratiques (e.g. chez les gorilles : Pika et al.
2003) et de combinaisons de signaux (e.g. chez les orang-outans : Liebal et al. 2006). Ainsi, une
communication plus complexe des mangabeys à collier durant le jeu, en particulier pour les juvéniles,
corrobore les théories suggérant que le jeu social est un moyen d’explorer et d’expérimenter l’utilisation
de signaux communicatifs (e.g. Fagen 1982, 2002; Tomasello et al. 1989). La longueur des séquences
communicatives en contexte de jeu et d’agression chez les mangabeys pourrait également être le résultat
d’une plus forte excitation sociale, en comparaison aux interactions affiliatives et aux épouillages
mutuels, comme suggéré chez les orang-outans produisant des séquences de gestes (Tempelmann et
Liebal 2012).
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CHAPITRE VII – DISCUSSION GENERALE
Enfin, d’après nos analyses, nous faisons l’hypothèse que les mangabeys à collier combinent leurs
signaux communicatifs dans le but d’affiner le message convié, comme chez les grands singes
(« refinement hypothesis » : e.g. Genty et al. 2014, 2015; Moore 2014; Wilke et al. 2017; Fröhlich et
van Schaik 2018). En effet, les gestes des mangabeys peuvent être associés à différents contextes
(Article 1 et 4S) (« means-ends dissociation », Bruner 1981), et leur combinaison à d’autres signaux
comme des expressions faciales ou des vocalisations, plus spécifiques à des contextes particuliers
(Article 2, Bouchet et al. 2010), pourrait être nécessaire pour élucider leur signification (Moore 2014).
Cette hypothèse est renforcée par le fait que la production de combinaisons de signaux par les
mangabeys ait été principalement observée en contextes de jeu et d’agression (Article 4), dans lesquels
le besoin de lever l’ambiguïté des signaux est plus important que dans d’autres situations. En particulier,
en contexte de jeu social, les mangabeys produisent fréquemment des gestes en combinaison à des
expressions faciales (Article 4), ce qui pourrait refléter une fonction des « open mouth » de préciser la
signification ludique de gestes pouvant sembler agressifs (Bateson 1955; Altmann 1967; Bekoff 1975;
Waller et Dunbar 2005; Palagi 2008; Waller et Cherry 2012; Demuru et al. 2015; Špinka et al. 2016).
Des contextes tels que l’épouillage mutuel ou les interactions socio-sexuelles élicitent quant à eux moins
de combinaisons de signaux, et ces combinaisons sont principalement unimodales (visuelles ou tactiles)
et unicomposantes (combinaison de gestes). Chez les grands singes, ces contextes élicitent également
moins de combinaisons de signaux et moins de multimodalité (e.g. chez les orang-outans, P. pygmaeus :
Liebal et al. 2006; Tempelmann et Liebal 2012), les signaux utilisés étant supposément plus spécifiques
au contexte. Les résultats des premières analyses que nous avons réalisées concernant l’utilisation des
gestes « throw arm » et « grab body part » sont elles aussi en faveur de cette hypothèse de « refinement »
(Article 4S). En effet, les contextes d’utilisation de ces gestes seuls diffèrent de ceux dans lesquels ils
sont produits en combinaison à d’autres signaux, et les réponses des receveurs ne sont pas les mêmes.
Alors que les gestes « grab body part » et « throw arm » seuls semblent principalement provoquer la
fuite du receveur, ainsi que l’acceptation d’un contact sexuel dans le cas de « grab body part », leur
utilisation en combinaison à d’autres signaux paraît éliciter plus fréquemment des comportements
ludiques. Ces premières analyses pourront être complétées par davantage d’observations des mangabeys
dans leur communication spontanée, afin d’augmenter l’échantillon de ce type de combinaisons et tester
statistiquement les éventuelles différences de réponses des receveurs. Une approche expérimentale
pourrait également être développée pour tester cette hypothèse de « refinement », pour vérifier que ces
gestes seuls ou en combinaison à d’autres signaux sont perçus différemment. Quelques expériences ont
été menées pour étudier la perception qu’ont les primates des signaux visuels ou multimodaux de leurs
congénères. Ces expériences sont basées sur des paradigmes « match-to-sample », dans lesquels les
sujets sont incités à sélectionner des images sur un écran tactile et à associer des stimuli congruents (e.g.
Parr 2004; Parr et Heintz 2009; Micheletta et al. 2015; Waller et al. 2016b). Ce type de paradigme
pourrait être utilisé pour tester si les mangabeys associent la production de signaux seuls ou en
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combinaison à des interactions sociales différentes entre un receveur et un signaleur (voir la perception
des expressions faciales chez les macaques à crête : Waller et al. 2016b).
Ainsi, nos résultats soulignent l’importance d’une approche « multimodale » pour comprendre la
complexité de la communication des primates. Nos résultats apportent de premiers éléments de
compréhension quant à la fonction des combinaisons de signaux. De futures comparaisons à d’autres
espèces et dans différents environnements permettront d’affiner nos connaissances quant aux possibles
contraintes évolutives ayant favorisé une telle complexité de la communication des primates humains et
non-humains. Dans cette perspective, la méthodologie que nous avons utilisée pourrait permettre
d’améliorer l’objectivité de la description des combinaisons de signaux, et favoriser les approches
comparatives.
Un premier aspect de notre méthodologie que nous proposons comme un moyen d’améliorer
l’objectivité de futures comparaisons entre espèces est la définition temporelle des combinaisons de
signaux. Nous proposons de définir les combinaisons de signaux comme faisant partie d’une même
séquence communicative, cette séquence correspondant à des signaux produits par un même signaleur,
vers un même receveur, et dont l’initiation est séparée par une latence déterminée sur une base
d’observation des primates étudiés. Pour déterminer cette latence « seuil », nous nous sommes basés sur
la fréquence des latences entre signaux observés dans notre population de mangabeys, et avons utilisé
une méthode graphique utilisée dans les études sur les échanges vocaux (Lemasson et al. 2010, 2018a;
Levréro et al. 2019). Nous pensons que cette méthode est un moyen d’utiliser la même définition pour
toutes les espèces et populations de primates étudiés, tout en utilisant une fenêtre temporelle cohérente
avec la biologie de l’espèce. Pour décrire de manière systématique les combinaisons de signaux
produites par les mangabeys à collier dans leur communication intraspécifique, et en particulier les
combinaisons multimodales et multicomposantes, nous avons utilisé une méthodologie basée sur de
l’analyse séquentielle et de l’analyse de réseau. L’analyse de séquence avec l’outil {TraMineR}
(Gabadinho et al. 2011), initialement développé pour les études de sciences sociales, nous a permis de
regrouper les séquences communicatives des mangabeys sur la base de leurs similarités. L’analyse de
séquence permet ainsi d’identifier les séquences de signaux typiquement produites au sein d’une
population, tout en prenant en compte et en représentant la diversité des évènements communicatifs
observés (Baraud et al. 2016). De plus, l’analyse des combinaisons de signaux par une analyse de réseau
est un moyen de représenter graphiquement et de quantifier objectivement les combinaisons les plus
fréquentes au sein d’une population. L’utilisation de ce type de méthode chez d’autres espèces et dans
d’autres environnements permettrait des comparaisons objectives de la fréquence de combinaisons
multimodales ou multicomposantes dans différents contextes. Une plus large approche comparative
permettrait de comprendre l’effet de caractéristiques de l’espèce sur la multimodalité, comme le degré
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CHAPITRE VII – DISCUSSION GENERALE
5. Principales perspectives
En résumé, ce travail de thèse pourra être complété par des observations et expérimentations
supplémentaires pour investiguer plus en détail la communication des mangabeys à collier, mais
également la communication d’autres primates dans une perspective comparative.
D’une part, nous notons que la taille de notre échantillon a parfois été limitante dans nos analyses
sur les propriétés de la communication gestuelle et multimodale des mangabeys. Répliquer les présentes
études sur un nombre d’individus et de signaux plus important pourrait permettre de compléter l’étude
de l’intentionnalité des gestes et expressions faciales avec une plus grande prise en compte de la
variabilité interindividuelle (voir partie 2.3.). Comme évoqué précédemment, l’étude de cette variabilité
pourrait, par exemple, nous renseigner sur l’ontogénie de l’intentionnalité de la communication. La
flexibilité d’utilisation des gestes devra également être examinée à échelle individuelle, pour examiner
dans quelles mesures de mêmes individus utilisent un geste dans différents contextes. La latéralité des
gestes intentionnels devra elle-même être caractérisée sur un échantillon plus conséquent, afin de
prendre en compte les potentiels effets d’autres facteurs que ceux étudiés ici, comme le type de gestes
produits ou l’interaction entre plusieurs facteurs contextuels et sociodémographiques (voir partie 3.2.).
De même, la fonction des combinaisons de signaux chez les mangabeys pourra être testée avec plus de
certitude par la collecte de données d’observations supplémentaires et/ou par la mise en place
d’expériences sur la perception de ces signaux.
D’autre part, nous soulignons que la méthodologie utilisée dans cette thèse pour évaluer
l’intentionnalité de la communication présente certaines limites (voir partie 2.3.). Nous avons évoqué la
perspective d’utiliser d’autres outils de description des signaux (e.g. la description des expressions
faciales par le système FACS) pour en étudier l’intentionnalité de premier ordre. Il est à noter toutefois
que la pertinence de l’analyse de l’intentionnalité de premier ordre par des marqueurs comportementaux
peut elle-même être discutée (voir partie 2.3., Liebal et al. 2014; Graham et al. 2019). A ce jour, les
perspectives d’amélioration de la fiabilité de l’étude de l’intentionnalité consistent au développement de
méthodes d’analyses physiologiques, afin de mesurer l’excitation des individus lors de la
communication, voire des expériences pour évaluer l’intentionnalité de second ordre (Graham et al.
2019).
Enfin, les présents résultats devront être complétés par des analyses semblables chez d’autres
populations de mangabeys à collier, notamment à l’état sauvage, pour estimer l’effet de l’environnement
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captif sur les présents résultats (voir partie 4.1.). Une approche comparative entre différentes espèces de
cercopithécidés, et de primates non-humains en général, pourrait permettre d’évaluer les causes
proximales et ultimes de la communication gestuelle et multimodale, et tenter de reconstituer l’histoire
évolutive des différents traits sociocognitifs impliqués.
6. Conclusion
Pour conclure, les présentes études observationnelles et expérimentales chez des mangabeys à
collier captifs mettent en évidence la présence de potentiels précurseurs du langage dans la
communication gestuelle et multimodale de singes cercopithécidés.
Nous avons montré que les gestes des mangabeys à collier remplissent les trois critères
d’intentionnalité de premier ordre, puisqu’ils semblent produits dans un but social précis, sont dirigés
vers un receveur pour atteindre ce but, et induisent un changement de comportement chez celui-ci. De
plus, certains de ces gestes peuvent être utilisés de manière flexible dans différents contextes. Ces
résultats et les récentes observations faites sur des babouins olives et des macaques à bonnet constituent
des indices convergents en faveur d’une intentionnalité des gestes des cercopithécidés. Cette propriété
sociocognitive langagière pourrait ainsi être plus ancienne que ce que nous pensions dans l’histoire
évolutive des primates, et être héritée de la communication gestuelle des ancêtres des catarrhiniens, il y
a environ 29 millions d’années. Nos résultats fournissent également de premiers éléments en faveur
d’une intentionnalité de premier ordre des expressions faciales des cercopithécidés.
Parmi les gestes intentionnels décrits dans la communication intraspécifique des mangabeys, nous
avons identifié des gestes brachio-manuels dits « libres », longtemps supposés absents du répertoire
communicatif des singes non-hominoïdes. La caractérisation de la production de gestes brachio-manuels
chez les mangabeys a mis en lumière l’effet significatif du contexte interactionnel sur leur latéralité.
De même que les chimpanzés et les gorilles, les mangabeys utilisent préférentiellement le côté droit
pour communiquer en contextes négatifs, et préférentiellement la main ipsilatérale à la position du
receveur, de manière à diriger leurs gestes. Nos résultats suggèrent ainsi une importance particulière de
facteurs sociaux dans l’émergence de la latéralité gestuelle des catarrhiniens. Ils devront être complétés
par l’analyse d’un échantillon plus important de mangabeys à collier, et par une analyse multifactorielle
de la latéralité gestuelle d’autres espèces, pour comprendre les origines évolutives de la spécialisation
de l’hémisphère gauche chez l’humain pour les fonctions langagières.
260
CHAPITRE VII – DISCUSSION GENERALE
Les présents résultats pourront être complétés par une caractérisation de la communication gestuelle
et multimodale, en termes d’intentionnalité, de latéralité et de flexibilité, chez d’autres espèces de singes
catarrhiniens, avec divers systèmes sociaux et caractéristiques écologiques. La méthode que nous avons
utilisée pour décrire la communication multimodale et multicomposante des mangabeys pourrait être
appliquée à d’autres espèces et d’autres environnements, à la fois dans la perspective d’étudier les causes
ultimes et proximales de la communication multimodale des primates, dont le langage, mais également
pour évaluer l’intentionnalité et la flexibilité de la communication de manière plus intégrative.
261
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Aychet, J., Pezzino, P., Rossard, A., Bec, P., Blois-Heulin, C., Lemasson, A. (2020). Red-
capped mangabeys (Cercocebus torquatus) adapt their interspecific gestural communication to
the recipient’s behaviour. Scientific Reports 10, 12843. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-
69847-6
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to describe multimodal and multicomponent communication in captive red-capped mangabeys.
Aychet, J., Blois-Heulin, C., Lemasson, A. (in prep.). Multifactorial analysis of gestural
laterality in captive red-capped mangabeys (Cercocebus torquatus).
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Aychet, J., Pezzino, P., Rossard, A., Bec, P., Blois-Heulin, C., Lemasson, A. (2019). Effet
d’audience sur la communication gestuelle des mangabeys à collier (Cercocebus torquatus).
32ème colloque de la Société Francophone de Primatologie (SFDP), 2-5 Octobre 2019, Parc de
Branféré, France.
Aychet, J., Palagi, E., Blois-Heulin, C., Lemasson, A. (2019). Social and intentional use of
facial expressions in red-capped mangabeys (Cercocebus torquatus). Summer Conference of
the Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour (ASAB), 26-28 Août 2019, Université de
Konstanz, Allemagne.
Aychet, J., Palagi, E., Blois-Heulin, C., Lemasson, A. (2019). Social and intentional use of
facial expressions in red-capped mangabeys (Cercocebus torquatus). 32ème colloque de la
Société Francophone de Primatologie (SFDP), 2-5 Octobre 2019, Parc de Branféré, France.
Aychet, J., Palagi, E., Blois-Heulin, C., Lemasson, A. (2019). Social and intentional use of
facial expressions in red-capped mangabeys (Cercocebus torquatus). Journées scientifiques de
l’école doctorale Biologie Santé (BS), 10-11 Décembre 2019, Angers, France.
299
32ème colloque de la Société Francophone de Primatologie (SFDP)
Effet d’audience sur la communication gestuelle des mangabeys à collier (C. torquatus)
Aychet Juliette, Pezzino Pablo, Rossard Arnaud, Bec Philippe, Blois-Heulin Catherine, Lemasson Alban
Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie animale et humaine) - UMR 6552
L’intentionnalité de la communication chez les primates non-humains est une problématique clé dans
l’étude des origines du langage. Des critères comportementaux permettent d’évaluer l’intentionnalité des signaux
communicatifs, comme la directionnalité des signaux envers une audience, la persistance ou l’élaboration de la
communication lorsque le receveur ne répond pas favorablement... Parmi ces critères, l’effet d’audience est un
marqueur central de communication intentionnelle. Il se définit comme l’effet de la présence d’une audience sur
la communication, mais également comme l’adaptation de l’émetteur à l’état attentionnel de son audience, et à sa
compréhension des signaux communicatifs. L’effet d’audience sur la communication gestuelle des primates peut
être étudié expérimentalement, via des paradigmes impliquant la production de gestes de quémande d’une
récompense en direction d’un expérimentateur humain. Bien que l’effet d’audience sur les gestes communicatifs
ait été principalement étudié chez les grands singes, de précédentes études ont mis en évidence une sensibilité à
l’état attentionnel du receveur chez des singes de l’Ancien Monde. En particulier, de précédents travaux sur les
mangabeys à collier (Cercocebus torquatus) ont montré que ces derniers produisaient davantage de gestes de
quémande face à un expérimentateur visuellement attentif, leur perception de l’état attentionnel du receveur
reposant sur la position de la tête et du corps de celui-ci.
Grâce à un dispositif expérimental original, nous avons cherché ici à mieux caractériser les stratégies de
communication gestuelle des mangabeys face à ces modifications de l’état attentionnel de l’audience ; notamment
en permettant aux sujets de se déplacer autour de l’expérimentateur ou d’utiliser différentes modalités pour
communiquer. De plus, nous nous sommes intéressés à la flexibilité de la communication des mangabeys face à
différents degrés de réponse du receveur, en terme de persistance (répétition des signaux communicatifs),
d’élaboration (modification des signaux communicatifs) ou d’inhibition de la communication. Quinze individus
captifs ont ainsi été entraînés à produire des gestes de quémande envers un expérimentateur, et ont été testés à la
Station Biologique de Paimpont (France), à raison de deux sessions expérimentales chacun. Chaque session
comprenait sept conditions expérimentales, dans lesquelles l’état attentionnel de l’expérimentateur et le degré de
réponse face aux quémandes étaient variables.
Nous avons pu noter que la production des gestes de quémande par les mangabeys était dépendante de la
présence d’une audience, et s’accompagnait d’alternances de regards entre la récompense et le receveur humain,
attestant de la valeur communicative de ces gestes. Nos résultats ont également permis de préciser les indices
visuels utilisés par les mangabeys pour évaluer l’état attentionnel de leur audience. De plus, nous avons montré
que les mangabés cherchaient à être placés dans le champ visuel du receveur, en dépit de la position de la
récompense. Lorsque l’audience n’était pas attentive ou pas disposée à répondre, nous avons observé une inhibition
de la production des gestes de quémande, ces gestes étant bien produits volontairement et dans un but précis.
Par ailleurs, nous avons observé une modulation de l’amplitude des gestes de quémande en comparaison
aux gestes auxquels les sujets avaient été entraînés, mais ces différentes amplitudes de gestes n’étaient pas
modulées en fonction de l’audience. De plus, nous n’avons pas noté d’élaboration de la communication via la
modalité acoustique lorsque le receveur ne répondait pas ou en partie aux gestes de quémande. Ces résultats sont
particulièrement intéressants au regard de ceux obtenus chez les grands singes dans des conditions expérimentales
similaires, suggérant différents niveaux de flexibilité de la communication gestuelle.
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CHAPITRE IX – ANNEXES
Mai 2019 | Festival Pint of Science - Rennes | Présentation « Le langage est-il le propre de
l’Homme ? – Sur les traces de l’origine gestuelle du langage »
Mai 2019 | Entretien pour la radio C-lab | Discussion en amont du festival Pint of Science :
« La communication chez les primates non-humains »
Responsabilités collectives
Janvier 2019 – Septembre 2020 | Co-création et animation du Journal Club du laboratoire
303
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CHAPITRE IX – ANNEXES
Octobre 2018 – Juin 2019 | Co-encadrement d’un étudiant de Master 2 | Pablo Pezzino |
Master Comportement animal et humain, Université de Rennes 1 | Effet d’audience sur la
communication gestuelle des mangabeys à collier (Cercocebus torquatus).
Janvier 2020 | Encadrement d’une étudiante de Master 1 | Lise Le Vern | Université de Brest
| Contagion des bâillements chez les mangabeys à collier (Cercocebus torquatus)
Avril – Juin 2020 | Co-encadrement d’une étudiante de Master 1 | Noémie Monchy | Master
Comportement animal et humain, Université de Rennes 1 | Latéralité gestuelle chez les
mangabeys à collier (Cercocebus torquatus)
305
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CHAPITRE IX – ANNEXES
Formation continue
Novembre - Décembre 2017 | Se former pour enseigner dans le supérieur | MOOC avec
certification | Ministère de l’Enseignement Supérieur, de la Recherche et de l’Innovation
Juillet 2018 | Formation aux modèles mixtes linéaires et non linéaires | Anastats
Octobre – Décembre 2018 | Bien-être des animaux en élevage | MOOC avec certification |
VetAgroSup, Oniris, AgroParisTech, INRA, Agreenium
Mars – Juin 2020 | Vivre avec les autres animaux | MOOC avec certification | Université
Virtuelle Environnement et Développement durable (UVED)
Bourses
307
308
Titre : Communication gestuelle et multimodale chez les mangabeys à collier (Cercocebus torquatus)
Mots clés : Primates, Communication intentionnelle, Expressions faciales, Latéralité gestuelle, Flexibilité
Résumé : Ce travail s’inscrit dans l’étude des gestuelle des mangabeys, suggérant une importance
origines évolutives du langage, par la recherche de particulière de facteurs sociaux dans l’émergence
propriétés langagières dans la communication d’une spécialisation hémisphérique pour la
gestuelle et multimodale de primates cercopithécidés communication intentionnelle, dont le langage
en captivité, les mangabeys à collier. Par une double humain. Enfin, par une méthode originale, reposant
approche observationnelle et expérimentale, nous sur des analyses de séquences et de réseau, nous
avons montré que les gestes des mangabeys avons décrit la communication multimodale et
remplissent les critères de définition d’une multicomposante des mangabeys à collier, et montré
communication intentionnelle, et peuvent être produits qu’ils combinent de manière flexible différents types
de manière flexible dans différents contextes. Nos et modalités de signaux en fonction du contexte et
observations fournissent également de premiers de facteurs sociodémographiques. Nos résultats
éléments en faveur d’une intentionnalité des soulignent l’importance d’une approche multimodale
expressions faciales des cercopithécidés, souvent pour comprendre la complexité de la communication
considérées comme de simples indices d’état des primates, et apportent de premier éléments de
émotionnel. Cette propriété sociocognitive langagière compréhension sur la fonction des combinaisons de
pourrait ainsi être plus ancienne que ce que nous signaux. De futures comparaisons à d’autres
pensions dans l’histoire évolutive des primates, et être espèces et dans différents environnements
héritée de la communication gestuelle des ancêtres pourraient permettre d’affiner nos connaissances
des catarrhiniens, il y a environ 29 millions d’années. quant aux possibles contraintes évolutives ayant
De plus, nous avons mis en évidence un effet favorisé une telle complexité de la communication
significatif du contexte interactionnel sur la latéralité des primates humains et non-humains.
Abstract : In order to address the evolutionary origins our results suggest a particular importance of social
of human language, we searched for key language factors in the emergence of a hemispheric
characteristics in the gestural and multimodal specialization for intentional communication,
communication of captive cercopithecids, red-capped including human language. Finally, using an original
mangabeys. Through both an observational and method of sequence and network analyses, we
experimental approach, we demonstrated that red- described the multimodal and multicomponent
capped mangabey gestures meet all criteria of communication of red-capped mangabeys, and
intentional communication, and are flexibly used in showed that they flexibly combine different types and
different social contexts. Our observations also modalities of signals depending on contextual and
provide first elements in favour of an intentional use of socio-demographic factors. Our results underline the
facial expressions by non-hominoid primates, beyond importance of a multimodal approach to study and
a mere function of emotional state indices. Our results understand the complexity of primate
suggest that intentionality, a key socio-cognitive communication, and provide first insights into the
language characteristic, could be older than we function of signal combinations. Future comparisons
thought in the evolutionary history of primates, and be with other species living in different environments
inherited from the gestural communication of may allow us to refine our knowledge about the
Catarrhines’ ancestors, about 29 million years ago. possible evolutionary constraints that shaped such a
Moreover, highlighting the significant effect of complex communication in human and non-human
interactional context on mangabey gestural laterality, primates.