ENGR 244 Lab Manual

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ENGR 244
Mechanics of Materials
lab manual
LABORATORY SAFETY
The following are a set of safety rules that are commonly practiced in BCEE engineering labs:
1. Safety glasses/goggles must be worn in all labs when any experiments are running (especially those involving
chemical substances and flying/moving objects). Standard or average safety glasses/goggles are adequate for
most procedures. However side shields may be necessary for some operations.
2. Rubber gloves should be worn when dealing with any chemical. Also, furnace-rated gloves should be worn
when dealing with furnaces.
3. Fume facemasks should be worn when dealing with chemicals.
4. Identify the eye wash areas and lab/building exits closest to you from day one in the lab.
5. Material safety data sheets are available in the lab in case you need to review them.
6. Closed-toe shoes are required at all times in the lab (i.e., no sandals or flip-flops).
7. Long pants or long skirts are required in the lab at all times.
8. No tank tops or tube tops are allowed in the lab. The torso and shoulders must be covered by a shirt, or lab
coat. Also very loose sleeves must be rolled above the elbow or restricted so that they cannot become tangled in
equipment.
9. Long hair must be tied back while operating machinery.
10. Unsafe behavior including improper use of equipment will not be tolerated.
11. No food or drinks are allowed in the laboratory at any time.
12. The laboratory must be kept clean at all times.
13. Bring your textbook to each lab to reference learning material in case there is a need.
14. Bring yourself to each lab. Attendance is a must by every student and absence will negatively impact your
lab grade unless it is excused absence for extenuating circumstance. Moreover, you have to attend on time at the
beginning of a lab. Do not come late to labs.
15. Always follow instructions from the lab instructor(s).
16. Failure to abide by these rules will result in loss of laboratory privileges. The instructors may ask anyone to
leave at any time for failure to abide by these rules.
Mechanics of Materials Laboratory Manual
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS ............................................................................…. i
EXPERIMENT 1: BRINELL HARDNESS TEST.......................................................1
EXPERIMENT 2: TENSION TEST ON METALS.................................................…5
EXPERIMENT 3: TORSION TEST ON METALS...............................................…..9
EXPERIMENT 4: STRESS ANALYSIS OF BEAMS

USING STRAIN GAUGES......................................................…13
EXPERIMENT 5: DEFLECTION OF BEAMS.....................................................….18
EXPERIMENT 6: BEHAVIOUR OF COLUMNS

UNDER AXIAL LOADS.........................................................….21
CONVERSION FACTORS ........................................................................................…..25
-i-
INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS
EXPERIMENTS
♦ Experiments will be performed by groups of 2 or 3 students.
♦ All apparatus, benches and floors shall be left clean. Failure in doing so will
result in a 10% mark reduction for all members of the group.
♦ Breakage or loss of equipment due to carelessness will be charged equally to
the whole group.
♦ Testing machines shall not be operated until the student has been briefed by
the instructor.
♦ No food or drinks are allowed in the lab. (spill proof cups are OK)
GROUND RULES
♦ Attendance at the lab session is required for lab submission. If you do
not attend the lab session, you will receive zero. No make-up labs shall be
allowed. Exceptions shall be granted only in cases where written medical
proof of illness is presented.
♦ Switching lab sessions to make up a lab test without prior approval of
your Professor shall result in a zero mark for that particular lab report.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONDUCTING EXPERIMENTS

♦ Students are expected to have read the lab manual in order to familiarize
themselves with the experiment before coming to the lab.
♦ Before the test begins:
o Become familiar with the equipment so that no delays or difficulties
will arise during the test.
o In the event of any difficulties in operating the testing machine,
measuring devices, or strain indicator, call the instructor or
technician.
o Print a copy of the appropriate data sheet or prepare a sheet with
appropriate headings for the entry of all data. When the data sheet is
completed at the end of the test, it should be signed and dated by the
instructor.
♦ After the test:
o Each group is responsible for the cleaning up of the machine and its
surrounding.
o Check all tools and equipment and return them to the proper place.
o Report any lost or damaged equipment to the instructor immediately.
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GUIDELINES FOR LAB REPORTS
The lab report is an individual assignment which is due at the beginning of the next
lab session. (The last lab should be submitted to your Professor two weeks after lab
completion.) Students should consider the following items when writing each report.
* Lab reports must be presented using word processing and spreadsheet

software. No handwritten reports will be accepted.
* The report shall be brief, but clear. Graphs and tables should be used
whenever possible.
* The report shall include the actual procedure (written by the student),
followed by observations (including data sheets), and sample calculations.
Plagiarism will not be tolerated.
* A report will be graded on its neatness, clarity, content and originality.
* Late report submission will be subject to an automatic penalty of 10%
reduction in mark per day after the deadline.
COVER PAGE
* Every report should contain a cover page.
* The cover page should contain the title of the experiment, lab section, and
name of the student, ID number, group members and date.
ORGINALITY CERTIFICATE
Originality certificate can be obtained from http://www.me.concordia.ca/ and should
be placed as the second page right after the title page.
OBJECTIVE
Every report should start with a brief statement in your own words which describes
the purpose of the experiment.
INTRODUCTION
The introduction could contain a brief discussion of:
* assumptions used,
* theoretical basis and meaning of the parameter,
* practical implications,
* equivalent tests available.
PROCEDURE
* Brief description of the experimental procedure and apparatus (in your own
words).
* Deviation from standard procedure (if necessary).
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RESULTS
* All results must be reported (including erroneous data).
* Results should be given in tabulated form with the units of each parameter
clearly indicated.
* Sample calculations must be shown.
* All formulas must be defined.
DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION

* The implication of the results should be given in the context described in
point 3 of the Introduction.
* Comparison to theory presented in the course or the text.
* Justification should be given for any unused experimental data.
ORIGINAL DATA SHEET

* The original data sheet, signed by the instructor, must be attached at the end
of the report.
MARKING SCHEME FOR LAB REPORTS (EACH MARKED OUT OF 15 POINTS)
Points Description
2 Participation – Each group member is expected to be actively involved in each lab.
Members are expected to collect and prepare samples, operate equipment, record
measurements and observations.
2 Format – Inclusion of all components (cover sheet, lab report, data sheet). Each report
should include page numbers. Neatness and clarity.
3 Objective, Introduction and Procedures – Ability to describe these components of the
experiment in your own words.
4 Results – Presentation of all data in tabular and/or chart form. Tables and Figures must
be numbered and captioned and referred to as such in text. Tables are to include clear
column headings (with units). Figures (charts) are to include axes labels and units. A
legend should be included for more than one line. The scale should be appropriate to the
information presented. The markers and lines should be clear when presented in black
and white.
4 Discussion and Conclusions – Answering questions posed in the individual experiments.
The ability to analyze results and to discuss their relation to theory. If theory cannot be
validated by the data, reasoning why the deviation occurred (assumptions do not match
reality, errors in measurement). Conclusions should present an understanding of the
experiment related to the objectives.
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The Testing Machine

The test apparatus consists of a frame fabricated by the Mechanical
Engineering Machine Shop; a hydraulic ram and cylinder, a load cell with
an electronic digital read-out, and a displacement measurement device. A
schematic layout of the complete set-up is shown below.
To activate the peak reading mode, when needed, push the LB/KG key.
This key toggles the PEAK mode ON/OFF. If three green lights appear on
the right side of the display then the meter is in PEAK mode. If only two
green lights appear the PEAK mode is off. To reset the PEAK reading,
push the ZERO key.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF THE TESTING MACHINE
-v-
EXPERIMENT No. 1: BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
SCOPE The Brinell Hardness Test measures the resistance of metals to

indentation under specific conditions.
GENERAL DISCUSSION Hardness has different arbitrary definitions which form the basis for
various hardness tests now in use. These definitions are generally
developed with the necessity for requirements under different
conditions of service. The definition of indentation hardness
according to Brinell is “The resistance to permanent indentation
under static or dynamic loads.”
The static indentation test was first introduced by J.A., Brinell in

1900, and makes use of a steel ball as the indenter. This is pressed
smoothly into a well prepared flat surface of the test metal under a
known load, which is maintained for a period of 15 seconds, and then
removed. The diameter of the resulting indentation is measured by
means of a microscope and hardness is expressed as the load in
kilograms divided by the curved area of the indentation in mm2. In
accordance with the ASTM specifications (ASTM E 10), shown in
the following table;
Metal Ball diameter Load Range of Brinell

mm Kg. Hardness
Hard 10 3000 96 to 600
Intermediate 10 1500 48 to 300
Soft 10 500 16 to 100
This test should not be used to test extremely hard materials because
the ball itself deforms too much. It is not recommended for materials
having a HB over 627. Also, it is not adopted for testing case
hardened surfaces, because the depth of the indentation may be
greater than the thickness of the case and because the yielding of the
soft core invalidates the results. Do not use a steel ball on steels
-1-
having a hardness over 444 HB or a carbide ball with a hardness over

627 HB.
It is desirable that the test load be such magnitude that the diameter of
the impression be in the range of 2.50 to 6.00 mm. A lower limit in
impression diameter is necessary because of the reduction in
sensitivity of the test with reduction in impression size. The upper
limit is influenced by limitations of travel of the indenter. The
minimum thickness requirements for Brinell hardness tests is shown
in the following table
Minimum Minimum Hardness for Which the Brinell

Thickness of Test May Safely be Made
Specimen
(mm) 3000-kgf 1500-kgf 500-kgf
1.6 602 301 100

3.2 301 150 50
4.8 201 100 33
6.4 150 75 25
8.0 120 60 20
9.6 100 50 17
The distance of the center of the indentation from the edge of the
specimen or edge of another indentation shall be at least two and one
half times the diameter of the indentation.
EQUIPMENT AND - Compression machine

SPECIMENS - Steel ball (indenter) of 10.00mm diameter
- Microscope (0.02 mm).
- Steel and aluminum flat discs with finished surfaces.
2
Figure 1: Brinell Test Method Figure 2: Indentation dimensions
Figure 3: Sample with 3 indentations Figure 4: Measuring the diameter
PROCEDURE
1. Place the sample on the lower adapter as shown in Figure 1, and make contact between the loading ball
and the sample. Make sure that the contact point is not too near to the edge of the specimen, to avoid
getting an unsymmetrical indentation.
2. Apply the test load “P” for 15 seconds.

P = 10 x 103 N for steel
P = 5 x 103 N for aluminum
3. After removing the load, measure the impression diameter to the nearest 0.1 mm using the microscope
as in Figure 4. The diameter is the average of two diameters at right angles to each other.
3
Note: If the two diameters differ by more than 0.1 mm, discard the readings and make a new indentation.
4. Repeat the previous procedure at least two more times with the same load. The distance between the
center of the indentation and another indentation or the edge of the sample should be at least two and one
half times the diameter of the indentation as in Figure 3.
ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS
1. Calculate the average value of d x and d y the two perpendicular diameters of each impression.
2. For each test, calculate the Brinell hardness number (HB) using the formula:
HB = P (kg)
A (mm2)
where:
P = applied load in kg (Load (N)/g).
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)
A= area of the indentation.
A= πDt = [(πD/2)(D – (D2 - d2)0.5]
where:
D = diameter of the ball, mm
d = mean diameter of the impression, mm
t = depth of indentation, mm
Note: The hardness number is followed by the letter HB. The number should be written in a more descriptive way as in
the following example: Hardness = 85HB 10/5/20 which means a Brinell hardness of 85 is measured with a
ball of 10 mm diameter and a load of 5 x 103 N applied for 20 seconds.
DISCUSSION
1. Comment on the practical applicability of the hardness test in engineering and

list some examples.
2. Describe other hardness tests for metals that are currently used in engineering.
3. Discuss the effects of the following experimental errors on the Brinell

hardness number.
a) indentations were made too close to the edge of the specimen
b) indentations were made too close to each other.
4. Discuss the sources of error in this experiment.
4
EXPERIMENT No. 2: Tension Test on Metals
SCOPE This test method covers the tension testing of steel and aluminum
GENERAL Tensile strength is the maximum tensile stress which a material is

capable of sustaining. Tension tests provide information on the
strength and ductility of materials under uniaxial tensile stresses.
This information may be useful in comparisons of materials, alloy
development, quality control, and design under certain circumstances.
The tension test is carried out by subjecting a specimen to a gradually

increasing uniaxial load until failure takes place. In this test, a
specimen is subjected to a tensile load which is gradually increased
until the specimen fails. During this procedure, the specimen
elongates in a direction parallel to the applied load.
Figure 1 shows a typical tension specimen. The gauge length is the

length over which the elongation measurements are made and is
usually shorter than the distance between the shoulders by at least
twice the diameter of the specimen. The gauge points should be
equidistant from the center of length of the reduced section. Also, the
shape of the ends of the round specimens may be plain or threaded.
The ratio of the end diameter to the reduced section diameter is large
to avoid failure due to compounding of the axial stresses and the
stresses due to action of the grips. The transition from the end
diameter to the reduced section diameter should be made by an
adequate fillet in order to reduce the stress concentration caused by
the abrupt change in section.
EQUIPMENT
AND SPECIMENS
* Tension testing machine
* Deformation measurement device
* Vernier caliper
* Steel and aluminum specimens (1 of each material)
* V-groove tray
5
Figure 1: Typical Tension Specimen
Figure 2 Setup for the deformation measurement
Figure 3. Zeroing the deformation indicator.
Figure 4 Final length measurement
6
PROCEDURE
1. Measure the diameter of the specimens at the center of the reduced section using the Vernier
calipers.
2. Install the specimen into the deformation measuring device using the 2 set screws to secure
the sample as seen in Figure 2. Press the blue button on the deformation display to zero the
reading. Assume all the samples are identical in gauge length - 100mm.
3. Reset the load read-out to zero by pressing the ZERO button on the load display before
loading the specimen. (display of ± 2 N is normal)
4. Install the screw-on caps on the threaded ends of the sample by tightening them all the way,
then loosening them by approximately ½ turn. Mount the specimen in the gripping devices
of the testing machine.
5. Apply the load steadily at a slow rate and record the readings of load and the
corresponding deformation simultaneously. Readings should be taken every 500N until
the total load reaches ~ 5000N. For P>5000N, use a smaller increment of 200N. Keep
loading the sample and monitor the readings of the load. Once you see that the load
readings have stopped increasing (holding a steady trend or decreasing), collect data
based on deformation increments. (Note that the load reading is fluctuating slowly while
the deformation values are incrementing continuously.) Record data every 0.25 mm for
steel, or every 0.5 mm for aluminum.
6. After the failure (fracture), record the maximum load stored in the memory of the load read-
out (press LB/KG key). Remove the sample from the testing machine but do not remove the
2 set screws! (Figure 2)
7. Fit the fractured ends together matching the failure surfaces using the V groove device as
shown in Figure 4 and read the final gauge deformation on the deformation display.
8. Measure the fracture diameter of the failed specimen. Note that the fracture diameter is the
smallest diameter at the fracture location where the sample necked down.
7
1. Calculate the stresses and strains corresponding to each loading stage from the
equation:
σ = P/A
ε = δ/L
where :
σ = tensile stresses on the specimen (MPa)
ε = strain (mm/mm)
P = load applied to the specimen (N)
A = cross section area of the specimen, (mm2)
L = gauge length, (mm)
δ = elongation (mm)
2. Determine the following:

a) yield strength (use the appropriate method for each material:
extension under load method or the offset method).
b) ultimate strength.
c) percent elongation.
d) elastic modulus
e) percent reduction of area
f) proportional limit.
g) true fracture stress
REPORT
1. Describe the equipment and test procedure.
2. For each material tested, plot the engineering stress-strain curves.
3. Sketch the fractured portion of each specimen. Use an enlarged scale to show details of the
fracture.
DISCUSSION
1. What are the advantages of a stress-strain diagram over a load-elongation diagram in

presenting the results of a tension test?
2. Based on the experimental results, what does the modulus of the elasticity of a material
indicate?
8
3. If the specimens were tested in compression, would you expect any differences in the
material properties? Explain. (Assume buckling does not occur.)
4. Define ductility. Which parameters are indicators of ductility?
5. Table 2.1 shows the expected values of four important properties of the alloys tested in this
experiment. Compare the measured values with the expected values and discuss the possible
causes of any discrepancies.
Table 2.1: Properties of Aluminum & Steel
Property Aluminum Steel

(6061-T6) (C12 L14)
Yield strength 275 415

(Mpa)
Ultimate 310 540

strength (Mpa)
% elongation 12 10
Mod. of 69 200
Elasticity (GPa)
9
EXPERIMENT No. 3: TORSION TEST ON METALS
SCOPE This test method covers the determination of shear modulus of

structural materials. It is limited to materials in which creep is
negligible compared to the strain produced immediately upon loading.
GENERAL
DISCUSSION When rotational forces of opposite sign are applied along the axis of a
structural member, it undergoes a twisting action. This twisting of
one section of a body with respect to a continuous section is termed
torsion and produces shear stresses in the body. For circular sections,
the shear stress varies from zero at the axis of twist to a maximum at
the outer surface of the section.
In the common theory of torsion, it is assumed that plane sections

remain plane after twisting. The circular section is the only one that
conforms to this condition, and hence the simple theory of torsion
does not apply satisfactorily to sections other than those of circular
form. However, in practical calculations for non-circular sections, the
results of the simple torsion theory are often used in conjunction with
suitable correction factors.
Shear modulus is defined as the ratio of shear stress to shear strain,

below the proportional limit of the material. It is a material property
useful in calculating compliance of structural materials in torsion
provided they follow Hooke’s law, that is, the angle of twist is
proportional to the applied torque. Examples of the use of shear
modulus are in the design of rotating shafts and helical compression
springs.
EQUIPMENT AND
SPECIMENS
* Torsion testing machine (each machine has one type of
sample)
* Micrometer for precise diameter measurement
* Specimens: solid steel, aluminum and brass samples
10
Figure 1: The Application of a Torsion Load on solid bars

[from Beer F. and Johnston, R. (1992)]
Figure 2: Solid Torsion Test Specimen
11
PROCEDURE
1. Measure the diameter “D” of the specimen at three sections to
determine the average diameter.
2. The gauge length “L” between the fillets is indicated at the
station.
3. Press the zero button on the machine’s keypad, followed by
#1 key (to zero both angle and torque) as in Figure 3.
4. When ready, press the green start button as in Figure 4.
5. Wait until the test is finished and the resulting csv file shows
up on the Desktop, copy that file to your USB memory stick
using the USB side ports located on the left of the computer
displays. This csv file can be easily opened with Excel or any
spreadsheet software.
Figure 3: Zeroing the machine Figure 4: Start the test
Maximum Shear Modulus “G”

Material Torque
N.m GPa
Steel 10.5 77
Aluminum 6 26
Brass 6 39
Table 1: Maximum torque and shear modulus approx. values
12
1. For each specimen, calculate the torsion constant, J, which is the polar moment of inertia of
the cross-section with respect to its center:
J = (πD4)/32
2. Calculate the value of the shear modulus G given by the equation:
G = TL/θJ
where,
T = torque, N.mm
L = gauge length, mm
θ = angle of twist, radians
J = polar moment of inertia, mm4
REPORT
1. Plot the torque - rotation diagram for each material tested.
2. Compare the experimentally determined values of the shear modulus “G” with the given
values in Table 1.
3. Discuss the factors that could affect the experimental results.
DISCUSSION
1. List the relative advantages and disadvantages of tubular and solid cylindrical torsion
specimens for determination of shear strength.
2. Show with a sketch how you would expect the solid aluminum specimen to fail in torsion.
Do the same for the cast iron specimen. Discuss the cause of failure for each case.
REFERENCE
Beer F. and Johnston, R. (1992) Mechanics of Materials, McGraw-Hill.
13
EXPERIMENT No. 4: Stress Analysis of Beams Using Strain Gauges
SCOPE
1. In this test distributions of stress and strain in a beam are determined by means of strain
gauges. The results are compared with those given by the common theory of flexure.
2. The strain measurements will also be used to determine the elastic modulus, Poisson’s ratio
and the shear modulus.
GENERAL
DISCUSSION
If forces act on a piece of material in such a way that they tend to induce compressive stresses
over one part of a cross section and tensile stresses over the other part, the piece is said to be in
bending. Bending rarely occurs without other stresses such as shear stress, torsional stress, etc.
For simplicity, only bending stresses will be considered in this test. Pure bending is developed
under certain loading conditions; in the usual case, bending is accompanied by transverse shear.
Figure 1 illustrates the loading condition required to achieve pure bending in part of the beam.
Bending action in beams is often referred to as “flexure.” It has been well established by many
observations that in pure bending, strain is proportional to the distance from the neutral axis.
This is referred to as a condition of “plane bending,” i.e., plane sections before bending remain
plane sections after bending.
When a uniaxial force is applied to a solid, it deforms in the direction of the applied force, but
also expands or contracts laterally depending on whether the force is tensile or compressive. If
the solid is homogenous and isotropic, and the material remains elastic under the action of the
applied force, the lateral strain bears a constant relationship to the axial strain. This constant is
called Poisson’s ratio. It is used for design of structures where all dimensional changes resulting
from application of force need to be taken into account.
EQUIPMENT AND ·
SPECIMENS
* Tension/Compression testing machine
* Vernier calipers
* Strain indicator
* Switch and balance device
* Rectangular steel bar with strain gauges bonded on three faces
as shown in Figure 2.
14
P/2 P/2
c c
L
2C = 70 mm and L= 455mm
Figure 1: Load arrangement producing pure bending in middle portion of beam
Cross-section Isometric Projection

(Dimensions in mm)
Figure 2: Location and orientation of strain gauges
15
Figure 3 Gauge selector and balance Figure 4 Strain indicator (reads microstrain)
PROCEDURE
1. Measure the cross section of the steel bar. The span length between supports
is 455mm.
2. Record on a sketch the position of each strain gauge.
3. Locate the beam symmetrically on the supports with respect to the center line
of the strain gauges. Do not apply any load.
4. Turn on the strain indicator (Figure 4) using the power button on bottom left.
5. Turn the gauge selector switch to channel 1(Figure 3). Adjust the
corresponding potentiometer knob to balance the gauge until the strain
indicator (Figure 4) reads zero (±2) when no load is applied.
6. Perform the same operation for the other 5 channels. To adjust strain gauge
#2, switch to channel #2 and adjust potentiometer knob #2, etc.…
7. Check each strain gauge and re-balance, if necessary, before the beginning of
the test.
Note: After the balance and during the test, do not touch the wires, connections or
the balance potentiometers.
8. Load the beam slowly in increments of 1000 N up to 5000 N. Take readings
of strain for all six channels at each loading stage and record them.
9. Unload the beam and record the readings at zero load. This is a verification
step. Values should be close to zero.
16
1. Calculate the moment of inertia of the beam section.
I = bh3/12
2. Draw the free body diagram and shear/moment diagrams for an arbitrary load.
3. Calculate the bending stresses at strain gauge points for each loading stage using
the formula:
σ = My/I
Where y is the distance from the neutral axis.
4. Plot the stress-stain curves for gauge points 1 and 5 on the same diagram and
determine the elastic modulus “E” from the equation:
E = σ/ε
5. Plot the longitudinal strain (ε L) indicated by gauge 5 versus the applied load (P).
On the same diagram, plot transverse strain (ε T ) indicated by gauge 6. Draw a
straight line through each set of points and determine the slopes of these lines
(δε L/δP, δε T /δP). Poisson’s ratio, defined as the absolute value of the ratio of
transverse strain to the corresponding axial strain is then calculated as follows:
ν = (δε T /δP)/ (δε L/δP)
6. Using the published value of 200 x 109 Pa for the elastic modulus of steel,
determine the stress at each gauge point based on the relation:
σ = Ee
Use the experimental values for the strains.
7. Calculate the shear modulus using the experimentally determined values of elastic
modulus “E” and Poisson’s ratio.
G = E/[2(1 + ν)]
Compare the calculated values with the published value for steel (77 x 109 Pa).
8. For P=5000 N, plot strain vs. distance from the horizontal mid-plane of the beam.
Determine the experimental location of the neutral axis and compare it with the
theoretical location.
17
REPORT 1. For each gauge location, tabulate the theoretical and experimental
stresses calculated above. Comment on the differences between
the values for a particular location. Indicate whether stresses are
tension or compression.
DISCUSSION 1. Does the plotted graph of strain versus distance from the mid-plane of
the beam substantiate the usual assumption that a plane section before
bending remains plane after bending?
2. Explain discrepancies between theoretical and experimentally

determined stress and discuss the possible sources of error.
3. Structures are often constructed using composite beams that are made
with two or more materials. Examples include steel reinforced
concrete and laminated timber. In order to determine the stress
distribution for such beams, the cross-section must be transformed to
account for the different moduli of elasticity of the materials. The
transformed beam is made of a homogeneous material with a specific
value of E and is equivalent to the composite beam. It has the same
depth as the original beam, but the width varies depending on the
value of E for each material.
(Refer to Sec. 4.7 of Mechanics of Materials by Beer and Johnston

for more details regarding the analysis of composite beams).
Solve the following problem:

The beam shown in the diagram is a composite beam which is bent
about a horizontal axis by a couple M= 2000 N m :
a) Draw an equivalent beam that is made entirely of aluminum.

b) Show the stress distributions of the transformed and composite
beams.
18
EXPERIMENT No. 5: DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
SCOPE This test method evaluates the load deflection relationship of a simply supported
beam. This information is used to determine the modulus of elasticity of different
metals.
DISCUSSION
A beam subjected to a transverse load will deflect to some extent, depending on the
magnitude and location of the loads, and the length of span. Knowledge of the
deflection curve is of significant importance to the design engineer. Building codes
put limits on the deflections of structural components due to serviceability
considerations.
Within the elastic range, the curvature of the neutral axis can be expressed as:
1/ρ = M(x)/EI (1)
where M(x) is the bending moment at a distance x from the end of the beam, E is the
modulus of elasticity, I is the moment of inertia of the cross section about the neutral
axis and ρ is the radius of curvature.
The curvature of the deflection curve, y(x), is given by:
1/ρ = d2y/dx2 (2)

2 3/2
[1 +(dy/dx) ]
Since the slope of the deflection curve is small in the elastic range, (dy/dx)2 ~ 0.
Therefore, the curvature can be approximated as the second derivative of the
deflection curve such that:
1/ρ = d2y/dx2 (3)
Thus, Eq. 1 can be written in terms of the deflection:
d2y/dx2 = M(x)/EI (4)

or
(d2y/dx2)EI = M(x) (5)
By integrating Eq. 5 twice, we can obtain the deflection of the beam at any location.
The constants of integration are determined from the boundary conditions (i.e. the
deflection and/or slope of y(x) at the supports or load points).
19
EQUIPMENT &
SPECIMENS
* load machines
* deflection gauges
* Vernier caliper.
* steel, aluminum and brass bars of rectangular cross section.
PROCEDURE
Part 1 (Point load on a simply supported beam; hydraulic load machine)
1. Measure the cross section of each beam.
2. The span “L” (mm) between the two supports is 455mm.
3. Position the specimen on the supports of the testing machine. Make sure that the
center of the beam and the line of action of the load coincide.
4. Position the two deformation gauges that are mounted to measure the vertical
deflection at the center and at the quarter point of the beam span.
5. Load the beam in increments of 200 N up to 1000 N and record the corresponding
deflection δ at middle of the span and quarter-span to an accuracy of 0.01 mm.
NOTE: DO NOT EXCEED THE LOAD OF 1000 N. The beams will be damaged.
6. Carry out the test for all beams (brass, steel and aluminum).
Part 2 (Point load on cantilever beams, STR1 Test Frame)
Figure 1. Zeroing the display, press

the origin button for 2-3 seconds.
B. Cantilever beam (pay attention to what material is used)

1. Measure the cross section using the calipers.
2. The load hanger must be placed at the free end of the beam at the length “L” from the
fixed end, and under the display meter.
3. Measure deflection at x= L and x=0.5L for load increments of 100 g up to a
maximum load of 500g.
20
ANALYSIS OF
RESULTS
A. Simply-supported beams
1. Derive an expression for the elastic curve (deflection curve) of the
simply-supported beam.
2. Using the elastic curve expression derived in (1), calculate the
theoretical deflection at the mid-span and quarter-span locations.
Use the published values of E shown below.
3. Tabulate the theoretical and experimental deflections.
4. Estimate E for each of the beams tested by substituting the
experimental deflection values into the elastic curve formula.
Compare the values obtained with the published values.
E = 200 GPa - for steel
E = 70 GPa - for aluminum
E = 105 GPa - for brass
5. Plot theoretical and experimental deflection at mid-span as a
function of load for each of the beams. Plot all results obtained
with the hydraulic load machine on one graph.
B. Cantilever beam
1. For each load, calculate the theoretical deflection at x=L and x=0.5L
using the equation of the elastic curve
y = P/6EI (x3 – 3Lx2) (6)
2. Tabulate the theoretical and experimental deflections

3. Estimate E using Eq. 6 with the measured deflections.
4. Plot the experimental and theoretical deflections as a function of load.
DISCUSSION 1. Compare the theoretical deflections with the experimental values.

- Determine the accuracy of the theoretical equations.
- Does the accuracy depend on the type of material, load
machine, beam configuration? Discuss.
2. Compare the estimated E values obtained using the elastic curve
equation with the published values.
21
EXPERIMENT No. 6: BEHAVIOUR OF COLUMNS UNDER AXIAL LOAD
SCOPE This test method covers the experimental determination of buckling

loads for columns of various lengths.
DISCUSSION A slender column subjected to an increasing axial load, P, will

eventually deform as shown in Figure 1. The critical buckling load,
P cr , for a given column depends on various factors. These include the
column length (L), the support conditions, the cross-sectional shape
of the column and the location of the load relative to the centroid of
the cross-section.
Figure 1. A column subjected to an axial load [Beer and Johnston (1992)]
Using the differential equation for the deflection of an elastic member,
d2y M
=
dx 2 EI
22
where x is a location along the axis of the column, y is the deflection of the
axis at x, M is the bending moment at x, E is the modulus of elasticity of the
material and I is the moment of inertia, the following theoretical equation for
the critical buckling load is obtained:
π 2 EI
Pcr = (2)
L2
Equation 2, known as Euler’s formula, is based on the following assumptions:

- the load is centric (P acts along the centroidal axis of the column),
- the ends of the column are pinned,
- the column behaves elastically.
Using Eq. 2, the critical normal stress, σ cr = P cr /A , is given by:
π 2E π 2E
σ cr = = 2 (3)
( L r )2 λ
where r is the radius of gyration [r = (I/A)0.5], A is the cross-sectional area of

the column and λ = L/r is the slenderness ratio. Euler’s formula was derived
by assuming that both ends of the column are pinned. For columns with
other support conditions, the effective length of the column should be used in
Equations 2 and 3 instead of the actual length. The effective length can be
expressed as: Le = KL, where K is the effective length factor. Figure 2 shows
Le and K for various support conditions.
Figure 2 Effective lengths of columns with various end conditions [Beer and Johnston (1992)]
23
The assumptions used in the derivation of Euler’s formula are generally not met for real columns and
consequently, measured failure loads tend to be lower than specified by Eq. 3. Design formulas for
allowable stress in columns have been developed for different materials (e.g. steel, aluminum,
timber) to take into account these discrepancies and to include a safety factor. For example, the
Aluminum Association provides various formulas for allowable stress in columns, depending on the
alloy. For alloy 6061 - T6, which is used in the present lab, the design formulas are:
σ All = 131 MPa for λ < 9.5

σ All = 139 - 0.868 (λ) MPa for 9.5 < λ < 66
σ All = (351 x 103)/λ2 MPa for λ > 66
EQUIPMENT & SPECIMENS

1. Tension/Compression testing machine
2. load measuring devices.
3. Vernier calipers.
4. aluminum tubes and rods: 225, 125 and 75 mm long.
PROCEDURE
1. Measure the outer and inner diameter of each specimen.
2. Starting with the 225 mm specimens, perform individual tests
for each of the following end conditions:
a. Both ends fixed.
b. One end fixed and the other is pinned
c. Both ends pinned.
3. Gradually and steadily increase the compressive load on each
specimen and watch for the onset of bending. Record the
maximum load.
4. For the specimens of 125 and 75 mm length perform the tests
only for the case of both ends pinned.
5. Draw a sketch of the mode of failure for each specimen.
ANALYSIS OF THE
RESULTS
1. Calculate the cross sectional area (A) and radius of gyration
(r) of the columns.
5. Determine the critical load, P cr , for each specimen.
6. Calculate the experimental critical stress “σ cr ” and
slenderness ratio, λ= KL/r for each column, where:
L = length of column
K = effective length factor
4. Calculate the theoretical critical stress for each specimen
using Euler’s formula, σ cr = π2E/λ2. (Assume Ε = 70 GPa)
24
REPORT
1. Tabulate the critical loads measured for the various specimens.
2. Plot the curve for the theoretical critical stress versus slenderness ratio,
and show also the experimental values obtained.
3. Plot the allowable stress curves on the previous graph.
DISCUSSION
1. Discuss the differences between the theoretical critical stresses obtained
with Euler’s formula and the experimental results. What factors may
account for the discrepancies?
2. Compare your results with the allowable stress curves recommended by
the Aluminum Association.
3. Comment on the factors which may affect the buckling strength of real
columns.
4. For the same cross-sectional area, which column provides the higher
buckling load: a circular bar or a circular tube? Why?
REFERENCE
Beer F. and Johnston, R. (1992) Mechanics of Materials, McGraw-Hill.
25
CONVERSION FACTORS
SI units to Conventional American Conventional American units to SI units
LENGTH
1 km = 0.621 371 mi 1 mi = 1.609 344 km
1m = 1.093 61 yd 1 yd = 0.914 4 m
1m = 3.280 84 ft 1 ft = 0.304 8 m
1mm = 0.039 370 in 1 in = 25.4 mm
MASS
1 kg = 2.204 62 lb 1 lb = 0.453 592 kg
1g = 0.035 274 oz 1 oz = 28.349 5 g
MASS density (Mass/unit volume)

1 kg/m3 = 0.062 428 lb/ft3 1 lb/ft3 = 16.018 5 kg/m3
1 kg/m3 = 1.685 56 lb/yd3 1 lb/yd3 = 0.593 278 kg/m3
PRESSURE & STRESS

1 MPa = 145.038 lb-force/in2 1 lb-force/in2 = 6.894 76 kPa
1 MPa = 20.885 434 x 103 lb-force 1 kip-force/ft2 = 47.880 3 kPa
Prefixes for SI units
109 giga [G]

106 mega [M]
103 kilo [K]
10-2 cent [c]
10-3 milli [m]
10-6 micro [u]
26
ENGR 244 (Mechanics of Materials)
Lab No. 1: BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
DATA AND CALCULATION SHEET
Student Name:_________________________________Student ID:__________________________________Lab Group:________________
Diameter of impression, Brinell Average

No. Ball d (mm) Load, P Depth of Area of Hardness, Brinell
SAMPLE
of Diameter, d= in Newton in Kg indentation, indentation, HB Hardness
Trial D (mm) dx dy ½(dx+dy) (N) (N/9.81) t (mm) A (mm²) (Kg/mm2) HB
(Kg/mm2)
1
Steel 2 10.00
3
1
Aluminum 10.00
2
3
Formula used
𝑃(𝑘𝑔) 𝜋𝐷 (𝐷−√D2 −d2 )

HB = 𝐴(𝑚𝑚²) and A = πDt = 2
where:
P = applied load in kg (Load (N)/g). D = diameter of the ball (mm)
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2) d = mean diameter of the impression (mm)
A = area of the indentation (mm²) t = depth of indentation (mm)
Lab No. 2: TENSION TEST ON METALS
DATA SHEET
Student Name:__________________________ Student ID_______________________ Lab Group___________
Sample Before Fracture After Fracture
Steel Li = .................. mm, di =. ..................mm Lf = ......................mm, df = ................ mm
Aluminum Li= ....................mm, di = .................. mm Lf = .. ..................mm, df = ................. mm
ALUMINUM STEEL
Load, Deformation, Load, Deformation, Load, P (N) Deformation, Load, Deformation,
P(N) δ (mm) P(N) δ (mm) δ (mm) P (N) δ (mm)
Maximum Load, Pmax = ................................... N Maximum Load, Pmax = ..................... .. ........... N

Lab No. 3: TORSION TEST ON METALS
DATA AND CALCULATION SHEET
Student Name: _____________________ Student ID:________________________ Lab Group:
Sample Diameter, D = (D1+D2+D3)/3 Gauge Length, L Polar Moment of inertia, J

Steel mm mm mm4
Aluminum mm mm mm4
Brass mm mm mm4
Steel
T (N.m) θ (Deg.) θ (Rad.) G (GPa) Gav (GPa)
1.50
3.00
4.50
6.00
7.50
9.00
10.50
Aluminum
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
Brass
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
Formulas
J = (πD4)/32 where T = Torque (N.mm), L= Gauge length (mm), D = Diameter of the specimen (mm)
G = TL/ θ J θ = angle of twist (radians), J= Polar Moment of inertia (mm4)
Lab No. 4: STRESS ANALYSIS OF BEAMS USING STRAIN

GAUGES
Student Name: Student ID: Lab Group:
Properties of the steel beam: Span length between the two loading points:
Span length between supports, L = 455 mm, 2c =______________ mm.
Width, b=_____________mm,
Height, h=______________mm
Applied Strain Indicator reading units are in micro-strain (10−6 strain)

Load, P (N) Channel # 1 Channel # 2 Channel #3 Channel # 4 Channel # 5 Channel # 6
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
Unload
Lab No. 5: DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
DATA SHEET
Student Name: __________________Student ID:_______________Lab Group:________
Dimensions BRASS STEEL ALUMINUM
Span Length, L (mm) 455 455 455
Width, w (mm)
Height, h (mm)
DEFLECTION OF BEAM, δ (mm)

Applied BRASS STEEL ALUMINUM
Dimensions BRASS STEEL ALUMINUM
Load at x = L/2 at x = L/4 at x = L/2 at x = L/4 at x = L/2 at x = L/4
Span Length, L (mm) 455 455 455
200 N
Width, w (mm)
400 N
Height, h (mm)
600 N
800 N
1000 N
PART 2 : CANTILEVER BEAMS
Brass width x height …….x.….….(mm), Steel width x height ……x..…….(mm), Alum width x height………x…..…….(mm)
CANTILEVER BEAM DEFLEXION, δ (mm)

Applied BRASS span L=……..mm STEEL span L=……..mm ALUM span L=……..mm
Load x=L/2 x=L x=L/2 x=L x=L/2 x=L
100 gm
200 gm
300 gm
400 gm
500 gm
Analysis & Discussion: Follow the instructions given on page #

21 of your lab manual.
EXPERIMENT 6: Typical DATA Sheet
Type Column End Effective Effective Inner Outer Cross Moment Radius of Slender- Allowable
length length, diameter, sectional gyration, ness Theoretical Theoretical Experimental Experimental
of Length, Condition diameter, of inertia, Stress,
Critical load, Critical stress, Critical Load, Critical stress,
factor, k Leff din dout area, A I (mm4) r (mm) ratio, λ σall (MPa)
column L (mm)
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm2) Pcr (N) σcr (MPa) Pcr (N) σcr (MPa)
75 Pin-Pin 1 75
125 Pin-Pin 1 125
Hollow 225 Pin-Pin 1 2:25
225 Pin-Fixed 0.707
225 Fixed-Fixed 0.5
225 Pin-Pin 1 225
Solid 225 Pin-Fixed 0,707
225 Fixed-Fixed 0.5
Report: Effective Length factor, k

1. Tabulate the critical loads measured for various specimens One end fixed, Both ends One end fixed, Both ends
2. On ONE graph, show the comparison of the followings: one end free pinned one end pinned fixed
(i) Theoretical σcr vs. λ,
1 1
(ii) Experimental σcr vs. λ, and K=2 K= 1 K= K=2
√2
(iii) Allowable stress vs. λ,
Discussion: Answer all FOUR questions given in your Lab Manual. (Sometimes ‘Fixed’ is called ‘clamped’, ‘pinned’ is called ‘hinged’)

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Department of Building, Civil and

ÉVACUATION DES LIEUX

3. Fume facemasks should be worn when dealing with chemicals.

9. Long hair must be tied back while operating machinery.

11. No food or drinks are allowed in the laboratory at any time.

12. The laboratory must be kept clean at all times.

15. Always follow instructions from the lab instructor(s).

INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS ............................................................................…. i

EXPERIMENT 1: BRINELL HARDNESS TEST.......................................................1

EXPERIMENT 2: TENSION TEST ON METALS.................................................…5

EXPERIMENT 3: TORSION TEST ON METALS...............................................…..9

EXPERIMENT 4: STRESS ANALYSIS OF BEAMS

EXPERIMENT 5: DEFLECTION OF BEAMS.....................................................….18

EXPERIMENT 6: BEHAVIOUR OF COLUMNS

CONVERSION FACTORS ........................................................................................…..25

INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONDUCTING EXPERIMENTS

GUIDELINES FOR LAB REPORTS

* Lab reports must be presented using word processing and spreadsheet

DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION

ORIGINAL DATA SHEET

MARKING SCHEME FOR LAB REPORTS (EACH MARKED OUT OF 15 POINTS)

The Testing Machine

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF THE TESTING MACHINE

EXPERIMENT No. 1: BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

SCOPE The Brinell Hardness Test measures the resistance of metals to

The static indentation test was first introduced by J.A., Brinell in

Metal Ball diameter Load Range of Brinell

having a hardness over 444 HB or a carbide ball with a hardness over

Minimum Minimum Hardness for Which the Brinell

1.6 602 301 100

EQUIPMENT AND - Compression machine

Figure 1: Brinell Test Method Figure 2: Indentation dimensions

Figure 3: Sample with 3 indentations Figure 4: Measuring the diameter

2. Apply the test load “P” for 15 seconds.

ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS

1. Comment on the practical applicability of the hardness test in engineering and

3. Discuss the effects of the following experimental errors on the Brinell

4. Discuss the sources of error in this experiment.

EXPERIMENT No. 2: Tension Test on Metals

GENERAL Tensile strength is the maximum tensile stress which a material is

The tension test is carried out by subjecting a specimen to a gradually

Figure 1 shows a typical tension specimen. The gauge length is the

Figure 1: Typical Tension Specimen

Figure 2 Setup for the deformation measurement

Figure 3. Zeroing the deformation indicator.

Figure 4 Final length measurement

ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS

2. Determine the following:

1. Describe the equipment and test procedure.

2. For each material tested, plot the engineering stress-strain curves.

1. What are the advantages of a stress-strain diagram over a load-elongation diagram in

4. Define ductility. Which parameters are indicators of ductility?

Table 2.1: Properties of Aluminum & Steel

Property Aluminum Steel

Yield strength 275 415

Ultimate 310 540

EXPERIMENT No. 3: TORSION TEST ON METALS

SCOPE This test method covers the determination of shear modulus of

In the common theory of torsion, it is assumed that plane sections

Shear modulus is defined as the ratio of shear stress to shear strain,

Student Name:_______________Student ID:Lab Group: