Manual Ingles Correcion

INGLÉS TÉCNICO
EJERCICIOS DE REFORZAMIENTO
MANUAL PARA PILOTO PRIVADO DE ALA FIJA

TORNADO ASESORÍA EN TRANSPORTACIÓN AÉREA SA DE
CV
Ciudad
Ciudad de México de México| Toluca
| Guadalajara | Guadalajara | Toluca
MANUAL PARA PILOTO PRIVADO DE ALA FIJA
TORNADO ASESORÍA EN TRANSPORTACIÓN AÉREA SA DE CV
TORNADO ASESORÍA EN TRANSPORTACIÓN AÉREA S.A. DE C.V.
PERMISOS:
AFAC L43
SCT TAT9 71210 -E 760 013

Presenta
MANUAL DE ADIESTRAMIENTO
CURSO DE FORMACIÓN PARA PERSONAL TÉCNICO AERONÁUTICO
INGLÉS TÉCNICO
FORMACIÓN PARA CAPITÁN PILOTO AVIADOR PRIVADO DE ALA FIJA
El contenido de este Manual es una recopilación que TORNADO ASESORÍA EN

TRANSPORTACIÓN AÉREA S.A. DE C.V. ha fusionado de varias referencias
bibliográficas, las cuales son respetadas. Este manual ha sido diseñado única y
exclusivamente para la implementación de cursos de adiestramiento.
El diseño e integración del contenido son propiedad de TORNADO ASESORÍA EN

TRANSPORTACIÓN AÉREA S.A. DE C.V.
SEGUNDA EDICIÓN, SEPTIEMBRE DE 2021

Esta versión, reemplaza la anterior.
Versión digital
www.tornadoadiestramiento.org
Ciudad de México | Guadalajara | Toluca

Contenido
1. BASIC ENGLISH....................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 ENGLISH LANGUAGE PHONETICS.....................................................................................1
REINFORCEMENT EXERCISES.................................................................................................9
1.2 VOCABULARY..................................................................................................................... 10
1.3 BASIC CONCEPTS.............................................................................................................. 13
REINFORCEMENT EXERCISES...............................................................................................21
1.4 POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES................................................................................................22
1.5 INDEFINITE ARTICLES.......................................................................................................27
1.6 REGULAR VERBS............................................................................................................... 33
1.7 IRREGULAR VERBS............................................................................................................ 41
1.8 PAST AND PRESENT SIMPLE............................................................................................48
1.9 FUTURE............................................................................................................................... 53
2. TECHINCAL ENGLISH.............................................................................................................. 56
2.1 GENERAL VOCABULARY...................................................................................................56
2.2 ENGINE VOCABULARY.......................................................................................................66
2.3 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM VOCABULARY...............................................................................80
2.4 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM VOCABULARY................................................................................85

2.5 PRESSURIZATION SYSTEM VOCABULARY.....................................................................95
REINFORCEMENT EXERCISES.............................................................................................102
2.6 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM VOCABULARY....................................................................103
2.7 FUEL SYSTEM VOCABULARY..........................................................................................110
2.8 OTHER SYSTEMS VOCABULARY....................................................................................123

Welcome on board.!

1. BASIC ENGLISH
1.1 ENGLISH LANGUAGE PHONETICS
Knowing a language includes knowing the sounds of that language. Phonetics is the study
of speech sounds.
Identity of Speech Sounds
Our linguistic knowledge allows us to ignore nonlinguistic differences in speech (such as

individual pitch levels, rates of speed, coughs).
We are capable of making sounds that are not speech sounds in English but are in other
languages.
The science of phonetics aims to describe all the sounds of all the world’s
languages.
 Acoustic phonetics: focuses on the physical properties of the sounds of

language.
 Auditory phonetics: focuses on how listeners perceive the sounds of language.
 Articulatory phonetics: focuses on how the vocal tract produces the sounds of
language.
Spelling, or orthography, does not consistently represent the sounds of language.
The Phonetic Alphabet
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)
In 1888 the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) was invented in order to have a
system in which there was a one-to-one correspondence between each sound in language
and each phonetic symbol
Someone who knows the IPA knows how to pronounce any word in any language
1
Phonetic AlphabeT
Using IPA symbols, we can now represent the pronunciation of words unambiguously:
Examples:
2
Articulatory Phonetics
Most speech sounds are produced by pushing air through the vocal cords
– Glottis = the opening between the vocal cords
– Larynx = ‘voice box’
– Pharynx = tubular part of the throat above the larynx
– Oral cavity = mouth
– Nasal cavity = nose and the passages connecting it to the throat and sinuses.
Consonants: Place of Articulation
 Consonants are sounds produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract
 Consonants are classified based in part on where in the vocal tract the airflow is
being restricted (the place of articulation)
 The major places of articulation are: bilabial, labiodental, interdental, alveolar,
palatal, velar, uvular, and glottal.
3
The vocal tract. Places of articulation: 1. bilabial; 2. labiodental; 3. interdental; 4. alveolar; 5. (alveo)palatal; 6.
velar; 7. uvular; 8. glottal.
Consonants: Place of Articulation.
• Bilabials: [p] [b] [m]
– Produced by bringing both lips together
• Labiodentals:[f] [v]
– Produced by touching the bottom lip to the upper teeth
• Interdentals [θ] [d]
– Produced by putting the tip of he tongue between the teeth.
• Alveolars: [t] [d] [n] [s] [z] [l] [r]
– All of these are produced by raising the tongue to the alveolar ridge in some way
• [t, d, n]: produced by the tip of the tongue touching the alveolar ridge (or just in front of it)
• [s, z]: produced with the sides of the front of the tongue raised but the tip lowered to allow
air to escape.
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• [l]: the tongue tip is raised while the rest of the tongue remains down so air can escape
over the sides of the tongue (thus [l] is a lateral sound).
• [r]: air escapes through the central part of the mouth; either the tip of the tongue is curled
back behind the alveolar ridge.
Vowels
• Vowels are classified by how high or low the tongue is, if the tongue is in the front or back
of the mouth, and whether or not the lips are rounded.
• High vowels: [i] [ɪ] [u] [ʊ]
• Mid vowels: [e] [ɛ] [o] [ə] [ʌ] [ɔ]
• Low vowels: [a] [a]
• Front vowels: [i] [ɪ] [e] [ɛ] [a]
• Central vowels: [ə] [ʌ]
• Back vowels: [u] [ɔ] [o] [a] [a]
Consonants: Manner of Articulation
• Oral sounds are those produced with the velum raised to prevent air from escaping out
the nose
• Nasal sounds are those produced with the velum lowered to allow air to escape out the
nose
• So far we have three ways of classifying sounds based on phonetic features: by

voicing, by place of articulation, and by nasalization
– [p] is a voiceless, bilabial, oral sound
– [n] is a voiced, alveolar, nasal sound
5
Here is a table with the phonemes in IPA and an example of how they can be applied to
the English language.
VOWELS CONSONANTS
IPA EJEMPLOS IPA EJEMPLOS
ʌ cup, luck b bad, lab
ɑ: arm, father d did, lady
æ cat, black f find, if
e met, bed g give, flag
ə away, cinema h how, hello
ɜ:ʳ turn, learn j yes, yellow
ɪ hit, sitting k cat, back
i: see, heat l leg, little
ɒ hot, rock m man, lemon
ɔ: call, four n no, ten
ʊ put, could ŋ sing, finger
u: blue, food p pet, map
aɪ five, eye r red, try
aʊ now, out s sun, miss
eɪ say, eight ʃ she, crash
oʊ go, home t tea, getting
ɔɪ boy, join tʃ check, church
eəʳ where, air θ think, both
ɪəʳ near, here ð this, mother
ʊəʳ pure, tourist v voice, five
w wet, window
z zoo, lazy
ʒ pleasure, visión
d3 just, large
6
VOWEL PHONEMES
To clarify the subject a bit, let's take some examples of IPA phonetic symbols. Let's start
with the vowels.
/ə:/
Schwa. It is a very common phoneme in English and is found in many words. It is a

reduced vowel, often in the final syllable.
Examples:
father /ˈfɑːðə(r)/ (padre), mother /ˈmʌðə(r)/ (madre).
It is also present in a closed syllable that is not stressed.
Examples:
president /ˈprezɪdənt/ (presidente), experiment /ɪkˈsperɪmənt/ (experimento).
/ʌ/
This phoneme is a short vowel close to 'a'. In English it is often associated with the
grapheme 'o' before the consonants 'w' or 'c' and after 'n'.
Examples:
onion /ˈʌnjən/ (cebolla), wonderful /ˈwʌndə(r)f(ə)l/ (maravilloso), money /ˈmʌni/

(dinero), monk /mʌŋk/ (monje), month /mʌnθ/ (mes), summer /ˈsʌmə(r)/ (verano), up /ʌp/
(encima), to cut /kʌt/ (cortar).
/i:/
Long Vocal.
Examples:
to be /biː/ (ser), English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ (inglés), sea /siː/ (mar), evil /ˈiːv(ə)l/ (malvado), feet

/fiːt/(pies), team /tiːm/ (equipo), stream /striːm/ (riachuelo), cream /kriːm/ (crema).
7
/i/
Short vowel of closed stressed syllables.
Examples:
Kidney /ˈkɪdni/ (riñón), kit /kɪt/ (kit), minute /ˈmɪnɪt/ (minuto), to hit /hɪt/ (golpear), in /in/

(en).
8
REINFORCEMENT EXERCISES
Read aloud the following words and then relate them to their phonetic transcription.
Holiday (vacaciones) ˈmʌðə
Baggage (equipaje) ɪˈnʌf
Aisle (pasillo) eɪt
Enough (suficiente) ˈhɒlədeɪz
Information (información) lɜːn
Mother (madre) aɪl
Cinema (cinema) ˌɪnfəˈmeɪʃən
Learn (aprender) ˈsɪnəmə
Wood (madera) ˈbægɪʤ
Eight (ocho) wʊd
Vegetable (verdura) ˈˈwɔːtə
Daughter (hija) ˈðəʊ
Water (agua) tʌf
Though (aunque) ˈdɔːtə
Tough (duro) vɛʤtəb(ə)l
9
1.2 VOCABULARY
At the airport:
 Airfare
 Airline
 Arrival / arrivals
 Baggage / luggage
 Baggage claim
 Board
 Boarding pass
 Boarding time
 Hand luggage
 Gate
 Identification
 International
 Layover / stopover
 Overbooked
 Passport
 Runway
On the plane:
 Aisle
 Aisle seat
 Business class
 Cabin
 Captain
 Cockpit
 Complimentary
 Economy class / coach class
 Emergency exits
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 First-class
 Life vest
 Overhead bin / overhead compartment
 Oxygen mask
 Pilot
 Row
 Seatbelt
 Steward / flight attendant
 Stewardess / flight attendant
 Takeoff
 Turbulence
Aircraft components:
 Nacelle
 Wing
 Right Aileron
 Landing gear
 Fuselage
 Left Aileron
 Elevator
 Vertical stabilizer
 Horizontal stabilizer
 Rudder
 Empennage
 Tail cone
 Fuselage section
 Nose gear
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12
Aircraft systems vocabulary.
 Controls and Indicators.

 Pumps
 Valves
 Selector
 Fuel feed
 Venting
 Compressors
 Oil-and-water trap
 Control valves
 Brake control valve
 Actuators
 Cooling
 Temperature control
 APU
 Engine exhaust heaters
 Refrigeration systems
 Cabin Altitude
 Pressurised air
 Vaccum relief valve
 Engine
 Fan air bleed
 Precooler
 Main beam
 Ground test valve control
 Cabin altitude selector
 Discharge valves
 Safety valves
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1.3 BASIC CONCEPTS
Glossary.
Airfoil. Any surface, such as a wing, propeller, rudder, or even a trim tab, which provides
aerodynamic force when it interacts with a moving stream of air.
Figure I. Airfoil characteristics.
Acceleration. Force involved in overcoming inertia, and which may be defined as a

change in velocity per unit of time.
Accelerometer. A part of an inertial navigation system (INS) that accurately measures the
force of acceleration in one direction.
ADC. See air data computer.
ADF. See automatic direction finder.
ADI. See attitude director indicator.
Adjustable-pitch propeller. A propeller with blades whose pitch can be adjusted on the
ground with the engine not running, but which cannot be adjusted in flight.
Adjustable stabilizer. A stabilizer that can be adjusted in flight to trim the airplane,
thereby allowing the airplane to fly hands-off at any given airspeed.
Aerodynamics. The science of the action of air on an object, and with the motion of air on
other gases.
14
Aeronautical decision-making (ADM). A systematic approach to the mental process
used by pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given
set of circumstances.
Ailerons. Primary flight control surfaces mounted on the trailing edge of an airplane wing,
near the tip. Ailerons control roll about the longitudinal axis.
Aircraft. A device that is used, or intended to be used, for flight.
Aircraft altitude. The actual height above sea level at which the aircraft is flying.
Airplane. An engine-driven, fixed-wing aircraft heavier than air that is supported in flight by
the dynamic reaction of air against its wings.
Airworthiness Certificate. A certificate issued by the FAA to all aircraft that have been
proven to meet the minimum standards set down by the Code of Federal Regulations.
Altitude engine. A reciprocating aircraft engine having a rated takeoff power that is
producible from sea level to an established higher altitude.
Ambient pressure. The pressure in the area immediately surrounding the aircraft.
Ammeter. An instrument installed in series with an electrical load used to measure the
amount of current flowing through the load.
Angle of attack. The angle of attack is the angle at which relative wind meets an airfoil. It
is the angle that is formed by the chord of the airfoil and the direction of the relative wind or
between the chord line and the flight path.
Angle of incidence. The acute angle formed between the chord line of an airfoil and the
longitudinal axis of the aircraft on which it is mounted.
Alternate airport. An airport designated in an IFR flight plan, providing a suitable

destination if a landing at the intended airport becomes inadvisable.
ALS. See approach lighting system.
ATC. Air Traffic Control.
ATCRBS. See air traffic control radar beacon system.
ATIS. See automatic terminal information service.
15
Attitude indicator. The foundation for all instrument flight, this instrument reflects the
airplane’s attitude in relation to the horizon.
Attitude instrument flying. Controlling the aircraft by reference to the instruments rather
than by outside visual cues.
Attitude management. The ability to recognize hazardous attitudes in oneself and the
willingness to modify them as necessary through the application of an appropriate antidote
thought.
Aviation medical examiner (AME). A physician with training in aviation medicine

designated by the Civil Aerospace Medical Institute (CAMI).
Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR). Observation of current surface weather

reported in a standard international format.
AWOS. See Automated Weather Observing System.
Axes of an aircraft. Three imaginary lines that pass through an aircraft’s center of gravity.
The axes can be considered as imaginary axles around which the aircraft rotates. The
three axes pass through the center of gravity at 90° angles to each other.
CG. See center of gravity.
CAS. Calibrated airspeed.
CDI. Course deviation indicator.
Center of gravity (CG). The point at which an airplane would balance if it were possible to
suspend it at that point.
Clearance. ATC permission for an aircraft to proceed under specified traffic conditions
within controlled airspace, for the purpose of providing separation between known aircraft.
Condensation. A change of state of water from a gas (water vapor) to a liquid.
Configuration. This is a general term, which normally refers to the position of the landing
gear and flaps.
Critical altitude. The maximum altitude under standard atmospheric conditions at which a
turbocharged engine can produce its rated horsepower.
16
Critical angle of attack. The angle of attack at which a wing stalls regardless of airspeed,
flight attitude, or weight.
Decision altitude (DA). A specified altitude in the precision approach, charted in feet
MSL, at which a missed approach must be initiated if the required visual reference to
continue the approach has not been established.
Decision height (DH). A specified altitude in the precision approach, charted in height
above threshold elevation, at which a decision must be made either to continue the
approach or to execute a missed approach.
Datum (Reference Datum). An imaginary vertical plane or line from which all
measurements of arm are taken. The datum is established by the manufacturer. Once the
datum has been selected, all moment arms and the location of CG range are measured
from this point.
Engine pressure ratio (EPR). The ratio of turbine discharge pressure divided by
compressor inlet pressure, which is used as an indication of the amount of thrust being
developed by a turbine engine.
EFC. See expect-further-clearance.
EFD. See electronic flight display.
EGT. See exhaust gas temperature.
Elevator. The horizontal, movable primary control surface in the tail section, or
empennage, of an airplane.
Exhaust gas temperature (EGT). The temperature of the exhaust gases as they leave
the cylinders of a reciprocating engine or the turbine section of a turbine engine.
Expect-further-clearance (EFC). The time a pilot can expect to receive clearance beyond
a clearance limit.
Explosive decompression. A change in cabin pressure faster than the lungs can
decompress. Lung damage is possible.
17
Figure II. Simplified illustration of the four forces acting on an aircraft.
Foreign object damage (FOD). Damage to a gas turbine engine caused by some object
being sucked into the engine while it is running.
Fuel load. The expendable part of the load of the airplane. It includes only usable fuel, not
fuel required to fill the lines or that which remains trapped in the tank sumps
Ground proximity warning system (GPWS). A system designed to determine an

aircraft’s clearance above the Earth and provides limited predictability about aircraft
position relative to rising terrain.
Horsepower. The term, originated by inventor James Watt, means the amount of work a
horse could do in one second. One horsepower equals 550 foot-pounds per second.
Knot. The knot is a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile (1.852 km) per hour,
approximately 1.151 mph.
Lateral axis. An imaginary line passing through the center of gravity of an airplane and
extending across the airplane from wingtip to wingtip.
18
Lift. A component of the total aerodynamic force on an airfoil and acts perpendicular to the
relative wind.
Figure III. Lift and drag components of F aero
Limit load factor. Amount of stress, or load factor, that an aircraft can withstand before
structural damage or failure occurs.
Localizer (LOC). The portion of an ILS that gives left/right guidance information down the
centerline of the instrument runway for final approach.
Longitude. Measurement east or west of the Prime Meridian in degrees, minutes, and
seconds. The Prime Meridian is 0° longitude and runs through Greenwich, England. Lines
of longitude are also referred to as meridians.
Magneto. A self-contained, engine-driven unit that supplies electrical current to the spark plugs;
completely independent of the airplane’s electrical system. Normally there are two magnetos per
engine.
Mass. The amount of matter in a body.
Maximum altitude. An altitude depicted on an instrument approach chart with overscored

altitude value at which or below aircraft are required to maintain altitude.
Maximum authorized altitude (MAA). A published altitude representing the maximum

usable altitude or flight level for an airspace structure or route segment.
19
Maximum landing weight. The greatest weight that an airplane normally is allowed to
have at landing.
Maximum ramp weight. The total weight of a loaded aircraft, including all fuel. It is
greater than the takeoff weight due to the fuel that will be burned during the taxi and runup
operations. Ramp weight may also be referred to as taxi weight.
Maximum takeoff weight. The maximum allowable weight for takeoff.
Minimum altitude. An altitude depicted on an instrument approach chart with the altitude
value underscored. Aircraft are required to maintain altitude at or above the depicted
value.
Minimum equipment list (MEL). A list developed for larger aircraft that outlines
equipment that can be inoperative for various types of flight including IFR and icing
conditions. This list is based on the master minimum equipment list (MMEL) developed by
the FAA and must be approved by the FAA for use.
Monocoque. A shell-like fuselage design in which the stressed outer skin is used to
support the majority of imposed stresses. Monocoque fuselage design may include
bulkheads but not stringers.
Figure IV. Semi-monocoque fuselage structure.
20
Notice to Airmen (NOTAM). A notice filed with an aviation authority to alert aircraft pilots
of any hazards en route or at a specific location. The authority in turn provides means of
disseminating relevant NOTAMs to pilots.
PAPI. See precision approach path indicator.
Payload (GAMA). The weight of occupants, cargo, and baggage.
PIC. See pilot in command.
Pilotage. Navigation by visual reference to landmarks.G-23
Pilot in command (PIC). The pilot responsible for the operation and safety of an aircraft.
Pilot report (PIREP). Report of meteorological phenomena encountered by aircraft.
Radio frequency (RF). A term that refers to alternating current (AC) having characteristics
such that, if the current is input to antenna, an electromagnetic (EM) field is generated
suitable for wireless broadcasting and/or communications.
RBI. See relative bearing indicator.
RCO. See remote communications outlet.
SIGMET. The acronym for Significant Meteorological information. A weather advisory in

abbreviated plain language concerning the occurrence or expected occurrence of
potentially hazardous en route weather phenomena that may affect the safety of aircraft
operations.
Takeoff decision speed (V1). Per 14 CFR section 23.51: “the calibrated airspeed on the
ground at which, as a result of engine failure or other reasons, the pilot assumed to have
made a decision to continue or discontinue the takeoff.
Takeoff distance. The distance required to complete an all-engines operative takeoff to

the 35-foot height. It must be at least 15 percent less than the distance required for a one-
engine inoperative engine takeoff.
Taxiway lights. Omnidirectional lights that outline the edges of the taxiway and are blue in
color.
21
Exercise 1: Solve the following alphabet soup
E L E V A T O R Q R N F T R S K I N
U F O P Q Y A R A U L D C E W I N U
E H D M Q E G E X O P E R A D E R M
H U D Q A A U C D A E R G H I T V E
E R C A I P I T P Z L C E V S E C S
J T E Q I B V L B A G A F B R R Q T
T P R N C R O J E M P G D R A G N T
N A T Q G A F T L R W O S U B Y C A
I Y G D Z K A O X K O N W V K A H K
C L F S E M N A I A E N S B C F S E
B O I P U E N T U L M L Q F X U I O
L A B Z S N W Q Q L C R N M J O F
V D X Q M O N O C O Q U E C T L R F
H Y V G V G X U A D O F P N C Y A W
B V A C K U F U L V T O W S T G R O
V G O F C T D A L T A X I W A Y I N
W Q N T Z V E R T Q G R R C V G G A
S I G M E T D E A V O W L S M O S D
 SKIN
 MONOCOQUE
 DRAG
 TAKEOFF
 PAYLOAD
 ELEVATOR
 AILERON
 AIRFOIL
 TAXIWAY
 SIGMET
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1.4 POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
(Possesive Adjectives)
They are used to indicate to whom the subject or object of the sentence belongs. They are
followed by a noun.
As can be seen, there are many fewer than in Spanish, since they are not differentiated in
singular or plural. For instance:
 My car /Mi auto

 My cars / Mis autos
* Note also that "your" can refer to the singular (“tu”) or the plural (“tus”).
23
My house
Your house
His house
Her house
Its house
Our house
Your house
Their house
If you are talking about a person and describing his house, you would use his (if referring
to him) or her (if referring to her).
For instance:
 John lives in New York. His house is very big.

 Susan lives in New York. Her house is very big.
But if you are talking about an animal or thing, you should use its.
 The cat lives in New York. Its name is Bob.
To ask whose something is whose, Whose (WH question word) is used. It is always
followed by a noun and then the interrogative form of the verb.
For instance:
Whose book is this? / ¿De quién es este libro?
It's Paul's book. / It's his book. / It's his.
Es el libro de Paul. / Es su libro. / Es suyo.
Note that in this case the possessive adjective is used followed by the noun, or the
possessive pronoun directly, as explained below:
24
Possessive Pronouns
They are used to indicate to whom something belongs. Since they are pronouns, they
replace the noun being referred to.
For instance:
This car is mine/ Este auto es mío.
That book is hers/ Ese libro es suyo (de ella)
TO INDICATE POSSESSION:
Apostrophe and then "s" (-'s) is added to the possessor or owner.For instance:
La casa de Jhon  John’s house.
El carro de Luis  Luis’ car.
Los libros de los estudiantes  The students’ books
El carro de mi papá  My father’s car.
(*Note that if the name of the holder or owner ends in "S" you only add the
apostrophe).
25
Complete colocando el pronombre posesivo que corresponda a la persona indicada entre

paréntesis.
Example: 1. Whose pen is this?
It's Paul’s. (PAUL)
It’s his pen. (he )
1. Whose apple is this? It's ________________(Kylie).
2. Whose dog is that? It's ________________(we).
3. Whose computer is that? It's ____________(the kids).
4. Whose car is this? It's ________________(Laura).
5. Whose book is that? It's ________________(I).
6. Whose glasses are these? They're _____________(Harry).
7. Whose dictionary is this? It's ________________(you).
8. Whose album is this? It's ________________(they).
9. Whose hat is this? It's ________________(Mark).
10. Whose gloves are these? They're _____________(I)
26
Key answers.
1. It’s Kylie’s.
2. It’s ours.
3. It’s the kids’.
4. It’s Laura’s.
5. It’s mine.
6. They’re Harry’s.
7. It’s yours.
8. It’s theirs.
9. It’s Mark´s.
10. They’re mine.
27
1.5 INDEFINITE ARTICLES
The definite and indefinite articles of the Spanish language ('el', 'la', 'los', 'las', 'uno', 'una',
'unos', 'unas'), in the English language are represented by only three articles: 'a', 'an' and
'the' and are used before a noun.
They are used when referring to something that generally has not been specified. In
English, there are two indefinite articles 'a' and 'an', and they can only be used before
singular nouns. In Spanish, they are translated as 'uno', 'una', 'unos', 'unas'.
When is “A” used?
With nouns beginning with a consonant:
 a dog
 a letter
 a notebook
 a pencil
When is “AN” used?
With nouns that beginning with a vowel:

 an agenda
 an earring
 an idiot
 an orange
 an umbrella
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Summary.
EXCEPTIONS...
1. We sometimes use 'a' with nouns that begin with a vowel.
This occurs with words beginning with a vowel whose sound is consonantal:
 one – /wʌn/
 euro – /jʊərəʊ/
 urinal – /jʊrʌnəl/
Read these examples aloud:
 a uniform – un uniforme
 a UFO – un OVNI
 a euro – un euro
 a university – una universidad
 a urologist – un urólogo
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2. We use 'a' with some nouns beginning with H.
And what will it depend on whether we use 'a' or 'an' for nouns beginning with H.
Effectively, on whether that sound is vowel or consonantal. In English, unlike Spanish,

there are two ways to pronounce the letter H in English.
The mute H:
In English, we have the same silent H that exists in Spanish. We use an with words
beginning with the silent H, since the first sound is a vowel sound:
 an hour /aʊər/ – una hora

 an honour /ɒn·ər/ – honor
 an heir /eər/ – un heredero
 an honest lady /ɒnɪ·st/ – una mujer honesta
Note: The silent H is very uncommon in English. In fact these words are the only ones you
will need to remember.
The H aspirated:
This H is pronounced in English. To reproduce the sound, we make is a small exhalation, it
is like pronouncing a very soft "j".
Therefore, words beginning with an aspirated H, producing a consonant-like sound,

require the indefinite article 'a'.
Let’s practice!
 a house
 a hen
 a heart attack
 a hundred
 a hill
 a hotel
 a hamster
 a hair
 a horror film
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 a helicopter
 a hospital
SUMMARY…
OTHER USES OF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE.
The indefinite articles 'a' and 'an' should also be used when the main idea of the sentence
refers to:
1. Professions
ProfessionsHe is a veterinarian (él es un veterinario).
2. Countable nouns
I bought a skirt (compré una falda).
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WHEN NOT TO USE THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE....?
The indefinite articles 'a' and 'an' should not be used when the main idea of the sentence
refers to:
1. Uncountable nouns
In this case, the word 'some' is used:

Examples:
I need some advice (necesito un consejo).
I need somewater (necesito agua).
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Fill in the missing words...
1. We exist in universe of infinite possibilities.
2. It takes me hour to do my hair.
3. It was honour to meet you.
4. I’m reading article about geishas.
5. Can you get me horse for my birthday?
6. There's octopus in the swimming pool.
7. You father is hairy man.
8. France is European country.
9. To be honest I think she's awful artist.
10. You can't drive this way! It's one-way street!
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1.6 REGULAR VERBS
Regular Verbs:
 Regular verbs in English create the past simple and past participle by adding
“-ed” to the base form of the verb. For example:
 If the verb ends in the consonant “-y”, we change -y to -i and add -ed. For
example:
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 If a verb ends in “-e” we simply add -d, For example:
This group of verbs, especially, requires a lot of attention when pronouncing them.
Remember: The pronunciation of verbs ending in "-ed" depends on the final sound.
There are three ways of pronouncing "-ed”.
1. Verbs in -ed that are pronounced "/d/".
In this case, if we use our voice to pronounce the last sound of the verb, i.e. our vocal
cords vibrate, the ending "-ed" is going to sound like a "d" after sounds like:
b, g, z, v, m, n, l, r, w, j, ð.
For example:
Begged, /bɛgd/, Suplicar
Called, /kɔːld/, Llamar
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Listened, /ˈlɪsnd/, Escuchar
Grabbed, /græbd/, Agarrar
2. Verbs in -ed that are pronounced "/t/".
If we don't use our voice to pronounce the last sound of the verb, that is, our vocal cords
don't vibrate, the "-ed" ending will sound like a "t" after these sounds:
p, k, ch, sh, s, f, h, θ.
For example:
Helped, /hɛlpt/, Ayudar
Looked, /lʊkt/, Ver
Sniffed, /snɪft/, Olfatear
Washed, /wɒʃt/, Lavar
3. Verbs in -ed that are pronounced “/id/”.
If the base verb ends in t, d, then the ending "-ed" sounds like "id".
For example:
Wanted, /ˈwɒntɪd/, Querer
Decided, /dɪˈsaɪd/, Decidir
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SUMMARY:
Examples of sentences using regular verbs:
 “Yesterday Jack studied all day.”
 «Ayer Jack estudió todo el día.»
 “Raul has accepted the job offer.”
 «Raúl ha aceptado la oferta de trabajo.»
 “Have you finished yet?”
 «¿Has terminado?»
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 “We really liked the film we watched last night.”
 «Nos gustó mucho la película que vimos anoche».
REGULAR VERBS LIST:
BASE FORM SIMPLE PAST PAST SPANISH

PARTICIPLE
/id/ sound
Accept Accepted /Id/ Accepted /Id/ Aceptar
Count Counted /Id/ Counted /Id/ Contar
Date Dated /Id/ Dated /Id/ Citar
End Ended /Id/ Ended /Id/ Terminar
Expect Expected /Id/ Expected /Id/ Esperar
Intend Intended /Id/ Intended /Id/ Intentar
Need Needed /Id/ Needed /Id/ Necesitar
Plant Planted /Id/ Planted /Id/ Plantar
Point Pointed /Id/ Pointed /Id/ Señalar
Rent Rented /Id/ Rented /Id/ Rentar
Repeat Repeated /Id/ Repeated /Id/ Repetir
Resist Resisted /Id/ Resisted /Id/ Resistir
Start Started /Id/ Started /Id/ Empezar
Visit Visited /Id/ Visited /Id/ Visitar
Wait Waited /Id/ Waited /Id/ Esperar
Want Wanted /Id/ Wanted /Id/ Querer
/t/ sound
Ask Asked /t/ Asked /t/ Preguntar
Cook Cooked /t/ Cooked /t/ Cocinar
Dance Danced /t/ Danced /t/ Bailar
Dress Dressed /t/ Dressed /t/ Vestir
Erase Erased /t/ Erased /t/ Borrar
Finish Finished /t/ Finished /t/ Terminar
Help Helped /t/ Helped /t/ Ayudar
Jump Jumped /t/ Jumped /t/ Brincar / Saltar
Like Liked /t/ Liked /t/ Gustar
Look Looked /t/ Looked /t/ Mirar
Miss Missed /t/ Missed /t/ Extrañar
Practice Practiced /t/ Practiced /t/ Practicar
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Push Pushed /t/ Pushed /t/ Empujar
Shop Shopped /t/ Shopped /t/ Comprar
Smoke Smoked /t/ Smoked /t/ Fumar
Stop Stopped /t/ Stopped /t/ Detener
Talk Talked /t/ Talked /t/ Hablar
Use Used /t/ Used /t/ Usar
Walk Walked /t/ Walked /t/ Caminar
Wash Washed /t/ Washed /t/ Lavar
Wish Wished /t/ Wished /t/ Desear
Work Worked /t/ Worked /t/ Trabajar
BASE FORM SIMPLE PAST PAST SPANISH

PARTICIPLE
/d/ sound
Answer Answered /d/ Answered /d/ Responder
Arrive Arrived /d/ Arrived /d/ Llegar / Arribar
Belong Belonged /d/ Belonged /d/ Pertenecer
Change Changed /d/ Changed /d/ Cambiar
Clean Cleaned /d/ Cleaned /d/ Limpiar
Climb Climbed /d/ Climbed /d/ Escalar
Close Closed /d/ Closed /d/ Cerrar
Consider Considered /d/ Considered /d/ Considerar
Dare Dared /d/ Dared /d/ Retar / Retar
Deliver Delivered/d/ Delivered/d/ Entregar
Enjoy Enjoyed /d/ Enjoyed /d/ Disfrutar
Fill Filled /d/ Filled /d/ Llenar
Follow Followed/d/ Followed/d/ Seguir
Hurry Hurried /d/ Hurried /d/ Apurar / Darse
prisa
Learn Learned /d/ Learned /d/ Aprender
Listen Listened /d/ Listened /d/ Escuchar
Live Lived /d/ Lived /d/ Vivir
Love Loved /d/ Loved /d/ Amar
Name Named /d/ Named /d/ Nombrar
Open Opened /d/ Opened /d/ Abrir
Order Ordered /d/ Ordered /d/ Ordenar
Plan Planed /d/ Planed /d/ Planear
Play Played /d/ Played /d/ Jugar
Rain Rained /d/ Rained /d/ Llover
Remember Remembered /d/ Remembered /d/ Recordar
Show Showed /d/ Showed /d/ Mostrar
Stay Stayed /d/ Stayed /d/ Permanecer
Study Studied /d/ Studied /d/ Estudiar
Travel Traveled /d/ Traveled /d/ Viajar
Try Tried /d/ Tried /d/ Intentar /Tratar
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Turn Turned /d/ Turned /d/ Voltear / Dar vuelta
Past simple: regular verbs
Exercise 1. Put the regular verbs in the correct category.
 cry  enjoy  care

 like  label  bury
 stop  agree  use
 wait  marry  jog
 stay  explain  clap
 fail  hop  prefer
- d only - ed only - ied double consonant + - ed

lived cleaned studied shopped
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Exercise 2. Complete the story with the verbs in brackets.
A young man aged 13 (rob) ..........robbed......... the Simpson Bank in Motown yesterday
night.
He (use) ........................... his toy gun and (travel) ............................. by his father's red
BMW.
He (carry) ........................... the money in his sister's school bag. The young man (hurry)
..................... to his grandma's garden to hide the money there. When he (enter)
.......................... the garden, he could see a policeman. The policeman (start)....................
to chase him. The young man (drop) ....................... the bag with the money.
- Suddenly, he could hear his telephone.
"Bob, are you still asleep?"
"Oh, mum. I had a terrible dream!"
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1.7 IRREGULAR VERBS
Irregular Verbs
There are a large number of irregular verbs in English. We can divide them into four
groups:
Group 1: verbs that have the same base form, the same simple past and past participle.
Group 2: verbs that have the same simple past and the same past participle.
Group 3: verbs that have the same base form and the same past participle.
Group 4: verbs that have different base form, simple past and past participle.
These are the most common irregular verbs in these groups:
Group 1: verbs that have the same base form, the same simple past and past
participle.
For example:
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Examples of sentences using irregular verbs:
 “Our car cost a lot of money but it’s always breaking down.”
 «Nuestro coche cuesta mucho dinero pero siempre se estropea».
 “Pasha hurt himself in a soccer match last weekend.”
 «Pasha se lesionó en un partido de fútbol el fin de semana pasado».
 “My parents have let me stay out late tonight.”
 «Mis padres me han dejado salir hasta tarde esta noche».
 “They put on their jackets because it was very cold.”
 «Se pusieron las chaquetas porque hacía mucho frío»
Group 2: verbs that have the same simple past and the same past participle.
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For example:
44
Example of sentences using irregular verbs:
 They had lunch at a Thai restaurant on Monday.”

 «El lunes comieron en un restaurante tailandés».
 “Have you heard the news about the train strike?”
 «¿Has oído las noticias sobre la huelga de trenes?»
 “Tim has sent an email to all the suppliers.”
 «Tim ha enviado un correo electrónico a todos los proveedores».
 “Who won the match?” – “The Giants.”
 «¿Quién ganó el partido?» – «Los Gigantes».
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Group 3: verbs that have the same base form and the same past participle.
For example:
Example of sentences using irregular verbs:
 “He came back home at 4am on Saturday.”
 «Él volvió a casa el sábado a las 4 de la mañana».
 “Suzi has become the Managing Director.”
 «Suzi se ha convertido en la Directora General».
 “The dog ran into the garden after Lee opened the door.”
 «El perro corrió hacia el jardín después de que Lee abrió la puerta».
 “Has Mrs O’Connor come back from lunch yet?”
 «¿Ya ha vuelto la Sra. O’Connor de comer?»
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Group 4: verbs that have different base form, simple past and past participle.
For exmaple:
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Example of sentences using regular verbs:
 “The kids ate a lot of cakes at the party.”
 «Los niños comieron muchos pasteles en la fiesta».
 “They drove to the airport and left their car there.”
 «Ellos fueron al aeropuerto y dejaron su coche allí».
 “Has she taken her tickets yet?”
 «¿Ya ha sacado ella los billetes?»
 “I’ve written a letter of application for the manager’s job.”
 «He escrito una carta de solicitud para el puesto de gerente».
Exercise 1. Fill in the blanks below to complete the sentences. Study the boxes
above.
1. I (eat)___ate___ dinner at six o’clock yesterday.
2. A: ___________ Helen (drive)___________ to work? B: Yes, she ___________.
3. My neighbor (buy)___________ a new car last week.
4. They (go)___________ to Italy on their last summer holiday.
5. A: ___________ they (swim)___________ at the beach? B: No, they __________.
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6. My family and I (see)___________ a comedy movie last night.
7. First, we (do)___________ exercise, and then we (drink)___________ some water.
8. Suddenly, the animal jumped and (bite)___________ my hand.
9. What time (do)___________ you (get up)___________ this morning?
10. The Wright brothers (fly)___________ the first airplane in 1903.
11. I think I (hear)___________ a strange sound outside the door one minute ago.
12. When I was ten years old, I (break)___________ my arm. It really (hurt) __________.
13. The police (catch)___________ all three of the bank robbers last week.
14. How many times (do)___________ you (read)___________ that book?
15. Unfortunately, I (forget)___________ to (bring)___________ my money.
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1.8 PAST AND PRESENT SIMPLE
SIMPLE PAST TENSE:
The purpose of this verb tense is to talk about an action or situation that occurred and
concluded in the past, where its duration hasn't relevance.
Let's see the structure for each type of sentence and some examples of their use.
Afirmativa Subject + verb (in simple past form, -d, -ed) + complement
He lived in London 2 years= Él vivió en Londres 2 años
I cried when he died= Lloré cuando él murió
Negativa Subject + did not (Auxiliary) + verb (in base form) + complement
We didn’t argue this morning = Nosotros no discutimos esta mañana
He didn’t enjoy his birthday party = Él no disfrutó su fiesta de

cumpleaños
She didn’t finish her degree = Ella no terminó su carrera
Interrogativa Did (Auxiliary)+ subject + verb (in base form) + complement
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Did she clean her house yesterday? = ¿Ella limpió su casa ayer?
Did he call you? = ¿Él te llamó?
SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE:
It’s used to express routines, that is, activities that are performed with a certain frequency.
AFFIRMATIVE FORM:
 The infinitive verb is used to form the affirmative form of the present simple form
(I, you, we, they).
 The third persons singular (he, she, it) have s or es added to the end of the verb.
Sujeto Inglés Espanish

I I work Yo trabajo
You You work Tu trabajas
He He works El trabaja
She She works Ella trabaja
It It works (una cosa u objeto)
We We work Nosotros trabajamos
You You work Ustedes trabajan
They They work Ellos trabajan
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Rules for adding final s or es to verbs when talking about third persons (he, she, it):
 Verbs ending in s, ss, sh, ch or x have “es” added to them.
E.g. wash - washes
My mother washes the dishes after lunch.
 Verbs ending in o have “es” added to them.
E.g. go - goes
Tom goes to Cancun by plane.
 Verbs ending in “y” preceded by a consonant, the “y” is changed to “i" and
“es” is added.
E.g. study - studies
NASA studies the global water cycle
 All other verbs only have final “s” added to them.
NEGATIVE FORM:
To form a negative sentence in the present simple we need to use the auxiliaries “do” and
“does” plus the negative “not” and the infinitive verb.
For example:
 Most children do not like vegetables.

 The president does not wear informal clothes in important meetings.
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Do- Used when talking about (I, you, we, they).
Do not = Don’t
 Mario and Alex don´t play soccer in our team.
Does - Used when talking about (he, she, it).
Does not = Doesn’t
For example:
 She doesn’t eat cereal for dinner. (using contraction)
Note: In the negative form with the auxiliary "does", "s" is no longer added or final to the
verb.
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Exercise 1. Add -s, -es or -ies to the verbs below to form the Present Simple for he,
she or it.
1. stop .....stops........
2. watch ......................
3. study ......................
4. do ......................
5. mix ......................
6. tie ......................
7. dress ......................
8. try ......................
9. go ......................
10. catch ......................
11. enjoy ......................
12. lose ......................
Exercise 2. Complete the sentences with the Present Simple form of the verb in
brackets.
1. Mum ......washes...... (wash) the car once a week.

2. Children usually ...................... (like) ice cream.
3. ...................... you ...................... (know) the way to the lake?
4. Bob ...................... (study) French on Saturdays.
5. Every year Helen ...................... (go) to France.
6. He ...................... (not visit) his friends every day.
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1.9 FUTURE
THE FUTURE TENSE.
The simple future refers to a time later than now, and expresses facts or certainty.
The simple future: three forms.
There are three forms to express a future time in English:
Will + base verb, be going to + base verb, or be + -ing verb.
How and when do we use these forms?
Will + Base Verb
This form is used when you are deciding future plans y the moment.
For example, if someone invited you to go a party next Friday, you could answer, “Sure, I
will go with you”.
Will + base verb is the most formal way of forming the fiture tense.
Examples:
 A: Do you two want to go to the movies later?

B: Sure, we will go.
 She will do whatever her mother tells her to do.

 When you enter the room on Monday, you will see a sign-up sheet on the
table.
Note: NEGATIVE FORM……. will not (contraction = won’t)
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Be Going To ´+ Base Verb
This form is used when plans have already been made in advance.
For example: if you have plans to go to camping next weekend and someone asks you
what you are going to do, you could answer, “I’m go to camping the next weekend”.
Examples:
 He is going to study all night for his test.
 They are going to go to Disneyland next spring.
 I am definitely going to call you tomorrow.
Be + -ing Verb
Sometimes English speakers use the present progressive form (be + -ing verb) to express
a future action. It is used the same ways as be going to (when plans already made): For
example, if you have plans to go to camping next weekend and someone asks you what
you are going to do, you could answer, “I`m going camping next weekend”.
Be + -ing verb a casual way of forming the future tense.
Examples:
 My roommate is going to Hawaii next weekend.
 We are planning to discuss this at the next meeting.
 I am calling him back tomorrow after class.
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Exercise 1. Complete the sentences with will or won’t and the verbs below.
go want eat wear
1. I am very hungry. I .....will eat....... all my food.
2. Jack hates loud music. He ...................... to go to the pop concert.
3. Jane is afraid to fly, so she probably ...................... to England with us.
4. I don’t like this. I don’t think I ...................... it.
Exercise 2. Complete the sentences. Use will and the verbs below.
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2. TECHICAL ENGLISH
2.1 AERONAUTIC TECHICAL ENGLISH VOCABULARY
Aviation Vocabulary:
Aileron: Control surfaces hinged at the back of the wings which by deflecting up or down
help to bank the airplane.
Airport: A tract of land or water for the landing and takeoff of aircraft. Facilities for
shelter, supply, and repair are usually found there.
Airway: An air route marked by aids to air navigation, such as beacons, radio ranges and
direction-finding equipment, and along which airports is located.
Altimeter: An instrument for measuring in feet the height of the airplane above sea level.
Altitude: The vertical distance from a given level (sea level) to an aircraft in flight.
Attitude: Position of airplane relative to the horizon (i.e., climbing attitude, straight and
level attitude).
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Ceiling: Height above ground of cloud base.
Chart: An aeronautical map showing information of use to the pilot in going from one place
to another.
Drag: The component of the total air force on a body parallel to relative wind and opposite
to thrust.
Elevation: The height above the sea level of a given lad prominence, such as airports,
mountains, and so on.
Engine: The part of the airplane which provides power, or propulsion, to pull the airplane
through the air.
Flaps: Hinged or pivoted airfoils forming part of the trailing edge of the wing and used to
increase lift at reduced air speeds.
Fuselaje: The streamlined body of an airplane to which are fastened the wings and tail.
LANDING GEAR: The understructure of an airplane which supports the airplane on land
or water.
LIFT: An upward force caused by the rush of air over the wings, supporting the airplane in
flight.
Runway: A surface or area on the airport designated for airplanes to take off and land.
Angle of attack : the acute angle between the chord line of the airfoil and the direction of
the relative wind.
Anti-icing: The prevention of the formation of ice on a surface. Ice may be prevented by
using heat or by covering the surface with a chemical that prevents water from reaching
the surface.
Axes of an aircraft: Three imaginary lines that pass through an aircraft’s center of gravity.
The axes can be considered as imaginary axles around which the aircraft turns.
Balloon: The result of too aggressive flare during landing causing the aircraft to climb.
Best angle of climb (Vx): The speed at which the aircraft will produce the most gain in
altitude in a given distance.
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Best rate of climb (Vy): The speed at which the aircraft will produce the most gain in
altitude in the least amount time.
Buffeting: The beating of an aerodynamic structure or surface by unsteady flow, gusts,

and so on, the irregular shaking or oscillation of vehicle component owing to turbulent air
or separated flow.
Bypass air. The part of a turbofan’s induction air that bypasses the engine core.
Cambered: The camber of an airfoil is the characteristic curve of its upper and lower
surfaces. The upper camber is more pronounced, while the lower camber is comparatively
flat. This causes the velocity of the airflow immediately above the wing to be much higher
than that below the wing.
Coordinated flight: Application of all appropriate flight and power controls to prevent
slipping or skidding in any flight condition.
Critical altitude: The maximum altitude under standard atmospheric conditions at which a
turbocharged engine can produce its rated horsepower.
Critical angle of attack: The angle of attack at which a wing stalls regardless of airspeed,
flight attitude, or weight.
Datum (reference datum): An imaginary vertical plane or line from which all
measurements of moment arm are taken. The datum is established by the manufacturer.
Once the datum has been selected, all moment arms and the location of CG range are
measured from this point.
Decompression sickness: A condition where the low pressure at high altitudes allows
bubbles of nitrogen to form in the blood and joints causing severe pain.
Deicer boots: Inflatable rubber boots attached to the leading edge of an airfoil. They can
be sequentially inflated and deflated to break away ice that has formed over their surface.
Ditching: Emergency landing in water.
Engine pressure ratio (EPR): The ratio of turbine discharge pressure divided by
compressor inlet pressure that is used as an indication of the amount of thrust being
developed by a turbine engine.
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Environmental systems: In an aircraft, the systems, including the supplemental oxygen
systems, air conditioning systems, heaters, and pressurization systems, which make it
possible for an occupant to function at high altitude.
Equivalent shaft horsepower (ESHP): A measurement of the total horsepower of a

turboprop engine, including that provided by jet thrust.
Exhaust gas temperature (EGT): The temperature of the exhaust gases as they leave
the cylinders of a reciprocating engine or the turbine section of a turbine engine.
False horizon: An optical illusion where the pilot confuses a row of lights along a road or
other straight line as the horizon.
Fixation: A psychological condition where the pilot fixes attention on a single source of
information and ignores all other sources.
Fixed-pitch propellers: Propellers with fixed blade angles. Fixed-pitch propellers are
designed as climb propellers, cruise propellers, or standard propellers.
or standard propellers: Flaps. Hinged portion of the trailing edge between the ailerons
and fuselage. In some aircraft, ailerons and flaps are interconnected to produce full-span
“flaperons.” In either case, flaps change the lift and drag on the wing.
Force (F). The energy applied to an object that attempts to cause the object to change its
direction, speed, or motion. In aerodynamics, it is expressed as F, T (thrust), L (lift), W
(weight), or D (drag), usually in pounds.
Fuel control unit: The fuel-metering device used on a turbine engine that meters the
proper quantity of fuel to be fed into the burners of the engine. It integrates the parameters
of inlet air temperature, compressor speed, compressor discharge pressure, and exhaust
gas temperature with the position of the cockpit power control lever.
Fuel efficiency: Defined as the amount of fuel used to produce a specific thrust or
horsepower divided by the total potential power contained in the same amount of fuel.
Fuel heater: A radiator-like device which has fuel passing through the core. A heat
exchange occurs to keep the fuel temperature above the freezing point of water so that
entrained water does not form ice crystals, which could block fuel flow.
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Fuel tank sump: A sampling port in the lowest part of the fuel tank that the pilot can utilize
to check for contaminants in the fuel.
Gross weight: The total weight of a fully loaded aircraft including the fuel, oil, crew,
passengers, and cargo.
Ground effect: A condition of improved performance encountered when an airplane is

operating very close to the ground. When an airplane’s wing is under the influence of
ground effect, there is a reduction in upwash, downwash, and wingtip vortices. As a result
of the reduced wingtip vortices, induced drag is reduced.
Dewpoint: The temperature at which air can hold no more water.
Groundspeed (GS): The actual speed of the airplane over the ground. It is true airspeed
adjusted for wind. Groundspeed decreases with a headwind, and increases with a tailwind.
Ground power unit (GPU): A type of small gas turbine whose purpose is to provide
electrical power, and/or air pressure for starting aircraft engines. A ground unit is
connected to the aircraft when needed. Similar to an aircraft-installed auxiliary power unit.
Horizon: The line of sight boundary between the earth and the sky.
Hypoxia: A lack of sufficient oxygen reaching the body tissues.
Inertia: The opposition which a body offers to a change of motion.
Initial climb: This stage of the climb begins when the airplane leaves the ground and a
pitch attitude has been established to climb away from the takeoff area.
Indicated airspeed (IAS): The direct instrument reading obtained from the airspeed
indicator, uncorrected for variations in atmospheric density, installation error, or instrument
error. Manufacturers use this airspeed as the basis for determining airplane performance.
Indicated altitude: The altitude read directly from the altimeter (uncorrected) when it is
set to the current altimeter setting.
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA): Standard atmospheric conditions consisting

of a temperature of 59 °F (15 °C), and a barometric pressure of 29.92 "Hg. (1013.2 mb) at
62
sea level. ISA values can be calculated for various altitudes using a standard lapse rate of
approximately 2 °C per 1,000 feet.
Inverter: An electrical device that changes DC to AC power.
Lateral axis: An imaginary line passing through the center of gravity of an airplane and
extending across the airplane from wingtip to wingtip.
Leading edge flap: A portion of the leading edge of an airplane wing that folds downward
to increase the camber, lift, and drag of the wing. The leading-edge flaps are extended for
takeoffs and landings to increase the amount of aerodynamic lift that is produced at any
given airspeed.
Leading edge devices: High lift devices which are found on the leading edge of the airfoil.
The most common types are fixed slots, movable slats, and leading edge flaps.
Leading edge: The part of an airfoil that meets the airflow first.
Mach buffet: Airflow separation behind a shock-wave pressure barrier caused by airflow
over flight surfaces exceeding the speed of sound.
Mach critical: The Mach speed at which some portion of the airflow over the wing first
equals Mach 1.0. This is also the speed at which a shock wave first appears on the
airplane.
Mach: Speed relative to the speed of sound. Mach 1 is the speed of sound.
Magnetic compass: A device for determining direction measured from magnetic north.
Main gear: The wheels of an aircraft’s landing gear that supports the major part of the
aircraft’s weight.
Maneuverability: Ability of an aircraft to change directions along a flightpath and

withstand the stresses imposed upon it.
Maneuvering speed (VA): The maximum speed where full, abrupt control movement can
be used without overstressing the airframe.
Manifold pressure (MP): The absolute pressure of the fuel/ air mixture within the intake
manifold, usually indicated in inches of mercury.
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Maximum allowable takeoff power: The maximum power an engine is allowed to
develop for a limited period of time; usually about one minute.
Maximum landing weight: The greatest weight that an airplane normally is allowed to
have at landing.
Maximum ramp weight: The total weight of a loaded aircraft, including all fuel. It is
greater than the takeoff weight due to the fuel that will be burned during the taxi and run-
up operations. Ramp weight may also be referred to as taxi weight.
Maximum takeoff weight: The maximum allowable weight for takeoff.
Maximum weight: The maximum authorized weight of the aircraft and all of its equipment
as specified in the Type Certificate Data Sheets (TCDS) for the aircraft.
Octane: The rating system of aviation gasoline with regard to its antidetonating qualities.
Overspeed: A condition in which an engine has produced more rpm than the
manufacturer recommends, or a condition in which the actual engine speed is higher than
the desired engine speed as set on the propeller control.
Overtemp: A condition in which a device has reached a temperature above that approved
by the manufacturer or any exhaust temperature that exceeds the maximum allowable for
a given operating condition or time limit. Can cause internal damage to an engine.
Pilot’s Operating Handbook (POH): A document developed by the airplane manufacturer

and contains the FAA-approved Airplane Flight Manual (AFM) information.
Pitch: The rotation of an airplane about its lateral axis, or on a propeller, the blade angle
as measured from plane of rotation.
Pivotal altitude: A specific altitude at which, when an airplane turns at a given

groundspeed, a projecting of the sighting reference line to a selected point on the ground
will appear to pivot on that point.
Rate of turn: The rate in degrees/second of a turn.
Relative wind: The direction of the airflow with respect to the wing. If a wing moves
forward horizontally, the relative wind moves backward horizontally. Relative wind is
parallel to and opposite the flightpath of the airplane.
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Reverse thrust: A condition where jet thrust is directed forward during landing to increase
the rate of deceleration.
Roll: The motion of the aircraft about the longitudinal axis. It is controlled by the ailerons.
Roundout (flare): A pitch-up during landing approach to reduce rate of descent and
forward speed prior to touchdown.
Rudder: The movable primary control surface mounted on the trailing edge of the vertical
fin of an airplane. Movement of the rudder rotates the airplane about its vertical axis.
Sea level: A reference height used to determine standard atmospheric conditions and
altitude measurements.
Segmented circle: A visual ground based structure to provide traffic pattern information.
Service ceiling: The maximum density altitude where the best rate-of-climb airspeed will
produce a 100 feet-per-minute climb at maximum weight while in a clean configuration with
maximum continuous power.
Shock waves: A compression wave formed when a body moves through the air at a
speed greater than the speed of sound.
Skid. A condition where the tail of the airplane follows a path outside the path of the nose
during a turn
Specific fuel consumption: Number of pounds of fuel consumed in 1 hour to produce 1

HP.
Spin: An aggravated stall that results in what is termed an “autorotation” wherein the
airplane follows a downward corkscrew path. As the airplane rotates around the vertical
axis, the rising wing is less stalled than the descending wing creating a rolling, yawing, and
pitching motion.
Spoilers: High-drag devices that can be raised into the air flowing over an airfoil, reducing
lift and increasing drag. Spoilers are used for roll control on some aircraft. Deploying
spoilers on both wings at the same time allows the aircraft to descend without gaining
speed. Spoilers are also used to shorten the ground roll after landing.
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Spool: A shaft in a turbine engine which drives one or more compressors with the power
derived from one or more turbines.
Stabilator: A single-piece horizontal tail surface on an airplane that pivots around a

central hinge point. A stabilator serves the purposes of both the horizontal stabilizer and
the elevator.
Swept-wing: A wing planform in which the tips of the wing are farther back than the wing
root.
Timing: The application of muscular coordination at the proper instant to make flight, and
all maneuvers incident thereto, a constant smooth process.
Takeoff roll (ground roll): The total distance required for an aircraft to become airborne.
Troposphere: The layer of the atmosphere extending from the surface to a height of
20,000 to 60,000 feet depending on latitude.
True airspeed (TAS): Calibrated airspeed corrected for altitude and nonstandard
temperature. Because air density decreases with an increase in altitude, an airplane has to
be flown faster at higher altitudes to cause the same pressure difference between pitot
impact pressure and static pressure. Therefore, for a given calibrated airspeed, true
airspeed increases as altitude increases; or for a given true airspeed, calibrated airspeed
decreases as altitude increases.
True altitude: The vertical distance of the airplane above sea level—the actual altitude. It
is often expressed as feet above mean sea level (MSL). Airport, terrain, and obstacle
elevations on aeronautical charts are true altitudes.
T-tail: An aircraft with the horizontal stabilizer mounted on the top of the vertical stabilizer,
forming a T.
Vertical axis: An imaginary line passing vertically through the center of gravity of an
aircraft. The vertical axis is called the z-axis or the yaw axis.
Weight and balance: The aircraft is said to be in weight and balance when the gross
weight of the aircraft is under the max gross weight, and the center of gravity is within
limits and will remain in limits for the duration of the flight.
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Wing span: The maximum distance from wingtip to wingtip.
Wingtip vortices: The rapidly rotating air that spills over an airplane’s wings during flight.
The intensity of the turbulence depends on the airplane’s weight, speed, and configuration.
It is also referred to as wake turbulence. Vortices from heavy aircraft may be extremely
hazardous to small aircraft.
Yaw: Rotation about the vertical axis of an aircraft.
Zero fuel weight: The weight of the aircraft to include all useful load except fuel.
Exercise 1: Correctly match the word with its definition.
A) Yaw: ( ) The application of muscular coordination at

the proper instant to make flight, and all
maneuvers incident thereto, a constant smooth
process.
B) Wing span: ( ) High-drag devices that can be raised into the
air flowing over an airfoil, reducing lift and
increasing drag.
C) Timing: ( ) The maximum distance from wingtip to
wingtip.
D) Spoilers: ( ) The motion of the aircraft about the
longitudinal axis. It is controlled by the ailerons.
H) Octane: ( ) The movable primary control surface mounted
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on the trailing edge of the vertical fin of an
airplane. Movement of the rudder rotates the
airplane about its vertical axis.
E) Shock waves: ( ) Rotation about the vertical axis of an aircraft.
I) Leading edge: ( ) The part of an airfoil that meets the airflow

first.
G) Rudder: ( ) The rating system of aviation gasoline with
regard to its antidetonating qualities.
F) Roll: ( ) Shock waves: A compression wave formed
when a body moves through the air at a speed
greater than the speed of sound.
2.2 ENGINE VOCABULARY
Reciprocating Engines:
Powerplant:
An aircraft engine, or powerplant, produces thrust to propel an aircraft. Reciprocating

engines and turboprop engines work in combination with a propeller to produce thrust.
Turbojet and turbofan engines produce thrust by increasing the velocity of air flowing
through the engine. All of these powerplants also drive the various systems that support
the operation of an aircraft.
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Figure 1. Radial engine. Figure 2. Horizontally opposed engine.
Figure 3. Two-stroke compression ignition.
Propeller:
The propeller is a rotating airfoil, subject to induced
drag, stalls, and other aerodynamic principles that
apply to any airfoil. It provides the necessary thrust
to pull, or in some cases push, the aircraft through
the air. The engine power is used to rotate the
propeller, which ininpropeller
Figure 4. Changes turn generates
blade angle thrust very similar to the manner in which a wing
produces
from hub tolift.
tip.
Tachometer.
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In a fixed-pitch propeller, the tachometer is the indicator of engine power. (Figure 5) A
tachometer is calibrated in hundreds of rpm and gives a direct indication of the engine and
propeller rpm. The instrument is color coded with a green arc denoting the maximum
continuous operating rpm. Some tachometers have additional markings to reflect engine
and/or propeller limitations.
Figure 5. Engine rpm is indicated on the tachometer.
Manifold pressure gauge.
On aircraft equipped with a constant-speed propeller, power output is controlled by the

throttle and indicated by a manifold
pressure gauge. The gauge measures the
absolute pressure of the fuel-air mixture
inside the intake manifold and is more
correctly a measure of manifold absolute
pressure (MAP).
s indicated on the
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Fuel Injection Systems
In a fuel injection system, the fuel is injected directly into the cylinders, or just ahead of the
intake valve. The air intake for the fuel injection system is similar to that used in a
carburetor system, with an alternate air source located within the engine cowling.
Figure 7. Fuel injection systems
Figure 7a. typical analog fuel pressure gauge.
Turbosuperchargers
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The most efficient method of increasing horsepower in an engine is by using a
turbosupercharger or turbocharger. Turbochargers increase the pressure of the engine’s
induction air, which allows the engine to develop sea level or greater horsepower at higher
altitudes. A turbocharger is comprised of two main elements: a compressor and turbine.
Figure 8. Turbocharger components.
Ignition System
In a spark ignition engine, the ignition system provides a spark that ignites the fuel-air
mixture in the cylinders and is made up of magnetos, spark plugs, high-tension leads, and
an ignition switch.
The operation of the magneto is controlled in the flight deck by the ignition switch. The
switch has five positions:
1. OFF
2. R (right)
3. L (left)
4. BOTH
5. START
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With RIGHT or LEFT selected, only the associated magneto is activated. The system
operates on both magnetos when BOTH is selected.
Figure 9. Ignition Systems Components
Oil Systems
The engine oil system performs several important functions:
• Lubrication of the engine’s moving parts

• Cooling of the engine by reducing friction
• Removing heat from the cylinders
• Providing a seal between the cylinder walls and pistons
• Carrying away contaminants
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Reciprocating engines use either a wet-sump or a dry-sump oil system. In a wet-sump
system, the oil is located in a sump that is an integral part of the engine. In a dry-sump
system, the oil is contained in a separate tank and circulated through the engine by
pumps. (Figure 10).
Figure 10. Wet-sump oil system.
Engine Cooling Systems
The burning fuel within the cylinders produces intense heat, most of which is expelled
through the exhaust system. Much of the
remaining heat, however, must be removed, or
at least dissipated, to prevent the engine from
overheating. Otherwise, the extremely high
engine temperatures can lead to loss of power,
excessive oil consumption, detonation, and
serious engine damage.
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Air cooling is accomplished by air flowing into the engine compartment through openings
in front of the engine cowling. Baffles route this air over fins attached to the engine
Figure 11. Outside air aids in cooling the
cylinders, and other parts of the engine, where the air absorbs the engine heat. Expulsion
engine.
of the hot air takes place through one or more openings in the lower, aft portion of the
engine cowling (Figure 11).
Starting System.
Most small aircraft use a direct-cranking electric starter system. This system consists of a
source of electricity, wiring, switches, and solenoids to
operate the starter and a starter motor. Most aircraft have
starters that automatically engage and disengage when
operated, but some older aircraft have starters that are
mechanically engaged by a lever actuated by the pilot. The
starter engages the aircraft flywheel, rotating the engine at
a speed that allows the engine to start and maintain
operation.
starting circuit.
Exhaust Systems.
Engine exhaust systems vent the burned combustion gases overboard, provide heat for
the cabin, and defrost the windscreen. An exhaust system has exhaust piping attached to
the cylinders, as well as a muffler and a muffler shroud. The exhaust gases are pushed out
of the cylinder through the exhaust valve and then through the exhaust pipe system to the
atmosphere.
Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC).
FADEC is a system consisting of a digital computer and ancillary components that control
an aircraft’s engine and propeller. First used in turbine-powered aircraft, and referred to as
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full authority digital electronic control, these sophisticated control systems are increasingly
being used in piston powered aircraft.
Turbine Engines.
An aircraft turbine engine consists of an air inlet, compressor, combustion chambers, a

turbine section, and exhaust. Thrust is produced by increasing the velocity of the air
flowing through the engine.
Turbine engines are classified according to the type of compressors they use. There are
three types of compressors—centrifugal flow, axial flow, and centrifugal-axial flow.
Turbojet:
The turbojet engine consists of four sections—compressor, combustion chamber, turbine

section, and exhaust. The compressor section passes inlet air at a high rate of speed to
the combustion chamber. The combustion chamber contains the fuel inlet and igniter for
combustion. The expanding air drives a turbine, which is connected by a shaft to the
compressor, sustaining engine operation.
Turboprop:
A turboprop engine is a turbine engine that drives a propeller through a reduction gear.
The exhaust gases drive a power turbine connected by a shaft that drives the reduction
gear assembly. Reduction gearing is necessary in turboprop engines because optimum
propeller performance is achieved at much slower speeds than the engine’s operating
rpm.
Turbofan:
Turbofans were developed to combine some of the best features of the turbojet and the
turboprop. Turbofan engines are designed to create additional thrust by diverting a
secondary airflow around the combustion chamber. The turbofan bypass air generates
increased thrust, cools the engine, and aids in exhaust noise suppression. This provides
turbojet-type cruise speed and lower fuel consumption.
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Turboshaft:
The fourth common type of jet engine is the turboshaft. It delivers power to a shaft that
drives something other than a propeller. The biggest difference between a turbojet and
turboshaft engine is that on a turboshaft engine, most of the energy produced by the
expanding gases is used to drive a turbine rather than produce thrust. Many helicopters
use a turboshaft gas turbine engine. In addition, turboshaft engines are widely used as
auxiliary power units on large aircraft.
Figure 12. Turbojet engine.
Figure 13. Turboprop engine.
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Figure 14. Turbofan engine.
Figure 15. Turboshaft engine.
Turbine Engine Instruments
Engine instruments that indicate oil pressure, oil temperature, engine speed, exhaust gas
temperature, and fuel flow are common to both turbine and reciprocating engines.
However, there are some instruments that are unique to turbine engines. These
instruments provide indications of engine pressure ratio, turbine discharge pressure, and
torque. In addition, most gas turbine engines have multiple temperature-sensing
instruments, called thermocouples, which provide pilots with temperature readings in and
around the turbine section.
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Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR)
An engine pressure ratio (EPR) gauge is used to indicate the power output of a
turbojet/turbofan engine. EPR is the ratio of turbine
discharge to compressor inlet pressure. Pressure
measurements are recorded by probes installed in the
engine inlet and at the exhaust. Once collected, the data is
sent to a differential pressure transducer, which is indicated
on a flight deck EPR gauge.
PR indicator.
Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT)
A limiting factor in a gas turbine engine is the temperature of the turbine section. The
temperature of a turbine section must be monitored closely to prevent overheating the
turbine blades and other exhaust section components. One common way of monitoring the
temperature of a turbine section is with an EGT gauge. EGT is an engine operating limit
used to monitor overall engine operating conditions.
Torquemeter
Turboprop/turboshaft engine power output is measured by the torquemeter. Torque is a

twisting force applied to a shaft. The torquemeter measures power applied to the shaft.
Turboprop and turboshaft engines are designed to produce torque for driving a propeller.
Torquemeters are calibrated in percentage units, foot-pounds, or psi. Low pressure
compressor (N1) High pressure compressor (N2) Low pressure compressor drive shaft
High pressure compressor drive shaft
N1 Indicator
N1 represents the rotational speed of the low pressure compressor and is presented on the
indicator as a percentage of design rpm. After start, the speed of the low pressure
compressor is governed by the N1 turbine wheel. The N1 turbine wheel is connected to the
low pressure compressor through a concentric shaft.
79
N2 Indicator
N2 represents the rotational speed of the high pressure compressor and is presented on
the indicator as a percentage of design rpm. The high pressure compressor is governed by
the N2 turbine wheel. The N2 turbine wheel is connected to the high pressure compressor
through a concentric shaft (Figure 17).
Figure 17. Dual-spool axial-flow compressor.
Figure 18. Aviation fuel color-coding system.
80
Figure 19. Indicators.
E A E I N D I C A T O R S K I R A D
U H O P G L N B V C X Z S E W T N G
T R A J H E T D S O P E R A D U R Q
O P D Q A Z U C D A E R G H I R V C
X P C K I P R O P E L L E R S B C O
S E E Q C E B G E B V N T H Y O Q T
J H R N C N O O K M P G A Y T S N N
S A T Q G K F T U I W O C U B H C G
G X G D Z I A Q X V Y N H V K A H I
C A F S E R N Q A A C V O B C F S G
T L I P U J N E U Y M G M F X T I N
E D B Z S E W A Q L V C E N M J O I
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V F T U R B O J E T J Q T P O I W T
H Y V G V A X R A D O R E N T Y A I
B V T O R Q U E M E T E R A T O R O
V G O F C T D A L A X A R C D O I N
W Q N T Z A S Y S T E M S C V G G A
R E D X S C P A E R O D R O M O S D
 TORQUEMETER  IGNITION
 ENGINE  INDICATORS
 TURBOSHAFT
 TURBOFAN
 TURBOJET
 SYSTEMS
 TACHOMETER
 PROPELLER
2.3 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM VOCBULARY
Electrical System
Most aircraft are equipped with either a 14- or a 28-volt direct current (DC) electrical
system. A basic aircraft electrical system consists of the following components:
• Alternator/Generator
• Battery
• Master/ battery switch
• Alternator/generator switch
• Bus bar, fuses, and circuit breakers
• Voltage regulator
• Ammeter/loadmeter
• Associated electrical wiring
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Engine-driven alternators or generators supply electric current to the electrical system.
They also maintain a sufficient electrical charge in the battery. Electrical energy stored in a
battery provides a source of electrical power for starting the engine and a limited supply of
electrical power for use in the event the alternator or generator fails.
Most DC generators do not produce a sufficient amount of electrical current at low engine
rpm to operate the entire electrical system. During operations at low engine rpm, the
electrical needs must be drawn from the battery, which can quickly be depleted.
Alternators have several advantages over generators. Alternators produce sufficient

current to operate the entire electrical system, even at slower engine speeds, by producing
alternating current (AC), which is converted to DC.
Some aircraft have receptacles to which an external ground power unit (GPU) may be
connected to provide electrical energy for starting. These are very useful, especially during
cold weather starting.
The electrical system is turned on or off with a master switch. Turning the master switch to
the ON position provides electrical energy to all the electrical equipment circuits except the
ignition system. Equipment that commonly uses the electrical system for its source of
energy includes:
• Position lights
• Anticollision lights
• Landing lights
• Taxi lights
• Interior cabin lights
• Instrument lights
• Radio equipment
• Turn indicator
• Fuel gauges7-31
• Electric fuel pump
• Stall warning system
83
• Pitot heat
• Starting motor
Many aircraft are equipped with a battery switch that controls the electrical
power to the aircraft in a manner similar to the master switch. In addition,
an alternator switch is installed that permits the pilot to exclude the
alternator from the electrical system in the event of alternator failure
(Figure 20).
Figure 20. On this

master switch, the left
half is for the alternator
and the right half is for
the battery.
84
Figure 21 Electrical system schematic.
85
A bus bar is used as a terminal in the aircraft electrical system to connect the main
electrical system to the equipment using electricity as a source of power.
Fuses or circuit breakers are used in the electrical system to protect the circuits and
equipment from electrical overload. Spare fuses of the proper amperage limit should be
carried in the aircraft to replace defective or blown fuses.
An ammeter is used to monitor the performance of the aircraft electrical system. The
ammeter shows if the alternator/generator is producing an adequate supply of electrical
power. It also indicates whether or not the battery is receiving an electrical charge.
Figure 22. Ammeter and Loadmeter.
86
E A E I R A L T E R N A T O R R A D
U H O P G L N B V C X Z S E W Q N G
E R A M M E T E R O P E R A D X R Q
L P D Q A Z U C D A E R G H I R V C
E P C K I P H T P Z L C E V S A C O
C E E Q C L B G B R E A K E R S Q T
T H R N C O O O K M P G E Y T S N N
R A T Q G A E T S I W O C U B Y C G
I X G D Z D A B X T Y N H V K A H W
C A F S E M N A A A A V O B C F S G
A L I P U E N T U Y M R Q F X U I D
L D B Z S T W T Q L V C T N M J O I
V F X Q R E O E E T J Q T I O I W T
H Y V G V R X R A D O F P N N Y A W
B V A O W Q H Y Q E W U F A T G R O
V G O F C T D A L A X S R C D O I N
W Q N T Z V O L T A G E R C V G G A
S W I T C H P A E R O S R O M O S D
 AMMETER  SWITCH
 LOADMETER  ELECTRICAL
 STARTING
 VOLTAGE
 FUSES
 BREAKERS
 BATTERY
 ALTERNATOR
87
88
2.4 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM VOCABULARY
Hydraulic Systems
There are multiple applications for hydraulic use in aircraft, depending on the complexity of
the aircraft. For example, a hydraulic system is often used on small airplanes to operate
wheel brakes, retractable landing gear, and some constant-speed propellers. On large
airplanes, a hydraulic system is used for flight control surfaces, wing flaps, spoilers, and
other systems.
Hydraulic system liquids are used primarily to transmit and distribute forces to various
units to be actuated. Liquids are able to do this because they are almost incompressible.
Figure 23. Basic hydraulic system.
Hydraulic System Components
Reservoirs
The reservoir is a tank in which an adequate supply of fluid for the system is stored. Fluid
flows from the reservoir to the pump, where it is forced through the system and eventually
returned to the reservoir. The reservoir not only supplies the operating needs of the
system, but it also replenishes fluid lost through leakage.
89
Figure 24. Large commercial aircraft hydraulic system.
Nonpressurized Reservoirs
Nonpressurized reservoirs are used in aircraft that are not designed for violent maneuvers,
do not fly at high altitudes, or in which the reservoir is located in the pressurized area of
the aircraft.
Pressurized Reservoirs
90
Reservoirs on aircraft designed for high-altitude flight are usually pressurized. Pressurizing
assures a positive flow of fluid to the pump at high altitudes when low atmospheric
pressures are encountered
Filters
A filter is a screening or straining device used to clean the hydraulic fluid, preventing
foreign particles and contaminating substances from remaining in the system.
The hydraulic fluid holds in suspension tiny particles of metal that are deposited during the
normal wear of selector valves, pumps, and other system components. Such minute
particles of metal may damage the units and parts through which they pass if they are not
removed by a filter.
Figure 25. A transport category filter module with two filters.
91
Pumps
All aircraft hydraulic systems have one or more power-driven pumps and may have a hand
pump as an additional unit when the engine-driven pump is inoperative. Power-driven
pumps are the primary source of energy and may be either engine driven, electric motor
driven, or air driven. As a general rule, electrical motor pumps are installed for use in
emergencies or during ground operations. Some aircraft can deploy a ram air turbine
(RAT) to generate hydraulic power.
Figure 26. Engine driver pump
Valves
Flow Control Valves
Flow control valves control the speed and/or direction of fluid flow in the hydraulic system.
They provide for the operation of various components when desired and the speed at
which the component operates. Examples of flow control valves include: selector valves,
check valves, sequence valves, priority valves, shuttle valves, quick disconnect valves,
and hydraulic fuses.
92
Selector Valves
A selector valve is used to control the direction of movement of a hydraulic actuating

cylinder or similar device. It provides for the simultaneous flow of hydraulic fluid both into
and out of the unit.
Check Valve
Another common flow control valve in aircraft hydraulic systems is the check valve. A
check valve allows fluid to flow unimpeded in one direction, but prevents or restricts fluid
flow in the opposite direction. A check valve may be an independent component situated
in-line somewhere in the hydraulic system or it may be built-in to a component.
Hydraulic Fuses
A hydraulic fuse is a safety device. Fuses may be installed at strategic locations

throughout a hydraulic system.
They detect a sudden increase in flow, such as a burst downstream, and shut off the fluid
flow. By closing, a fuse preserves hydraulic fluid for the rest of the system. Hydraulic fuses
are fitted to the brake system, leading edge flap and slat extend and retract lines, nose
landing gear up and down lines, and the thrust reverser pressure and return lines.
Figure 27. Hydraulic fuse
93
Relief Valves
Hydraulic pressure must be regulated in order to use it to perform the desired tasks. A
pressure relief valve is used to limit the amount of pressure being exerted on a confined
liquid. This is necessary to prevent failure of components or rupture of hydraulic lines
under excessive pressures.
Shuttle Valves
In certain fluid power systems, the supply of fluid to a subsystem must be from more than
one source to meet system requirements. In some systems, an emergency system is
provided as a source of pressure in the event of normal system failure. The emergency
system usually actuates only essential components. The main purpose of the shuttle valve
is to isolate the normal system from an alternate or emergency system.
Accumulators
The accumulator is a steel sphere divided into two chambers by a synthetic rubber
diaphragm. The upper chamber contains fluid at system pressure, while the lower
chamber is charged with nitrogen or air. Cylindrical types are also used in highpressure
hydraulic systems. Many aircraft have several accumulators in the hydraulic system.
Types of Accumulators:
There are two general types of accumulators used in aircraft hydraulic systems: spherical
and cylindrical.
 Spherical
The spherical-type accumulator is constructed in two halves that are fastened and
threaded, or welded, together. Two threaded openings exist. The top port accepts fittings
to connect to the pressurized hydraulic system to the accumulator. The bottom port is fitted
with a gas servicing valve, such as a Schrader valve
 Cylindrical
94
Cylindrical accumulators consist of a cylinder and piston assembly. End caps are attached
to both ends of the cylinder. The internal piston separates the fluid and air/nitrogen
chambers. The end caps and piston are sealed with gaskets and packings to prevent
external leakage around the end caps and internal leakage between the chambers.
Figure 28. Cylindrial accumulator.
95
Figure 29. A spherical accumulator with diaphragm (left) and bladder (right). The dotted lines in the right
drawing depict the bladder when the accumulator is charged with both hydraulic system fluid and nitrogen
preload.
Actuators
An actuating cylinder transforms energy in the form of fluid pressure into mechanical force,
or action, to perform work. It is used to impart powered linear motion to some movable
object or mechanism. A typical actuating cylinder consists of a cylinder housing, one or
more pistons and piston rods, and some seals.
96
97
Figure 30. Large
aircraft hydraulic systems.
98
E A E I R A G T Q R N F T R R F A P
U C O P H Y D R A U L I C E W I N U
E T D M Q E G E X O P E R A D L R M
H U D Q A Z U C D A E R G H I T V P
E A C C I P H T P Z L C E V S E C S
J T E Q O B V G B A G A F B R R Q T
T O R N C N O A K M P G U Y T S N N
N R T Q G A T T L I W O S U B Y C G
I S G D Z K A R X V Y N E V K A H W
C A F S E M N A O A E V S B C F S G
B L I P U E N T U L M S Q F X U I D
L D B Z S N W Q Q L V C R N M J O I
V F X Q R E O E E S E L E C T O R T
H Y V G V G X U A D O F P N C Y A W
B V A C C U M U L A T O R S T G R O
V G O F C T D A L A X S R C D O I N
W Q N T Z V E R T Q G R R C V G G A
S F I Q R E S E R V O I R S M O S D
 ACTUATORS  RESERVOIRS
 ACCUMULATORS  FILTERS
 VALVES
 HYDRAULIC
 FUSES
 SELECTOR
 CONTROL
 PUMPS
99
2.5 PRESSURIZATION SYSTEM VOCABULARY
Aircraft Oxygen Systems
The negative effects of reduced atmospheric pressure at flight altitudes, forcing less
oxygen into the blood, can be overcome. There are two ways this is commonly done:
increase the pressure of the oxygen or increase the quantity of oxygen in the air mixture.
By increasing the quantity of oxygen available in the lungs, less pressure is required to
saturate the blood. This is the basic function of an aircraft oxygen system. Increasing the
level of oxygen above the 21 percent found in the atmosphere can offset the reduced
pressure encountered as altitude increases
Oxygen Systems and Components:
Oxygen Storage Cylinders
Gaseous oxygen is stored and transported in high-pressure cylinders. Traditionally, these

have been heavy steel tanks rated for 1800–1850 psi of pressure and capable of
maintaining pressure up to 2,400 psi. While these performed adequately, lighter weight
tanks were sought. Some newer cylinders are comprised of a lightweight aluminum shell
wrapped by Kevlar®.
Oxygen Systems and Regulators
The design of the various oxygen systems used in aircraft depends largely on the type of
aircraft, its operational requirements, and whether the aircraft has a pressurization system.
Systems are often characterized by the type of regulator used to dispense the oxygen:
continuous-flow and demand flow.
Continuous-Flow Systems
In its simplest form, a continuous-flow oxygen system allows oxygen to exit the storage
tank through a valve and passes it through a regulator/reducer attached to the top of the
tank. The flow of high-pressure oxygen passes through a section of the regulator that
reduces the pressure of the oxygen, which is then fed into a hose attached to a mask worn
by the user.
100
Figure 31. A passenger service unit (psu) is hinged over each row of seats in an airliner. Four yellow
continuous flow oxygen masks are shown deployed. They are normally stored behind a separate hinged panel
that opens to allow the masks to fall from the PSU for use.
Figure 32. Location of demand-flow oxygen components on a transport category aircraft.
101
Figure 33. Oxygen system regulator.
Oxygen Masks
There are numerous types and designs of oxygen masks in use. The most important factor
in oxygen mask use is to ensure that the masks and oxygen system are compatible. Crew
masks are fitted to the user’s face with a minimum of leakage and usually contain a
microphone. Most masks are the oronasal type that covers only the mouth and nose.
Diluter-Demand Oxygen Systems
Diluter-demand oxygen systems supply oxygen only when the user inhales through the
mask. An automix lever allows the regulators to automatically mix cabin air and oxygen or
supply 100 percent oxygen. The demand mask provides a tight seal over the face to
prevent dilution with outside air and can be used safely up to 40,000 feet.
Pressure-Demand Oxygen Systems
Pressure-demand oxygen systems are similar to diluter demand oxygen equipment,

except that oxygen is supplied to the mask under pressure at cabin altitudes above 34,000
feet. Pressure-demand regulators create airtight and oxygen-tight seals, but they also
provide a positive pressure application of oxygen to the mask face piece that allows the
user’s lungs to be pressurized with oxygen.
102
Continuous-Flow Oxygen System
Continuous-flow oxygen systems are usually provided for passengers. The passenger
mask typically has a reservoir bag that collects oxygen from the continuous-flow oxygen
system during the time when the mask user is exhaling.
Electrical Pulse-Demand Oxygen System
Portable electrical pulse-demand oxygen systems deliver oxygen by detecting an

individual’s inhalation effort and provide oxygen flow during the initial portion of inhalation.
Figure 34. Continuous flow mask and Figure 35. EDS-011 portable pulse-demand oxygen
rebreather bag. system.
103
Pressurized Aircraft
Aircraft are flown at high altitudes for two reasons. First, an aircraft flown at high altitude
consumes less fuel for a given airspeed than it does for the same speed at a lower altitude
because the aircraft is more efficient at a high altitude. Second, bad weather and
turbulence may be avoided by flying in relatively smooth air above the storms. Many
modern aircraft are being designed to operate at high altitudes, taking advantage of that
environment.
In a typical pressurization system, the cabin, flight compartment, and baggage

compartments are incorporated into a sealed unit capable of containing air under a
pressure higher than outside atmospheric pressure. On aircraft powered by turbine
engines, bleed air from the engine compressor section is used to pressurize the cabin.
Superchargers may be used on older model turbine-powered aircraft to pump air into the
sealed fuselage.
The following terms will aid in understanding the operating principles of pressurization and
air conditioning systems:
• Aircraft altitude—the actual height above sea level at which the aircraft is flying
• Ambient temperature—the temperature in the area immediately surrounding the
aircraft
• Ambient pressure—the pressure in the area immediately surrounding the aircraft
• Cabin altitude—cabin pressure in terms of equivalent altitude above sea level
• Differential pressure—the difference in pressure between the pressure acting on
one side of a wall and the pressure acting on the other side of the wall. In aircraft
air-conditioning and pressurizing systems, it is the difference between cabin
pressure and atmospheric pressure.
Decompression is defined as the inability of the aircraft’s pressurization system to

maintain its designed pressure differential. This can be caused by a malfunction in the
pressurization system or structural damage to the aircraft.
Physiologically, decompressions fall into the following two categories:
104
• Explosive decompression—a change in cabin pressure faster than the lungs can
decompress, possibly resulting in lung damage. Normally, the time required to
release air from the lungs without restrictions, such as masks, is 0.2 seconds.
Most authorities consider any decompression that occurs in less than 0.5 seconds
to be explosive and potentially dangerous.
• Rapid decompression—a change in cabin pressure in which the lungs
decompress faster than the cabin.
Figure 36. Cabin pressurization instruments.
A key factor in pressurization is the ability of the fuselage to withstand the forces
associated with the increase in pressure inside the structure versus the ambient pressure
outside.
Sources of Pressurized Air
The source of air to pressurize an aircraft varies mainly with engine type. Reciprocating
aircraft have pressurization sources different from those of turbine-powered aircraft. Note
that the compression of air raises its temperature. A means for keeping pressurization air
cool enough is built into most pressurization systems.
105
Figure 37. Differential pressure (psid) is calculated by subtracting the ambient air pressure from the cabin air
pressure.
106
Exercise 1:
Complete the text correctly. Making use of the word box.
pressure oxygen blood
increase mixture
The negative effects of reduced atmospheric ________ at flight altitudes, forcing less
_______ into the _____, can be overcome. There are two ways this is commonly done:
increase the pressure of the oxygen or __________ the quantity of oxygen in the air
________.
107
2.6 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM VOCBULARY
Flight Control Systems
Flight Controls
Aircraft flight control systems consist of primary and secondary systems. The ailerons,
elevator (or stabilator), and rudder constitute the primary control system and are required
to control an aircraft safely during flight. Wing flaps, leading edge devices, spoilers, and
trim systems constitute the secondary control system and improve the performance
characteristics of the airplane or relieve the pilot of excessive control forces.
Primary Flight Controls
Aircraft control systems are carefully designed to provide adequate responsiveness to

control inputs while allowing a natural feel. At low airspeeds, the controls usually feel soft
and sluggish, and the aircraft responds slowly to control applications.
Figure 38. Helicopter flight

control system.
A properly designed aircraft is stable and easily controlled during normal maneuvering.
Control surface inputs cause movement about the three axes of rotation. The types of
stability an aircraft exhibits also relate to the three axes of rotation.
108
Figure 39. Airplane controls, movement, axes of
rotation, and type of stability.
Ailerons
Ailerons control roll about the longitudinal axis. The ailerons are attached to the outboard
trailing edge of each wing and move in the opposite direction from each other. Ailerons are
connected by cables, bellcranks, pulleys, and/or push-pull tubes to a control wheel or
control stick.
Adverse Yaw
Since the downward deflected aileron produces more lift as evidenced by the wing raising,
it also produces more drag. This added drag causes the wing to slow down slightly. This
results in the aircraft yawing toward the wing which had experienced an increase in lift
(and drag).
This added drag causes the wing to slow down slightly. This results in the aircraft yawing
toward the wing which had experienced an increase in lift (and drag). From the pilot’s
109
perspective, the yaw is opposite the direction of the bank. The adverse yaw is a result of
differential drag and the slight difference in the velocity of the left and right wings.
Figure 40. Adverse yaw is caused by higher drag on the

outside wing that is producing more lift.
Flaperons
Flaperons combine both aspects of flaps and ailerons. In addition to controlling the bank
angle of an aircraft like conventional ailerons, flaperons can be lowered together to
function much the same as a dedicated set of flaps. The pilot retains separate controls for
ailerons and flaps. A mixer is used to combine the separate pilot inputs into this single set
of control surfaces called flaperons.
Elevator
The elevator controls pitch about the lateral axis. Like the ailerons on small aircraft, the elevator is
connected to the control column in the flight deck by a series of mechanical linkages. Aft movement
of the control column deflects the trailing edge of the elevator surface up. This is usually referred to
as the up-elevator position.
110
Figure 41. The elevator is the primary control for
changing the pitch attitude of an aircraft.
Stabilator
A stabilator is essentially a one-piece horizontal

stabilizer that pivots from a central hinge point.
When the control column is pulled back, it raises
the stabilator’s trailing edge, pulling the nose of
the aircraft. Pushing the control column forward
lowers the trailing edge of the stabilator and
pitches the nose of the aircraft down.
Figure 42. The stabilator is a one-piece horizontal tail

surface that pivots up and down about a central hinge
point.
Rudder
The rudder controls movement of the aircraft about its vertical axis. This motion is called
yaw. Like the other primary control surfaces, the rudder is a movable surface hinged to a
fixed surface in this case, to the vertical stabilizer or fin. The rudder is controlled by the left
and right rudder pedals.
111
Secondary Flight Controls
Secondary flight control systems may consist of wing flaps, leading edge devices, spoilers,
and trim systems.
Flaps
Flaps are the most common high-lift devices used on aircraft. These surfaces, which are
attached to the trailing edge of the wing, increase both lift and induced drag for any given
AOA. Flaps allow a compromise between high cruising speed and low landing speed
because they may be extended when needed and retracted into the wing’s structure when
not needed. There are four common types of flaps: plain, split, slotted, and Fowler flaps.
Spoilers
Found on some fixed-wing aircraft, high drag devices called spoilers are deployed from the
wings to spoil the smooth airflow, reducing lift and increasing drag. On gliders, spoilers are
most often used to control rate of descent for accurate landings. On other aircraft, spoilers
are often used for roll control, an advantage of which is the elimination of adverse yaw. To
turn right, for example, the spoiler on the right wing is raised, destroying some of the lift
and creating more drag on the right.
Figure 43. Spoilers reduce lift and increase drag during descent and landing.
112
Trim Systems
Although an aircraft can be operated throughout a wide range of attitudes, airspeeds, and
power settings, it can be designed to fly hands-off within only a very limited combination of
these variables. Trim systems are used to relieve the pilot of the need to maintain constant
pressure on the flight controls, and usually consist of flight deck controls and small hinged
devices attached to the trailing edge of one or more of the primary flight control surfaces.
Trim Tabs
The most common installation on small aircraft is a

single trim tab attached to the trailing edge of the
elevator. Most trim tabs are manually operated by a
small, vertically mounted control wheel. However, a
trim crank may be found in some aircraft. The flight
deck control includes a trim tab position indicator.
Figure 44. Components of a typical empennage.
Figure 45. Typical flight control surfaces on a transport category aircraft.
113
Exercise 1: Write down the name of the axes, the possible motion on each and the
control surfaces involved.
Primary control Airplane Axes of Type of

surface movement rotation stability
B
C
A
114
2.7 FUEL SYSTEM VOCABULARY
All powered aircraft require fuel on board to operate the engine(s). A fuel system
consisting of storage tanks, pumps, filters, valves, fuel lines, metering devices, and
monitoring devices is designed and certified under strict Title 14 of the Code of Federal
Regulations (14 CFR) guidelines. Each system must provide an uninterrupted flow of
contaminantfree fuel regardless of the aircraft’s attitude. Since fuel load can be a
significant portion of the aircraft’s weight, a sufficiently strong airframe must be designed.
Varying fuel loads and shifts in weight during maneuvers must not negatively affect control
of the aircraft in flight.
Each fuel system must be constructed and arranged to ensure fuel flow at a rate and
pressure established for proper engine and auxiliary power unit (APU) functioning under
each likely operating condition. This includes any maneuver for which certification is
requested and during which the engine or APU may be in operation.
Fuel Tanks
Each fuel tank must be able to withstand, without failure, the vibration, inertia, fluid, and
structural loads to which it may be subjected in operation. Fuel tanks with flexible liners
must demonstrate that the liner is suitable for the particular application.
Fuel System Components.
Fuel system components in an engine nacelle or in the fuselage must be protected from
damage that could result in spillage of enough fuel to constitute a fire hazard as a result of
a wheels-up landing on a paved runway.
Fuel Valves and Controls.
There must be a means to allow appropriate flight crew members to rapidly shut off the
fuel to each engine individually in flight. No shutoff valve may be on the engine side of any
firewall.
115
Fuel Strainer or Filter
In addition to fuel tank strainers already discussed, there must be a fuel strainer, or filter,
between the fuel tank outlet and the inlet of either the fuel metering device or an engine
driven positive displacement pump, whichever is nearer the fuel tank outlet. This fuel
strainer, or filter, must be accessible for draining and cleaning and must incorporate a
screen or element that is easily removable.
Fuel Pumps
Fuel pumps are part of most aircraft fuel systems. Standards exist for main pumps and
emergency pumps. Operation of any fuel pump may not affect engine operation by
creating a hazard, regardless of the engine power or thrust setting or the functional status
of any other fuel pump.
Pressure Fueling Systems
Pressure fueling systems are used on many large, highperformance, and air carrier
aircraft. Each pressure fueling system fuel manifold connection must have means to
prevent the escape of hazardous quantities of fuel from the system if the entry valve fails.
Fuel Jettisoning System
If an aircraft’s design landing weight is less than that of the maximum takeoff weight, a
situation could occur in which a landing is desired before sufficient fuel has burned off to
lighten the aircraft. Fuel jettisoning systems are required on these aircraft so that fuel can
be jettisoned in flight to avoid structural damage cause by landing the aircraft when it is too
heavy.
Figure 46. Fuel being jettisoned free of the

airframe on a transport category aircraft.
116
Figure 47. The fuel jettison panel on a Boeing 767.
Types of Aviation Fuel
Each aircraft engine is designed to burn a certain fuel. Use only the fuel specified by the
manufacturer. Mixing fuels is not permitted. There are two basic types of fuel discussed in
this section: reciprocating-engine fuel (also known as gasoline or AVGAS) and turbine-
engine fuel (also known as jet fuel or kerosene).
Reciprocating Engine Fuel—AVGAS
Reciprocating engines burn gasoline, also known as AVGAS. It is specially formulated for
use in aircraft engines. Combustion releases energy in the fuel, which is converted into the
mechanical motion of the engine. AVGAS of any variety is primarily a hydrocarbon
compound refined from crude oil by fractional distillation.
Surface Ignition and Preignition
A sharp deposit or incandescent hot spot in the combustion chamber can cause fuel to
ignite before the spark plug lights it. Detonation can cause such an area to form as can a
cracked spark plug insulator or a sharp valve edge. The result could be ignition of the fuel
before the piston is at the proper place during its movement toward top dead center of the
compression stroke. The extended burn period of the fuel can increase temperatures and
117
pressure in the combustion chamber to the point at which the fuel detonates. The repeated
incorrect flame propagation and detonation can cause serious engine damage and
eventual engine failure.
Figure 48 Preignition can cause detonation and damage to

the engine.
Fuel Identification
Aircraft and engine manufacturers designate approved fuels for each aircraft and engine.
Consult manufacturer data and use only those fuel specified therein.
The existence of more than one fuel makes it imperative that fuel be positively identified
and never introduced into a fuel system that is not designed for it. The use of dyes in fuel
helps aviators monitor fuel type. 100LL AVGAS is the AVGAS most readily available and
used in the United States. It is dyed blue. Some 100 octane or 100/130 fuel may still be
available, but it is dyed green.
80/87 AVGAS is no longer available. It was dyed red. Many supplemental type certificates
have been issued to engine and engine/airframe combinations that permit the use of
automobile gasoline in engines originally designed for red AVGAS.
118
Figure 49. Color coded labeling and markings used on fueling equipment.
Turbine Engine Fuel Types
Three basic turbine engine fuel types are available worldwide, although some countries
have their own unique fuels. The first is Jet A. It is the most common turbine engine fuel
available in the continental United States. Globally, Jet A-1 is the most popular. Both Jet A
and Jet A-1 are fractionally distilled in the kerosene range.
The third basic type of turbine engine fuel available is Jet B. It is a wide-cut fuel that is
basically a blend of kerosene and gasoline.
Figure 50. Biocides, such as these, are often added to

jet fuel to kill microbes that live on hydrocarbons.
119
Aircraft Fuel Systems
Fuel Tanks
There are three basic types of aircraft fuel tanks: rigid removable tanks, bladder tanks, and
integral fuel tanks. The type of aircraft, its design and intended use, as well as the age of
the aircraft determine which fuel tank is installed in an aircraft. Most tanks are constructed
of noncorrosive material(s).
Pump Feed Systems
Low- and mid-wing single reciprocating engine aircraft cannot utilize gravity-feed fuel
systems because the fuel tanks are not located above the engine. Instead, one or more
pumps are used to move the fuel from the tanks to the engine.
Figure 51. A single reciprocating engine aircraft with fuel

tanks located in wings below the engine uses pumps to
draw fuel from the tanks and deliver it to the engine.
120
High-Wing Aircraft With Fuel Injection System
Some high-wing, high-performance, single-engine general aviation aircraft are equipped

with a fuel system that features fuel injection rather than a carburetor. It combines gravity
flow with the use of a fuel pump(s).
Fuel pressurized by an engine-driven pump is metered as a function of engine rpm on the

Teledyne-Continental system. It is first delivered from the fuel tanks by gravity to two
smaller accumulator or reservoir tanks. These tanks, one for each wing tank, consolidate
the liquid fuel and have a relatively small airspace. They deliver fuel through a threeway
selector valve (LEFT, RIGHT, or OFF)
121
Figure 52. A Teledyne-
Continental fuel system
featuring fuel
injection used on high-wing,
high-performance single-
engine
aircraft.
122
Figure 53. A fuel distribution manifold for a fuel-injected engine.
Jet Transport Aircraft Fuel Systems
Fuel systems on large transport category jet aircraft are complex with some features and
components not found in reciprocating-engine aircraft fuel systems. They typically contain
more redundancy and facilitate numerous options from which the crew can choose while
managing the aircraft’s fuel load.
Features like an onboard APU, single point pressure refueling, and fuel jettison systems,
which are not needed on smaller aircraft, add to the complexity of an airliner fuel system.
Jet transport fuel systems can be regarded as a handful of fuel subsystems as follows:
1. Storage
2. Vent
3. Distribution
4. Feed
5. Indicating
123
Figure 54. Boeing 777 fuel tank locations and capacities.
Fuel Tanks
There are three basic types of aircraft fuel tanks: rigid removable tanks, bladder tanks, and
integral fuel tanks.
Rigid Removable Fuel Tanks
Many aircraft, especially older ones, utilize an obvious choice for fuel tank construction. A
rigid tank is made from various materials, and it is strapped into the airframe structure.
Figure 55. A typical rigid removable Figure 56. A fuselage tank for a light aircraft.
aircraft fuel tank and
124
Fuel Filters
Two main types of fuel cleaning device are utilized on aircraft. Fuel strainers are usually
constructed of relatively coarse wire mesh. They are designed to trap large pieces of
debris and prevent their passage through the fuel system. Fuel strainers do not inhibit the
flow of water. Fuel filters generally are usually fine mesh.
Figure 58. A Boeing 737 cockpit fuel panel showing

illuminated valve position indicators and fuel filter bypass
lights. The fuel temperature in tank No.1 is also indicated.
Figure 57. Fuel tank outlet finger strainers

are used in
light aircraft.
Fuel System Indicators
Aircraft fuel systems utilize various indicators. All systems are required to have some sort
of fuel quantity indicator. Fuel flow, pressure, and temperature are monitored on many
aircraft. Valve position indicators and various warning lights and annunciations are also
used.
125
Figure 59. Fuel quantify indicators.
Fuel Pressure Gauges
Monitoring fuel pressure can give the pilot early warning of a fuel system related
malfunction. Verification that the fuel system is delivering fuel to the fuel metering device
can be critical. Simple light reciprocating-engine aircraft typically utilize a direct reading
Bourdon tube pressure gauge.
Figure 60. A typical fuel gauge that uses a

signal from a sensing transducer to display fuel
inlet pressure at the metering device.
126
Figure 61. A differential fuel pressure gauge used on
complex and high-performance reciprocating-engine
aircraft compares the fuel inlet pressure to the air inlet
pressure at the fuel metering device.
Fuel System Servicing
Maintaining aircraft fuel systems in acceptable condition to deliver clean fuel to the
engine(s) is a major safety factor in aviation. Personnel handling fuel or maintaining fuel
systems should be properly trained and use best practices to ensure that the fuel, or fuel
system, are not the cause of an incident or accident.
Exercise 1: Solve the following alphabet

soup
Figure 61. Sumping a fuel tank with a fuel strainer that is Figure 62. A sump drain tool used to open and
designed
I G to NcollectI the sump
T drain
I material
O Nin theQclearR N F fuel Tand Pcontaminants
collect U M fromP theS fuel
cylinder to be examined for the presence of system sumps. Daily sump draining is part of the
contaminants.
U C O P F Y D W A U E Q
procedures C E to remove
needed W Wwater
N fromU fuel
that is to be delivered to the engine(s).
E G D M Q E P R E S S U R E D L R G
127
H U D Q D Z U C D A E R G H I T V P
V R C G I I H T P Z L C E V S Q C E
A T E Q O B S G B A G A H B R R Q T
L Z R N S F O T K M P G U Y T A N N
V R T Q G E S T R I W O J U B Y C G
E A G D Z K L W X I Y N E V K A H W
S A F S E M N E O A B V L B C F S G
B L I P U E N T C X M U Q F X U I B
L D B Z T N W Q Q T V C T N M J O I
V F X Q A E O E E Q O F E I T K R O
H Y V G N G X U A D O R P N O Y A C
B V A X K L M K L A T E R G T N R I
V G O F S T D A L A X S R C D O I D
W Q N T Z V E R T Q G R R C V G G E
F U E L R W F I L T E R S S M O S S
 FUEL  PRESSURE
 TANKS  FILTERS
 PUMPS
 BIOCIDES
 DISTRIBUTION
 SELECTOR
 VALVES
 IGNITION
128
2.8 OTHER SYSTEMS VOCABULARY
Toilet System
The toilet system is designed so there is no possible contamination of the passenger water
supply from the system. Toilets in each lavatory compartment are electrically powered
flushing units that collect the waste material in a waste tank and combine it with the
flushing agent by chemical and mechanical treatment.
Position and warning systems
Each aircraft system may incorporate a warning system to indicate when that particular
system is not functioning properly. These systems include control surface indicator
systems, takeoff warning systems, and stall warning systems.
Control-Surface indicating Systems
The purpose of control-surface indicating systems is to allow the flight crew to determine if
a control surface is in the correct position for some phase of flight and to determine if a
flight control is moving properly. The most common type of control-surface indicating
systems is that used for the elevator trim tab, and this will serve as an example for other
mechanical indicating systems. The type of mechanism is found in most fixed-wing aircraft
and is used by the pilot to indicate if the trim tab is properly positioned for some phase of
flight, such as takeoff or landing before that phase of flight is initiated.
Takeoff Warning Indicator Systems
A takeoff warning indicator system is used to advise the pilot that one or more items are
not properly positioned for takeoff. When a takeoff warning system actuates, an
intermittent horn is sounded until the incorrect situation is corrected or until the takeoff is
aborted.
129
Auxiliary power units
When a modern aircraft's engines are not operating, there are two available sources of
power to operate its other systems. They are the aircraft's battery and the auxiliary power
unit. Because of the limited capacity of the batteries, the amount of power they supply is
insufficient to provide all but the very basic needs. Operation of an aircraft's airconditioning
system, for example, would require significantly more power than could be supplied by the
batteries.
To accommodate the needs of the aircraft on the ground for substantial amounts of energy
while its engines are not operating, modern aircraft are equipped with auxiliary power units
(APUs). The APUs are gas-turbine engines, using the aircraft's own fuel supply, which
provide the power to run the attached generators. In addition, the APU is typically large
enough to provide sufficient pneumatic power to start the aircraft's engines. The presence
of an APU eliminates the need for ground power units (GPUs).
FIRE EXTINGUISHING EQUIPMENT
Types of systems
The extinguishing systems in general use are the fixed system, the portable system and
the mixed system. The term ‘fixed’ refers to a permanently installed system of
extinguishant containers, distribution pipes and controls provided for the protection of
power plants and, where applicable, auxiliary power units. In some types of aircraft landing
gear wheel bays and baggage compartments.
130
Exercise 1:
Complete the text correctly. Making use of the word box.
system surface
functioning stall
indicate warning
Position and warning systems
Each aircraft ______ may incorporate a warning system to ________ when that particular
system is not ___________ properly. These systems include control _______ indicator
systems, takeoff ________ systems, and stal warning systems.
131

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INGLÉS TÉCNICO

MANUAL PARA PILOTO PRIVADO DE ALA FIJA

TORNADO ASESORÍA EN TRANSPORTACIÓN AÉREA S.A. DE C.V.

SCT TAT9 71210 -E 760 013

CURSO DE FORMACIÓN PARA PERSONAL TÉCNICO AERONÁUTICO

El contenido de este Manual es una recopilación que TORNADO ASESORÍA EN

El diseño e integración del contenido son propiedad de TORNADO ASESORÍA EN

SEGUNDA EDICIÓN, SEPTIEMBRE DE 2021

Ciudad de México | Guadalajara | Toluca

1.1 ENGLISH LANGUAGE PHONETICS.....................................................................................1

1.3 BASIC CONCEPTS.............................................................................................................. 13

1.4 POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES................................................................................................22

1.5 INDEFINITE ARTICLES.......................................................................................................27

1.6 REGULAR VERBS............................................................................................................... 33

1.7 IRREGULAR VERBS............................................................................................................ 41

1.8 PAST AND PRESENT SIMPLE............................................................................................48

2.1 GENERAL VOCABULARY...................................................................................................56

2.2 ENGINE VOCABULARY.......................................................................................................66

2.3 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM VOCABULARY...............................................................................80

2.4 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM VOCABULARY................................................................................85

Ciudad de México | Guadalajara | Toluca

2.5 PRESSURIZATION SYSTEM VOCABULARY.....................................................................95

2.6 FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM VOCABULARY....................................................................103

2.7 FUEL SYSTEM VOCABULARY..........................................................................................110

2.8 OTHER SYSTEMS VOCABULARY....................................................................................123

Ciudad de México | Guadalajara | Toluca

Ciudad de México | Guadalajara | Toluca

1.1 ENGLISH LANGUAGE PHONETICS

Identity of Speech Sounds

Our linguistic knowledge allows us to ignore nonlinguistic differences in speech (such as

 Acoustic phonetics: focuses on the physical properties of the sounds of

Spelling, or orthography, does not consistently represent the sounds of language.

The Phonetic Alphabet

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)

– Glottis = the opening between the vocal cords

– Larynx = ‘voice box’

– Pharynx = tubular part of the throat above the larynx

– Oral cavity = mouth

Consonants: Place of Articulation

Consonants: Place of Articulation.

• Bilabials: [p] [b] [m]

– Produced by bringing both lips together

– Produced by touching the bottom lip to the upper teeth

• Interdentals [θ] [d]

– Produced by putting the tip of he tongue between the teeth.

• Alveolars: [t] [d] [n] [s] [z] [l] [r]

• High vowels: [i] [ɪ] [u] [ʊ]

• Mid vowels: [e] [ɛ] [o] [ə] [ʌ] [ɔ]

• Low vowels: [a] [a]

• Front vowels: [i] [ɪ] [e] [ɛ] [a]

• Central vowels: [ə] [ʌ]

• Back vowels: [u] [ɔ] [o] [a] [a]

Consonants: Manner of Articulation

• So far we have three ways of classifying sounds based on phonetic features: by

– [p] is a voiceless, bilabial, oral sound

– [n] is a voiced, alveolar, nasal sound

Schwa. It is a very common phoneme in English and is found in many words. It is a

father /ˈfɑːðə(r)/ (padre), mother /ˈmʌðə(r)/ (madre).

It is also present in a closed syllable that is not stressed.