Biografías Arqueológicas

BIOGRAFÍA
S
ARQUEOLÓGICA
S
Hallazgos Arqueológicos
Recientes Relacionados con
Personajes Bíblicos
Brian Windle
Paraná, Entre Ríos

BIOGRAFÍAS ARQUEOLÓGICAS
2022
ÍNDICE
EL TOP TEN DE LOS HALLAZGOS ARQUEOLÓGICOS

MÁS RELEVANTES..................................................................6
TOP TEN DEL 2020...................................................6
10. Tallas de dioses asirios..........................................6
9. La iglesia construida sobre una roca sólida.............7
8. Fuerte aliado del Rey David....................................8
7. El residuo de humo sagrado.....................................8
6. Un templo que rivaliza con Jerusalén......................9
5. Golpeando a los dioses de Canaán.........................10
4. Palacio bien conservado.........................................10
3. Iglesia en una casa en Laodicea.............................11
2. "Réplica" es real; los fragmentos son falsos..........12
1. Restos del reinado de Manasés..............................13
TOP TEN DEL 2019.................................................14

10) Los filisteos tenían ascendencia europea.............14
2
9) El Génesis tenía razón en cuanto a los edomitas...15

8) El cuerno de un altar..............................................15
7) Muro de Goliat en Gat...........................................15
6) Mosaico de los panes y los peces..........................16
5) Un sello "Perteneciente a Ga'alyahu hijo de Immer"
...............................................................................................16
4) Un sello "Perteneciente a Adonías, mayordomo
real"........................................................................................17
3) Un sello de "Natan-Melech, siervo del rey"..........17
2) Kiriath Yearim identificado como Emaús.............18
1) Se abre un camino de peregrinación en Jerusalén. 19
TOP TEN DEL 2018.................................................20

10) Inscripción bíblica "Yerushalayim" en columna
antigua...................................................................................20
9) Granada de arcilla encontrada en Tel Shiloh.........21
8) Inscripciones de Esarhaddon encontradas en el
santuario de Jonás..................................................................21
7) Abecedario semítico encontrado en Egipto...........22
6) Tumba de la familia real no saqueada en Meguido
...............................................................................................23
5) Beka peso del Monte del Templo..........................24
4) Impresión del sello del gobernador de Jerusalén...24
3
3) ¿Firma del profeta Isaías en impresión de sello?...25

2) La cabeza de la estatua de un rey bíblico de Abel
Beth Maacah..........................................................................26
1) Anillo de sello de Poncio Pilato............................26
TOP TEN DEL 2017.................................................28

10) Centro pagano descubierto en Hippos / Sussita. .28
9) Mosaicos de la iglesia bizantina encontrados........29
8) Altar del templo de Augusto en Cesarea...............29
7) La destrucción de Gezer por Merneptah...............30
6) La cueva de los 12 rollos del Mar Muerto
confirmada.............................................................................31
5) Impresiones de sellos y redacción de torres en la
ciudad de David.....................................................................31
4) Timna Copper Camp data de la época de David y
Salomón.................................................................................32
3) Repensar la identidad de Betsaida.........................33
2) Una reliquia del templo que Jesús conocía............34
1) Pequeño teatro romano encontrado junto al Muro
Occidental del Monte del Templo.........................................34
Objeto extra: nuevas citas para la tumba de Jesús.....35
4
LA SALA DEL TEMPLO.........................................................36

EL NOMBRE DE UN JUEZ BÍBLICO....................................41
LA TELA PURPURADA.........................................................50
LA PRIMERA PRUEBA DEL CRISTIANISMO PRIMITIVO

HALLADA EN UN PUEBLO DE GALILEA..........................60
UNA DIMINUTA PIEZA DE ARCILLA Y EL REY BÍBLICO

JEROBOAM II..........................................................................65
¿DEBATE RABÍNICO RESUELTO? UN ESTUDIO TOMA

LA MEDIDA DE LA UNIDAD BÍBLICA DE LA
"ANCHURA DE LA MANO....................................................72
LOS SELLOS Y LA RECONSTRUCCIÓN.............................78
EL SELLO DEL MAYORDOMO............................................84
LA PRIMERA MENCIÓN DE LOS HEBREOS.....................88

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a.1601746703291692/2478573275609026
King Uzziah: An Archaeological Biography
Uzziah
“How the mighty have fallen.” This epithet adequately sums up
the life of King Uzziah, the subject of our next bioarchaeograpy.
He was one of the greatest kings of Judah, reigning for 52 years,
from ca. 792-740 BC.1 Scripture records how Uzziah (also
known as Azariah in 1 Kings 15:1-7) became king after his
father’s death:
And all the people of Judah took Uzziah, who was sixteen years
old, and made him king instead of his father Amaziah. He built
Eloth and restored it to Judah, after the king slept with his
fathers. Uzziah was sixteen years old when he began to reign,
and he reigned fifty-two years in Jerusalem. His mother’s name
was Jecoliah of Jerusalem. And he did what was right in the
eyes of the LORD, according to all that his father Amaziah had
done. He set himself to seek God in the days of Zechariah, who
instructed him in the fear of God, and as long as he sought the
LORD, God made him prosper. (2 Chr 26:1-5).
However, after Zechariah’s death, Uzziah became proud and
broke God’s laws by trying to usurp the role of priests and offer
incense to the Lord. In punishment, he was struck with leprosy
and lived as a leper in a separate house until the day of his death
(2 Chr 26:21).
6
The Historicity of Uzziah

Uzziah’s historicity has been affirmed by several archaeological
artifacts. Two seals which once belonged to officials in his
court mention him by name. One reads, “belonging to Abiyau,
servant of Uzziah.”2 It is made of agate, depicts a kneeling
Egyptian figure, and was likely used in a ring.3 The second seal
is made of red limestone and reads, “Belonging to Sebnayau,
servant of Uzziah.”4 It depicts a man holding a scepter in his
left hand with this right hand raised. Based on the shapes of the
letters and the styles of the seals, both date to the time of King
Uzziah. While they were obtained on the antiquities market,
they are considered authentic, as were both purchased in the
mid-1800’s, at a time when forgers could not have known about
the epigraphical features of 8th century BC seals.5
Furthermore, both use the Hebrew term, ‘ebed for “servant,”
which means the seal’s owner was the servant of a king.6
Seal of Shebnayahu servant of Uzziah king of Judah, with
Assyrian figure, 1st half 8th c BC, tb0927195041
The seal of Sebnayau, “servant of Uzziah.” Photo: Todd Bolen,
BiblePlaces.com
A fragmentary inscription from the Assyrian king, Tiglath-
Pileser III mentions “Azariah of Judah” (Uzziah’s other name)
several times. In one part, Tiglath-Pileser writes: “19 districts of
Hamath, together with the cities of their environs, on the shore
of the sea of the setting sun, who had gone over to Azariah in
7
revolt and contempt [of Assyria].”7 While this event is not

known in Scripture, it would be consistent with Uzziah’s
influence as he expanded his control in the region (see below).
Some scholars have suggested that this might not be Azariah,
king of Judah, but rather another influential ruler named Azariah
of another region named Judah. However, this seems unlikely.
Israel Museum
King Uzziah’s reburial plaque. Photo: Ferrell Jenkins,
https://ferrelljenkins.blog/2014/01/30/visualizing-isaiah-6-king-
uzziah/
In 1931, a burial plaque came to light; it was rediscovered by
E.L Sukenik, professor of archaeology at Hebrew University in
Jerusalem, while he was looking at items in the Russian
Orthodox monastery on the Mount of Olives. The marble slab
bore an Aramaic inscription which read, “Here were brought the
bones of Uzziah, king of Judah. Do not open.” 8 The inscription
does not date to the time of Uzziah, but to sometime between the
Hasmonean and early Roman periods (ca 150 BC- 50AD).9 It
appears to be a marker indicating that the bones of the Judahite
king had been moved to a new burial location, likely because the
city had expanded. Gordon Franz notes: “Josephus records that
Herod the Great erected a monument over the tomb of David
after he tried to steal some of the gold and silver from the tomb.
This was probably the time when Uzziah’s bones were moved
and the inscription was written.”10
8
The Expansion of Uzziah

While Uzziah is perhaps best-known for the earthquake that
occurred while he was reigning (see below), he was known to be
a prolific builder. Scripture records that he, “…built towers in
Jerusalem at the Corner Gate and at the Valley Gate and at the
Angle, and fortified them. And he built towers in the wilderness
and cut out many cisterns, for he had large herds, both in the
Shephelah and in the plain, and he had farmers and vinedressers
in the hills and in the fertile lands, for he loved the soil” (2 Chr
26:9-10).
Gibeah Ruins
Iron Age ruins at Gibeah, as photographed in 1964. Photo:
LifeintheHolyLands.com
Archaeological evidence of building activity around the time of
Uzziah has been unearthed throughout Judah. An 8th-century
BC fortress was discovered at Ain el-Qudeirat (identified as
Kadesh Barnea) with eight rectangular towers and a significant
cistern inside the citadel.11 Towers and cisterns from this
period have also been found at Gibeah and Beersheba.12
Pesach Bar-Adon surveyed and excavated a series of 8th-
century BC sites in the Judean wilderness, including Qumran,
and found that they resembled forts. This would be consistent
with Uzziah’s building of towers and cisterns in the wilderness,
and may have been a strategic attempt to build a string of
fortified settlements could defend the eastern border of the
kingdom and control access to the trade routes.13 The round,
Iron-Age cistern at Qumran can still be seen today. Further,
9
Lachish (Level III) and Beth Shemesh (Level II) appear to have
been constructed by Uzziah and display sophisticated urban
planning.14
Qumran Cisterns
The round cistern at Qumran in the middle of this photo dates to
the Iron Age. Some scholars believe it was built during the reign
of Uzziah, as described in 2 Chron. 26:10 – “And he built
towers in the wilderness and cut out many cisterns…” Photo:
Courtesy of www.HolyLandPhotos.org
Remains of First-Temple era artifacts and architecture are rare in
Jerusalem, as it has been both destroyed and built over
numerous times. Eilat Mazar has suggested that a First-Temple
era structure, known as the “Extra Tower” in Jerusalem was one
of Uzziah’s building projects.15 There is debate around this
identification, however, as Leen Ritmeyer has pointed out that
this structure was likely built during the reign of Hezekiah.16
Uzziah Kingdom
The Expanding kingdom of Judah during Uzziah’s reign. Image:
GiantBibleMaps.com / CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
Scripture also records Uzziah’s expansion by conquest: “He
went out and made war against the Philistines and broke through
the wall of Gath and the wall of Jabneh and the wall of Ashdod,
and he built cities in the territory of Ashdod and elsewhere
among the Philistines” (2 Chr 26:6). Archaeological evidence
for Uzziah’s conquests is open to interpretation, given the
incomplete and fragmentary nature of the data. Jabneh (Tel
10
Yavneh) has not been sufficiently excavated to gain an

understanding of the site in the 8th century BC.17 At Ashdod,
there are two 8th-century BC destruction levels beneath an
Assyrian structure at the base of the tell, the earliest of which
may be evidence of Uzziah’s conquest.18 At Tell es-Safi (Gath)
evidence linked to Uzziah’s conquest has not been definitively
discovered. However, there is an 8th-century BC Judahite
occupation level in Area F at the site19, which may be indirect
evidence of Uzziah’s control of Gath.
aerial-foto-looking-sw-2009-with-excavation-areas Gath
An Aerial photo of Tell es-Safi (Gath) with Area F labeled.
Photo: Courtesy of The Tell es-Safi/Gath Archaeological Project
/ https://gath.wordpress.com/2009/07/31/the-2009-season-is-
over/
The Earthquake of Uzziah
The Bible records that there was as significant earthquake in
Judah in the days of King Uzziah (Amos 1:1, Zech. 14:1).
Archaeological evidence for a massive earthquake in the 8th
century BC is visible at numerous sites throughout the Levant,
including Hazor, Deir ‘Alla, Gezer, Lachish, Gath, Tell
Judeideh, and ‘En Haseva. An article in the journal
Tectonophysics also details paleoseismic evidence for this
earthquake. The researchers used carbon-14 to date the organic
matter in the deformed layers. Their analysis documented 11
earthquakes in Israel during the Bronze and Iron ages, including
two in the 8th century BC.20 The larger of the two 8th-century
BC earthquakes was likely the one that is remembered from the
11
days of Uzziah. Some scholars calculate that this earthquake

had a magnitude of 7.8-8.2.21
brick-wall-destroyed-in-earthquake Uzziah
This photo, from Tell es-Safi (Gath) shows a collapsed wall, in
which the bricks moved laterally about 2 meters off of the
foundation and then toppled. Based on the stratigraphic context,
this can be dated to the mid-8th century BC, and was likely the
result of the earthquake that occurred in the days of Uzziah.
Photo: Courtesy of The Tell es-Safi/Gath Archaeological
Project, https://gath.wordpress.com/2010/07/28/view-of-
philistine-temple-and-amos-earthquake/
Conclusion
King Uzziah’s life has been affirmed and illuminated through
archaeological findings over the course of more than 100 years.
However, it is the ending of his life that is probably most
instructive for those of us living more than 2700 years later.
Despite his long reign and perceived greatness, his pride led to
his downfall and he lived as a leprous outcast until the day of his
death. His life illustrates the proverb, “Pride goes before
destruction, and a haughty spirit before a fall” (Prov. 16:18).
a.1601746703291692/2468428883290132
King Ahab: An Archaeological Biography
In our series of bioarchaeographies, we’ve alternated between
Old Testament people, such as Tiglath-Pileser III,
12
Nebuchadnezzar, Cyrus, Shishak, King David, Ahaz, Hezekiah,

and Omri, and New Testament figures, like Caesar Augustus,
Quirinius, Herod Agrippa I and II, Herod Antipas, Pontius
Pilate, Gallio, and Sergius Paulus. In this article, we’ll explore
the life of one of the most notoriously wicked kings of Israel:
Ahab.
Scripture gives this summary of Ahab’s reign:
In the thirty-eighth year of Asa king of Judah, Ahab the son of
Omri began to reign over Israel, and Ahab the son of Omri
reigned over Israel in Samaria twenty-two years. And Ahab the
son of Omri did evil in the sight of the LORD, more than all
who were before him. And as if it had been a light thing for him
to walk in the sins of Jeroboam the son of Nebat, he took for his
wife Jezebel the daughter of Ethbaal king of the Sidonians, and
went and served Baal and worshiped him. He erected an altar
for Baal in the house of Baal, which he built in Samaria. And
Ahab made an Asherah. Ahab did more to provoke the LORD,
the God of Israel, to anger than all the kings of Israel who were
before him. (1 Kgs 16:29 -33)
Ahab (ca. 874-853 BC) inherited a kingdom that had been
stabilized by his father, Omri.1 He continued the building
projects that his father had begun, and actively sought to expand
the reach of the Kingdom of Israel.
Ahab’s Palace
OmrideWallSamaria
13
This Israelite wall at Samaria dates to the 9th century BC (ie. the
reign of Omri and Ahab). Photo: Carl Rasmussen,
http://www.HolyLandPhotos.org
While it was Omri who moved the capital of Israel to Samaria
and built the palace on the acropolis, it was Ahab who expanded
it, adding numerous administrative buildings. He extended the
royal palace using finely dressed ashlar stones in a pattern that
may have copied a Phoenician style.2 The royal acropolis was
monumental, being 89 X 178 m in size, and covering 4 acres,
roughly the same amount of space as an entire town in rural
Israel at that time.3 While Ahab was, no doubt, responsible for
some of the renovations to the palace, some scholars have
suggested that the “Building Period II” phase of the site ought to
be attributed to Jehu, rather than Ahab.4
The “Ivory House”
Ahab Samaria Ivory
One of the Samaria Ivories. Furniture inlay: striding sphinx,
Samaria, Iron Age II, 9th–8th century BC, Ivory, L: 7.5; W: 7
cm, Israel Antiquities Authority, 1933-2572
https://www.imj.org.il/en/collections/365181 Collection Israel
Antiquities Authority Photo The Israel Museum, Jerusalem
In 1 Kings 22:39, we read of a specific building that Ahab was
famous for: “Now the rest of the acts of Ahab and all that he
did, and the ivory house that he built and all the cities that he
built, are they not written in the Book of the Chronicles of the
Kings of Israel?” Scholars have speculated that one of the
14
enhancements which Ahab made to the capital of Samaria was

to adorn the palace walls and furniture with ivory decorations
such that it became known as “the Ivory House.” When
Kathleen Kenyon’s team excavated Samaria in 1932, they
unearthed a large collection of carved ivories dating to the Iron
Age.5
The Samaria Ivories, as they have come to be known, depict
wildlife, plants, mythological creatures, and foreign deities.
Because they date to the time of King Ahab, and were
discovered near the palace complex, most scholars believe they
come from the fabled, Ivory House. While many hold that they
were made by the Phoenicians, some scholars are suggesting
this needs to be reviewed in light of new studies showing that
there was a local tradition of ivory carving in the Southern
Levant during the Bronze and Iron Ages.6
Whatever their origin, it is interesting that a significant group of
ivories were discovered near the palace, which date to the time
the Bible says Ahab was famous for his Ivory House.
The Kurkh Monolith
Ahab Kurkh Monolith
The Kurkh Monolith of the Assyrian King Shalmaneser III
mentions Ahab the Israelite. Photo: Yuber / Wikimedia
Commons / Public Domain
In 853 BC, the Assyrian king, Shalmaneser III fought against a
coalition of western kings near at Qarqar in modern-day Syria.
He left a description of the battle on a stele that was discovered
15
in 1861 at Kurkh, near the Tigris river in Turkey. In the

inscription on the Kurkh Monolith, he names “Ahab the
Israelite” as on of the combatants and claims that he had one of
the strongest forces, with 2000 chariots and 10000 soldiers.7
Despite Shalmaneser’s boasts, the battle may have been more of
failure than a victory for him (or, at best, a draw), as returned to
Assyria immediately after the battle, had no further contact with
the coalition, and didn’t return to Israel for another four years.8
While neither Shalmaneser III, nor the Battle of Qarqar are
mentioned in the Bible, this inscription is still important for
several reasons. First, it is a clear confirmation of Ahab as a
king of Israel. Secondly, it testifies to the wealth and power of
the Israelite kingdom at the time.9 Finally, it references a
historical event that can be dated. Indeed, it was one of the key
inscriptions that Edwin Thiele used to construct a chronology of
Israel in his book, The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew
Kings. He writes:
“An exact synchronism between Hebrew and Assyrian history is
made possible in the early period of the kings by an interesting
correlation of events in Israel and Assyria that begins and ends
the twelve-year period of 853-841 B.C. It has already been
mentioned that Ahab is listed by Shalmaneser III as one of the
kings of the Westland who fought against him in the battle of
Qarqar, and we have seen that this battle was fought in the year
853. Therefore, Ahab was still alive and reigning in Israel
sometime in the year 853. Shalmaneser also mentions that he
received tribute from Jehu during his expedition to the west in
his eighteenth year. This would be in the eponymy of Adam-
16
rimani (841). Thus Jehu was already reigning over Israel

sometime in 841….the interval between the death of Ahab and
the accession of Jehu is exactly twelve years, being made up of
the reigns of Ahaziah ,the son and successor of Ahab, and
Joram, who was slain and succeeded by Jehu [2 Kings 2:51 &
3:1]….Since the interval between the battle of Qarqar, at which
Ahab fought in 853, and the time Jehu paid tribute to
Shalmaneser in 841 is also for a period of just twelve years, it is
in this period that the reigns of Ahaziah and Joram must have
taken place, with 853 as the last year of Ahab and 841 for Jehu’s
accession.”10
Jezebel’s seal
Ahab Jezebel Seal
A seal which some scholars believe belonged to Queen Jezebel.
Collection Israel Antiquities Authority, Photo The Israel
Museum, Jerusalem
One of the most infamous women in all of history was Queen
Jezebel, the Phoenician wife of King Ahab. In the early 1960’s a
seal that had been purchased on the antiquities market was
donated to the Israel Museum in Jerusalem.11 It bears the name
Jezebel interspersed around various images. Initially, scholars
were hesitant to identify it with Ahab’s wife, in part because
Jezebel is spelled slightly differently than in Scripture. On the
seal, it is spelled YZBL, while in Scripture it is spelled ‘YZBL
(the ‘ represents the Hebrew letter aleph).12 If this were the seal
of Jezebel, one would expect to see the aleph, as well as a
lamed; it should read L’YZBL, or “Belonging to Jezebel.”
17
Recently, scholars have analyzed the seal and noted that the
damaged part at the top of the seal is just large enough to have
contained the two missing letters. This, combined with the
seal’s impressive size, and the fact that it is filled with Egyptian
symbols that were commonly used in Phoenicia at this time, has
lead some scholars to believe that this is the seal of Ahab’s wife,
Queen Jezebel.13
Naboth’s Vineyard
In addition to his palace at Samaria, Ahab also had a “palace” at
Jezreel, about 21 miles north of the capital city. Next to this
palace, was vineyard owned by a man named Naboth, which
Ahab coveted. Jezebel arranged for Naboth to be killed and
Ahab became the owner of the vineyard (1 Kgs 21:1-16).
Jezreel_Aerial_Easts
An aerial view of Jezreel. The remains of a four (or six)
chambered gate can be seen on the right (south side). The
construction of the royal military compound has been dated to
the reigns of King Omri and Ahab. Photo:
https://www.biblewalks.com/tellyizreel
Excavations at Jezreel have identified an Iron Age IIB (900–700
B.C.) military fortress on the upper tell.14 In 1 Kings 21:1-2, we
read that Naboth’s vineyard was located near King Ahab’s
“palace.” The Hebrew word for palace is heikal, not the word
that is normally used for a palace: armon. A heikel is a large,
important building of military or religious nature. Jezreel was
18
the place Israel mustered her army, and thus the heikal was
likely the fortress of Ahab.15
ahab-tel-jezreel-winery
This ancient rock-hewn winery is located at the foot of Tel
Jezreel,. Visible are the treading floor (forefront), vats and other
functional pits. Its location indicates it may be connected with
Naboth’s vineyard (1 Kgs 21). Photo: Courtesy of the Jezreel
Expedition.
The most recent excavators – Norma Franklin of the University
of Haifa and Jennie Ebeling of the University of Evansville –
have unearthed an ancient winery cut into limestone bedrock at
the foot of Tel Jezreel. Based on comparison with other
wineries in the vicinity and the absence of evidence for a beam
and screw press (a later invention), it is believed that this is an
Iron Age winery.16 Moreover, details in 2 Kings 9 lead to the
conclusion that Naboth’s vineyard was located east of Jezreel on
the main road, the Via Maris. The Tel Jezreel Expedition
unearthed the winery in 2013, and found it east of Jezreel near
where the Via Maris would have run. Because wineries were
located near the vineyards in ancient times, this may indeed be
the remains of Naboth’s vineyard, which King Ahab stole.
Conclusion
The exploits of King Ahab are recorded in four chapters of
Scripture (1 Kings 18, 20-22), more than any other ruler of the
northern Kingdom of Israel.17 Archaeological discoveries
related to King Ahab help provide a background to his life. It is
19
clear that he followed the expansion and building policies of his

father, Omri. Moreover, numerous details that are recorded in
Scripture have been affirmed in the archaeological record. This
helps us understand in greater detail the extent of the northern
Kingdom of Israel in the 9th century BC.
a.1601746703291692/2448427615290259
King Jehoash: An Archaeological Biography
Jehoash was the second of four kings who descended from Jehu
to reign as king of Israel (Jehoahaz, Jehoash, Jeroboam II, and
Zechariah); he ruled from ca. 798-782 BC.1 The Bible
summarizes his reign this way:
In the thirty-seventh year of Joash king of Judah, Jehoash the
son of Jehoahaz began to reign over Israel in Samaria, and he
reigned sixteen years. He also did what was evil in the sight of
the LORD. He did not depart from all the sins of Jeroboam the
son of Nebat, which he made Israel to sin, but he walked in
them. Now the rest of the acts of Joash and all that he did, and
the might with which he fought against Amaziah king of Judah,
are they not written in the Book of the Chronicles of the Kings
of Israel? So Joash slept with his fathers, and Jeroboam sat on
his throne. And Joash was buried in Samaria with the kings of
Israel. (2 Kings 13:10-13)
Jehoash was also called Joash (2 Chr 25:17), and is not to be
confused with the more famous king of Judah also named
20
Joash/Jehoash (2 Kings 12:1, 19). King Jehoash of Israel is

primarily known for three events:
His defeat of Amaziah, King of Judah near Beth Shemesh (2
Chr. 25:21-23)
His interaction with the prophet Elisha, who upon his death bed,
told Jehoash to strike the ground with arrows to symbolize the
number of times he would defeat the king of Aram (2 Kings
13:14-19)
And his subsequent battles against the Arameans (2 Kings
13:24-25).
Numerous archaeological discoveries both confirm Jehoash as
king of Israel and provide the wider historical context that helps
us better understand the world in which he lived.
Jehoash and Assyria
When Jehoash came to the throne, he inherited a kingdom that
had been significantly weakened by the wars of his father.
According to the biblical record, “There was not left to Jehoahaz
an army of more than fifty horsemen and ten chariots and ten
thousand footmen, for the king of Syria had destroyed them and
made them like the dust at threshing.” (2 Kings 13:7).
Shortly after Jehoash began to reign, the Assyrian king, Adad-
Nirari III invaded the western lands.2 A victory stele
(monument) was discovered in 1967 during excavations at Tell
al-Rimah which contains a record of Adad-Nirari III’s
campaign. While its date is unknown, many scholars associate it
21
with Adad-Narari III’s expedition westward in 796 BC.3 It

reads:
The Tell al-Rimah Stele of Adad-Nirari III mentions tribute he
received from “Jehoash the Samarian.” It is on display at the
Iraq Museum in Baghdad. Photo: Osama Shukir Muhammed
Amin FRCP(Glasg) / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 4.0
Adad-Nirari, mighty king, king of the universe, king of Assyria,
son of Šamši-Adad, the king of the universe, king of Assyria,
the son of Šalmaneser, the king of the four quarters. I mustered
my chariots, troops, and camps; I ordered them, to march to the
land of Hatti. In a single year, I subdued the entire land of
Amurru and Hatti. I imposed upon them tax and tribute forever.
I received 2,000 talents of silver, 1,000 talents of copper, 2,000
talents of iron, 3,000 linen garments with multicolored trim –
the tribute of Mari’ – of the land of Damascus. I received the
tribute of Jehoash the Samarian, of the Tyrian ruler and of the
Sidonian ruler.4
Adad-Nirari seems to have subdued and laid a heavy tribute on

“Mari’ – of the land of Damascus,” likely refering to the
Aramean king Hazael, or, more likely, his son Ben Hadad.5
Having seen Assyria’s conquest of Aram, Israel’s arch enemy,
Jehoash of Israel appears to have decided to send tribute to
Adad-Nirari rather than risk a similar fate.6
The Tell al-Rimah stele of Adad-nirari III affirms the historicity
of King Jehoash, and illuminates the historical background of
22
his reign. Assyrian’s defeat of Aram weakened Israel’s northern

neighbor and enemy, a situation which Elisha encouraged
Jehoash to take advantage of.
Jehoash and Aram
Jehoash’s father, Jehoahaz was a wicked king (2 Kings 13:2).
As a result, God allowed the Arameans to attack Israel
repeatedly (2 Kings 13:3), such that “Hazael king of Syria
oppressed Israel all the days of Jehoahaz” (2 Kings 13:22).
The Zakkur Stele records the victory of Zakkur, king of Hamath
over a coalition of kings led by “Bar-Hadad, son of Hazael, king
of Damascus. It is currently in the Louvre Museum in France.
Photo: Rama / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 20 fr
When the prophet Elisha was close to death, Jehoash came to
mourn his soon passing. Elisha had him shoot an arrow out of
the window to symbolize Israel’s impending victory over the
Arameans at Aphek and then strike arrows on the floor to
signify how many times he would defeat them (2 Kings 13:17-
19). After Elisha’s death, “Jehoash the son of Jehoahaz took
again from Ben-hadad the son of Hazael the cities that he had
taken from Jehoahaz his father in war” (2 Kings 13:25). Ben-
Hadad was no match for an army empowered by Israel’s God,
especially after it had already been weakened by Assyrian
attacks.
Ben-Hadad III is attested on the Zakkur Inscription, in which
Zakkur, king of Hamath, declares his victory over a
23
confederation of 17 city-states led by “Bar-Hadad, son of

Hazael, king of Damascus.”7
The site of Aphek is difficult to identify, in part because there
were multiple cities named Aphek in biblical times.8 Some have
associated Aphek of Aram with Tel En Gev and/or the nearby
fortress of Tel Soreg. Both have destructions layers dating to the
9th/8th century BC, which have been attributed to either Adad-
Nariri III of Assyria or Jehoash of Israel.9
Jehoash and Judah
Jehoash was originally an ally of Amaziah, king of Judah. At
one point, Amaziah hired 100,000 soldiers from Israel for 100
talents of silver to assist him in battle (2 Chr. 25:6). A prophet
then told Amaziah not to go to battle along side the Israelites, so
he discharged them. The Israelite soldiers “became very angry
with Judah and returned home in fierce anger,” raiding the cities
of Judah as they went (2 Chr. 25:10, 13).
Sometime later, Amaziah sent a challenge to the king of Israel to

meet him in battle. Jehoash responded, “A thistle on Lebanon
sent to a cedar on Lebanon, saying, ‘Give your daughter to my
son for a wife,’ and a wild beast of Lebanon passed by and
trampled down the thistle. You say, ‘See, I have struck down
Edom,’ and your heart has lifted you up in boastfulness. But
now stay at home. Why should you provoke trouble so that you
fall, you and Judah with you?” (2 Chr. 25:18-19). Amaziah
would not be swayed, however, and the armies of Judah and
24
Israel met at the Battle of Beth Shemesh. The biblical account

records:
And Judah was defeated by Israel, and every man fled to his
home. And Jehoash king of Israel captured Amaziah king of
Judah, the son of Jehoash, son of Ahaziah, at Beth-shemesh, and
came to Jerusalem and broke down the wall of Jerusalem for
four hundred cubits, from the Ephraim Gate to the Corner Gate.
And he seized all the gold and silver, and all the vessels that
were found in the house of the LORD and in the treasuries of
the king’s house, also hostages, and he returned to Samaria (2
Kings 14:12-14).
An aerial view of Beth Shemsh (located in the center). The
Battle of Beth Shemesh, fought between the armies of Amaziah,
king of Judah and Jehoash, king of Israel, occurred near this site.
This photo is part of the Photo Companion to the Bible – 1
Samuel. It is an excellent resource from Tood Bolen at
BiblePlaces.com: https://www.bibleplaces.com/1samuel-photo-
companion-to-the-bible/
Jehoash’s Kingdom
Kuntillet ‘Ajrud. Photo: Tel Aviv University Institute of
Archaeology
Jehoash was known for “his might” (2 Kings 14:15), and his
kingdom expanded northward with his victory over the
Aramaeans and to the south with his victory over Judah.
Evidence for this expansion was discovered at Kuntillet ‘Ajrud,
a fortress that acted as a cultic site on the southern border of
25
Judah. Despite its southerly location, it has been identified as an

Israelite site, based in part on the personal names discovered
there. Most of the names uncovered end with a theophoric
element (a reference to a deity – in this case Yahweh) spelled
“yo” as was common in Israel, rather than “yahu” as it was
usually spelled in Judah.10 Moreover, there is also an
inscription that references “Yahweh of Samaria.”11 A painting
of a seated king was discovered on plaster remains in one of the
structures. Due to the dating of the site and the geo-political
setting, some have suggested it is an image of King Jehoash
himself.12 There is no accompanying inscription, so such an
identification is speculative, but if it is correct, this would be
only the second image of a Hebrew King yet discovered (the
first being that of Jehu on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III).
The portrait of a seated king, reconstructed from plaster remains

recovered at Kuntillet ‘Ajrud. Some believe this to be an image
of Jehoash, king of Israel. Photo: Wikimedia Commons / CC
BY-SA 4.0 / from Beck et. al – Pirhiya Beck (1982) The
Drawings from Horvat Teiman (Kuntillet ‘Ajrud), Tel Aviv, 9:1,
3-68
Conclusion
Archaeological discoveries have affirmed the historicity of
Jehoash, king of Israel, and implicitly support the biblical
description of his military might. Further, the Assyrian records
26
shed light on the geo-political in the 8th century that provides

the background to Jehoash’s reign. Once again we see the
accuracy of the Bible in its description of historical details.
a.1601746703291692/2428856827247338
King Omri: An Archaeological Biography
Omri
During the period in Jewish history known as the Divided
Monarchy, the formerly united Hebrew nation split into to two
kingdoms: the kingdom of Israel in the north and the kingdom
of Judah in the south. In our series of bioarchaeographies, we
explored the lives of King Ahaz and King Hezekiah of Judah;
we now turn our attention to King Omri, one of the most
powerful northern kings.
Omri was originally the commander of the army of the north at a

time when there was much instability in the kingdom of Israel.
King Elah had reigned for two years when he was assassinated
at his palace in Tirzah by his chariot commander, Zimri, who
took the throne for himself (1 Kgs 16:10). He had reigned only
seven days, when the people rebelled. Word of Zimri’s coup
reached the army and they made Omri king over Israel (1 Kgs
16:16). They immediately besieged the city of Tirzah, and
Zimri, who saw that the end was near, set fire to the royal palace
and burned it down upon himself, perishing in the blaze (1 Kgs
16:18). Omri’s rule as king was initially contested, as half the
27
people of Israel supported Tibni the son of Ginath. With his

military support, Omri overcame Tibni, who was slain, and
solidified his hold on the throne (1 Kgs 16:22). With Omri’s
reign (ca. 885-874 BC1) came a period of stability for Israel,
and the kingdom began to expand.
While Omri proved to be a powerful king politically, he was a
wicked king spiritually. Scripture records:
In the thirty-first year of Asa king of Judah, Omri began to reign
over Israel, and he reigned for twelve years; six years he reigned
in Tirzah. He bought the hill of Samaria from Shemer for two
talents of silver, and he fortified the hill and called the name of
the city that he built Samaria, after the name of Shemer, the
owner of the hill. Omri did what was evil in the sight of the
LORD, and did more evil than all who were before him. For he
walked in all the way of Jeroboam the son of Nebat, and in the
sins that he made Israel to sin, provoking the LORD, the God of
Israel, to anger by their idols (1 Kgs 16:23-26).
Omri at Tirzah
tell-el-fara
Tell el-Farah, identified as biblical Tirzah. Photo: Jose G.
Gomez, http://www.tellelfara.com
When Omri became king, the capital of Israel was based at
Tirzah, and he reigned there for six years. This ancient city has
been identified with Tell el-Far’ah, and was excavated by the
École Biblique et Archéologique Française from 1946-1960
under the direction of Roland de Vaux.2 The city that Omri
28
besieged was Stratum VIIb, which showed evidence of having

been destroyed by fire.3 Omri apparently began to rebuild the
palace, which was exposed during excavations. Archaeologist,
Dr. Bryant Wood, explains:
The main building consisted of a central courtyard surrounded
by three large rooms. The walls were faced with stone on both
sides and were reinforced on the front and at the corners by
pilasters. A pilaster is a rectangular support projecting partially
from the wall, with a base, shaft and capital. The structure was
well built, using fine-dressed masonry, some of which was
finished with a boss, or smoothed area, on the edges. The
stones’ oblique dressing resembles that of the masonry in the
palace at Samaria, also constructed by Omri. Strangely enough,
the building was never finished. Construction was abruptly
halted as evidenced by abandoned building materials, partly
dressed stones, and the absence of…It appears that construction
was discontinued halfway through Omri’s reign when work
began on the new capital, Samaria.4
In 2017 a group from the University of A Coruna and the
NOVA University of Lisbon conducted a new dig; you can read
about their finds here: https://www.tellelfara.com/campaign-
2017. You can also view photos from the earlier excavations of
the site here: https://npaph.com/sites/tell-el-farah-tirzah/.
Omri at Samaria
samaria
29
The remains of Omri’s palace, expanded by his son, Ahab, are

visible on the acropolis of Samaria. Photo: Todd Bolen,
BiblePlaces.com
Northern_views._The_excavations_at_Samaria._Ruins_of_Omr
i's_Palace_LOC_matpc.22584
A photo from the early 1900’s of the excavation of Omri/Ahab’s
palace at Samaria. Photo: Library of Congress /
http://loc.gov/pictures/resource/matpc.22584/
Omri moved his capital to Samaria and built a palace at the top
of the hill be had purchased from Shemer. The site was first
excavated by the Harvard Expedition from 1908-1910. They
focused on the highest part of the hill in an effort to unearth the
city that Omri had built.5 The excavators discovered a palatial
structure at the pinnacle of the summit which they identified as
the “Palace of Omri.” They explained their findings this way:
The oldest part, the core structure, was built on a pinnacle of
rock made by cutting away the sides of the hill to form an
artificial scarp from one to two metres high all around the
summit… The stones are roughly dressed, massive blocks, and
the walls are thick and heavy…It is assigned to Omri, because it
is the earliest of the three structures constituting the Israelite
Palace.6
Archaeologist, Dr. Norma Franklin, offers this description of
Omri’s palace:
The original extent of the palace building is unknown, but the
west-facing scarp is c. 80 m. long from north to south, and the
30
south-facing scarp c. 150 m. long. The actual palace building

may have extended as far as the north-facing scarp, all traces of
which were eradicated by later Hellenistic and Roman quarrying
and subsequent building. Alternatively, there may have been an
elevated forecourt between the palace and the north-facing
scarp. This elevated forecourt may have had rock-cut steps that
led down to the lowerlevel bedrock courtyard that was situated
between the north-facing scarp and the large grape treading
area.7
OmrideWallSamaria
This Israelite wall at Samaria dates to the 9th century BC (ie. the
reign of Omri and Ahab). Photo: Carl Rasmussen,
http://www.HolyLandPhotos.org
Omri’s royal palace, large courtyard and smaller royal buildings
were later expanded and renovated by his son, Ahab. According
to Ron E. Tappy, “Throughout its existence, Samaria remained
small in size—more a royal compound than a multifaceted
city….Until the fall of Israel in 721 B.C.E., Samaria remained
that kingdom’s political hub.”8
Omri Inscriptions
Omri is mentioned in numerous Ancient Near Eastern
inscriptions. The most extensive of these is the famous Mesha
Stele (or Moabite Stone), in which the Moabite king, Mesha,
describes his accomplishments. In it, he describes how Omri
had expanded the kingdom of Israel and subjugated Moab,
before he had thrown off Israel’s oppression:
31
Mesha_Stela_or_Moabite_Stone,_plaster_replica_of_original_i
n_the_Louvre,_inscribed_in_Moabite,_Dibon,_9th_century_BC
,_basalt_original_-_Harvard_Semitic_Museum_-
_Cambridge,_MA_-_DSC06025
The Moabite Stone or Mesha Stela. Photo credit: Daderot /
Wikimedia Commons / CC-BY-SA-3.0 /
[3] Omri was the king of Israel, and he oppressed Moab for
many days, for Kemoš was angry with his land. And his son
succeeded him, and he said – he too – “I will oppress Moab!” In
my days he did so, but I looked down on him and on his house,
and Israel has gone to ruin, yes, it has gone to ruin for ever!
[4] Omri had taken possession of the whole land of Medeba and
he lived there in his days and half the days of his son, forty
years, but Kemoš restored it in my days.9
Omri is also mentioned on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser
III. This inscription details how Jehu, King of Israel, brought
tribute to Shalmaneser. The accompany relief appears to show
Jehu bowing before Shalmaneser. In the inscription, Jehu is
called, “Son of Omri,” which, in this case, means he was the
“successor” to the Omride dynasty, not a “son” in the literal
sense.
BlackObeliskBritishMuseum
A panel from the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III. The
cuneiform inscription above the relief says, “The tribute of Jehu
son of Omri: I received from him silver…” Photo: British
Museum / CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
32
Finally, even 100 years after Omri’s dynasty came to an end, the
territory of Israel was still referred to as “Omri-land” in
Assyrian Inscriptions. In ca. 732 BC, Tiglath-Pileser III invaded
Israel and took many captives. In his Annalistic Records he
boasted, “Israel (lit . : “Omri-Land” Bit Humria) . . . all its
(and) their possessions I led to Assyria.”10 Over a decade later,
Sargon II described how he defeated Israel and took its citizens
into captivity: “I conquered and sacked the towns Shinuhtu
(and) Samaria, and all Israel (lit. : “Omri-Land” Bit Hu-um-ri-
ia).”11
Summary
Omri’s reign is described in only 12 verses in Scripture, which
detail how he took the throne and established his new capital at
Samaria. Other events from his reign were chronicled in
another ancient book, called the Book of the Annals of the
Kings of Israel (1 Kgs 16:27), but we no longer have this work.
One of the ways in which archaeology is helpful is in providing
the historical background to the biblical text. In Omri’s case,
we have learned that he was a powerful king, whose dynasty
stabilized the northern Kingdom, albeit for a few short decades,
and who expanded his territory into Moab during his reign.
Furthermore, the archaeological remains at Tirzah and Samaria
affirm details in the biblical text about Omri’s building
campaigns.
The NIV Archaeological Study Bible concludes, “Omri was an
enormously famous and successful king, yet the Bible pays him
virtually no attention. Political success, in the eyes of the
33
biblical writers, counted for very little if an individual had

turned away from God.”12
Appendix – King Omri in Moabite and Cuneiform
Omri.melek.israel
“Omri, king of Israel” as mentioned in the Moabite inscription
on the Moabite Stone (Mesha Stele). Photo: Brave heart /
Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain
Omri Inscription
Inscription from the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, which
mentions “Jehu, son of Omri…” Photo:
http://www.katapi.org.uk/BAndS/BlackObelisk2.html
Title Photo: Moabite Stone (Mesha Stele) from the
Encyclopaedia Biblica (1903). Credit: Wikimedia Commons /
Public Domain
a.1601746703291692/2423326217800399
Herod Antipas: An Archaeological Biography
Antipas
HASTA ACA AJUSTADO
When Herod the Great died, his kingdom was divided among
his sons by Caesar Augustus. Herod Antipater, better known as
34
Antipas, was granted the right to rule Galilee and Perea. He was
given the title of Tetrarch (“ruler of a quarter”), although he was
sometimes known as King Herod, as his father had been (Mk
6:14). Antipas ruled from Herod the Great’s death in either 4BC
or 1 BC1 until he was deposed by Caligula in AD 39.
Since he governed Galilee during the years of Jesus’ ministry,

Antipas was the Herod Jesus knew.2 Christ once called him
“that fox” (Lk 13:32), and eventually stood trial before him,
although he refused to respond to his questioning (Lk 23:9).
Herod Antipas and John the Baptist

Herod Antipas is arguably most famous for beheading John the
Baptist. The prophet had been publicly criticizing him for
divorcing his first wife, the daughter of the Nabatean king,
Aretas IV, in order to marry Herodias, the wife of his brother
Herod Philip I3 (Mt 14:1-5; Josephus Antiquities 18.5.1). While
Antipas wanted to kill the Baptizer, he feared the people, who
revered John as a prophet, and chose to imprison him instead.
Some time later, we read of the infamous event.
But when Herod’s birthday came, the daughter of Herodias

danced before the company and pleased Herod, so that he
promised with an oath to give her whatever she might ask.
Prompted by her mother, she said, “Give me the head of John
35
the Baptist here on a platter.” And the king was sorry, but
because of his oaths and his guests he commanded it to be
given. He sent and had John beheaded in the prison, and his
head was brought on a platter and given to the girl, and she
brought it to her mother. (Mt 14:6-11)
800px-Machaerus_Panorama
Herod Antipas’ citadel-fortress of Machaerus. Photo: Tbantle /
Josephus also describes the beheading of John, and adds an
important detail: this occurred at his desert fortress of
Machaerus, located in modern-day Jordan, on the eastern edge
of the Dead Sea.4 Various excavations have been carried out at
Machaerus, most recently by archeologist Győ ző Vörös and a
team from the Hungarian Academy of Arts.5 They have
revealed the remains of the Herodian palace, along with its
many rooms, 30-foot tall walls, a 50-foot deep cistern, and a
monumental mikvah (ritual baptismal bath). The very spot of
Herod Antipas’s infamous birthday party has also been
discovered: a formal peristyle courtyard that was once
surrounded with porticoes on all sides. It is even possible to
identify the place where the Antipas would have been seated, in
a semi-circular apse, with his throne in the axial center of the
courtyard.6 Vörös has concluded, “The historical data of the
Antiquities on John’s arrest and jail by Tetrarch Herod Antipas
is attested by all the Gospels, and their accounts are consistent
with and complement that of Josephus.”7
36
Antipas’ divorce and remarriage ultimately led to a disastrous

war between his army and that of Aretas IV. Josephus records
that it the Jews “thought that the destruction of Herod’s army
came from God: and that very justly, as a punishment of what he
did against John that was called the baptist.”8
Machaerus5
A September 2006 aerial photograph of the unguarded and
abandoned archaeological site of Machaerus, with its unfinished
monument-presentation project. The physical status of the
citadel, before the Hungarian Mission launched the work in July
2009 (APAAME_20060910_DLK-0145). View from the north-
east. Photo: David Kennedy
The Coins of Herod Antipas
As Tetrarch of Galilee, Herod Antipas had the right to mint his
own coins. The archaeological record reveals that he actually
minted relatively few coins during his reign. Morten Hørning
Jensen notes, “Herod Antipas’s coinage is telling for the impact
(or lack of it) that he had on Galilee. In his 43 years as a ruler,
he issued only five series of coins. And the first was not issued
until his 24th regnal year. Moreover, all of them were small in
number.”9
37
According to numismatist, Arthur L. Friedberg, “His coins were

generally of one basic design: a palm branch on the obverse and
a Greek inscription within the wreath, usually a variation of
Herod Tetrarch, on the other. On a few coins, the inscription is
the name of the city of Tiberius, meant to commemorate it’s
founding.”10 Unlike is brother Philip, who was the first
Herodian rule to feature images of emperors, and even himself,
on his coins, Herod Antipas observed the ban against graven
images so as not to offend his Jewish subjects.
Herod_Antipas
A coin of Herod Antipas, dated to year 34 (AD 30). Photo: CNG
coins / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0
The Inscriptions of Herod Antipas
Antipas Inscription
An inscription from Kos, Greece, which commemorates Herod
Antipas. Photo: Harvard Image Library / CC BY 4.0
Two inscriptions on the Greek Islands of Kos and Delos refer to
Herod Antipas, and indicate that they once accompanied statues
in his honor. The inscription on Kos reads, “Herod, the son of
Herod the King, tetrarch…” The Delos inscription bears a
similar inscription and was once part of a roofed gateway to the
temple of Apollo, indicating he was involved in improving that
structure.11 Jensen observes, “Antipas’ worries about adhering
to the ban against images are put in perspective by two
38
monumental inscriptions found at Cos and Delos, respectively…

revealing how Antipas took part in the regular Greco-Roman
cult practice outside Galilee.”12
The Building Projects of Herod Antipas

Herod Antipas built the city of Tiberias (mentioned in Luke
6:23) to replace Sepphoris as his capital, likely completing the
work around AD 23.13 It was constructed according to the
Greco-Roman conventions of the day, including a forum and
public baths. Antipas also constructed a synagogue for the
Jewish inhabitants of the city.14 Excavations of first-century
Tiberias have unearthed a stone road, a city gate, and a stadium.
Antipas was not the builder his father was, and aside from
Sepphoris and Tiberias, his projects were limited.15
TiberiasGate
The gate complex of Tiberias with the Sea of Galilee in the
background. The gate is to the left of the bridge. Byzantine city
walls were incorporated into the Roman gate. Photo: Photo
courtesy of Biblewalks.com /
https://www.biblewalks.com/Tiberias_South_Gate
Summary
39
The historical and archaeological evidence suggests that Herod

Antipas walked a fine line between pacifying his devoutly
Jewish subjects and encouraging Greco-Roman culture and
life.16 The way in which he “played both sides of the fence,”
seeking to appease both Jews and Romans may be, in part,
behind Jesus’ contemptuous response when people told him that
Herod wanted to kill him: “Go tell that fox, ‘I will drive out
demons and heal people today and tomorrow, and on the third
day I will reach my goal.’” (Lk 13:32).
a.1601746703291692/2402577536541934
King Ahaz: An Archaeological Biography
Ahaz 2
It has been noted by various scholars, that during the divided

monarchy, the kings of Judah are generally righteous while the
kings of Israel are generally wicked. There are always
exceptions to generalities and the subject of our next
bioarchaeography is one of those exceptions. While King Ahaz
ruled the southern kingdom of Judah, he was one of the most
wicked kings to sit on the throne. Scripture records:
40
Ahaz was twenty years old when he began to reign, and he

reigned sixteen years in Jerusalem. And he did not do what was
right in the eyes of the LORD, as his father David had done, but
he walked in the ways of the kings of Israel. He even made
metal images for the Baals, and he made offerings in the Valley
of the Son of Hinnom and burned his sons as an offering,
according to the abominations of the nations whom the LORD
drove out before the people of Israel. And he sacrificed and
made offerings on the high places and on the hills and under
every green tree. (2 Chr 28:1-4)
Ahaz began to rule in a co-regency with his father, Jotham, in

ca. 735 BC, and officially took the throne as a sole ruler in ca.
732 BC.1 He is remembered most for his wickedness, his war
against Israel (2 Kgs 16:5-8) and his collaboration with Assyria
(2 Kgs 16:7-9).
Religious Reforms
Beersheba-four-horned-altar-replica-tb110702422-bibleplaces
A replica of the four-horned altar discovered at Beersheba.
Photo: Todd Bolen, BiblePlaces.com
In order to understand how far King Ahaz and his people had
wandered from their worship of Yahweh alone, it is helpful to
look at the religious reforms instituted by his son, King
Hezekiah. [Hot Link] Hezekiah “removed the high places and
41
broke the pillars and cut down the Asherah.” (2 Kgs 18:4) This
intentional destruction and desecration is visible in the
archaeological record. While scholars have highlighted this
evidence in relation to Hezekiah’s reforms, it also testifies to the
apostasy that was present under his father, Ahaz.
Lachish Toilet IAA

This stone toilet, discovered in a gate-shrine at Lachish, is
evidence of intentional desecration during the reign of Hezekiah.
Photo: Israel Antiquities Authority
During the reign of King Ahaz, there were shrines and alters
throughout Judah which appear to be part of an official Judhite
cult under royal control.2 The archaeological remains show that
these were systematically destroyed and desecrated during the
reign of King Hezekiah. The altar at Arad was abolished, and
the sacred area dismantled and buried.3 At Beersheba, a large,
horned altar was dismantled and its horns reused in the
construction of a public storehouse that was built when the
Assyrian army threatened Judah in 701 BC.4 At Lachish,
archaeologists discovered an eighth-century cultic site within the
city gate with the remains of two four-horned altars with horns
intentionally broken off. They also discovered a stone toilet,
suggesting an intentional desecration of the gate-shrine (2 Kg
10:27).5 These findings suggest that the cultic activities which
flourished under King Ahaz were stamped out under King
Hezekiah’s reforms.
42
Bulla and Seal

Ahaz Bulla
The bulla (clay seal impression) of King Ahaz. Photo: The
Madain Project,
https://madainproject.com/list_of_seals_found_in_israel
In 1995, a bulla (clay seal impression) dating to the eighth
century BC was discovered in the possession of an antiquities
dealer by Robert Deutsch.6 It contains a Hebrew inscription set
on three lines which reads, “Belonging to Ahaz (son of)
Yehotam, King of Judah.”7 A fingerprint is on the left edge of
the bulla which may belong to King Ahaz himself. On the back
of the bulla, one can still see the imprint of the texture of
papyrus and the double string which secured the document that
was sealed. While artifacts from the antiquities market are often
forgeries and the provenance of this artifact is unknown, most
scholars agree that this is authentic as bullae are so difficult to
fake. The Ahaz bulla is currently part of Shlomo Moussaieff’s
private collection in London.
An eighth-century seal, that was purchased on the antiquities

market around 1940, is another direct link to King Ahaz. The
orange carnelian scaraboid seal once belonged to one of his
royal officials. In addition to Egyptian iconography, it bears an
ancient Hebrew inscription that reads, “Belonging to Ushna
servant of Ahaz.”8 It is currently housed in
43
the Babylon Collection of Yale University.
Ushna Seal servant of Ahaz

The seal of Ushha, servant of King Ahaz. Photo: Yale
University Library – Seals From The Babylonian Collection
Assyrian Inscription
Early in his reign, Ahaz faced a significant crisis. Rezen, King
of Syria and Pekah, king of Israel attacked Judah with the goal
of removing Ahaz from power and placing the son of Tabeel on
the throne (Is 7:6). Even though the prophet Isaiah urged Ahaz
to trust in the Lord, he turned to Assyria for help. Scripture
records:
So Ahaz sent messengers to Tiglath-pileser king of Assyria,

saying, “I am your servant and your son. Come up and rescue
me from the hand of the king of Syria and from the hand of the
king of Israel, who are attacking me.” Ahaz also took the silver
and gold that was found in the house of the LORD and in the
treasures of the king’s house and sent a present to the king of
Assyria. And the king of Assyria listened to him. (2 Kgs 16:7-
9a)
This tribute has been confirmed in Assyrian records. When the

palace of Tiglath-Pileser III was unearthed in 1873, numerous
44
inscriptions summarizing the king’s accomplishments were

discovered. One tablet, called the Annals of Tiglath Pileser III
(Summary Inscription Seven), lists a group of kings in Syria and
Palestine who paid him tribute of “gold, silver, tin, multi-
colored garments, linen garments, red-purple wool, [all kinds of]
costly articles, produce of the sea (and) dry land, the
commodities of their lands, royal treasures, horses (and) mules
broken to the yo[ke]…”9 Among the kings listed is “Jeohahaz
the Judahite.” (In Assyrian Inscription Ahaz is referred to as
Jehoahaz, his longer name, with a theophoric prefix – the Bible
simply refers to him by his shortened name).10 The inscription
affirms that Ahaz did indeed offer tribute to Tiglath-Pileser III,
although the biblical inventory lists only the most precious items
of gold and silver.
Tiglath Pileser Summary Statement 7 British Museum

The Annals of Tiglath-Pileser III (Summary Statement Seven).
Photo Credit: THe British Museum / CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
Summary
Archaeology helps provide the historical background to the
turbulent political times that King Ahaz ruled in. Moreover, his
historicity has been affirmed through multiple bullae and the
major events in his life are attested in the archaeological record.
Sadly, he is primarily associated with wickedness and
stubbornness in turning to the King of Assyria, rather than to
God, for help.
45
a.1601746703291692/2372627769536911
Agrippa I: An Archaeological Biography
Agrippa I
We’ve learned about two of the Herodian Rulers in our

bioarchaeographies thus far: Herod Agrippa II, who was the
ruler before whom the Apostle Paul made his defense in Acts
25-26, and Herod Antipas, who killed John the Baptist (Mt 6:17)
and interviewed Jesus before his crucifixion (Lk 23:9). In this
archaeological biography, we’ll explore the life of Herod
Agrippa I.
Herod Agrippa I was called Agrippa the Great even in his own
day.1 He was the grandson of Herod the Great, and, through his
friendship with the Roman imperial family, was granted the
realms of Philip the Tetrarch and Herod Antipas under Caligula,
and eventually the kingdom of his grandfather by Claudius.2
Thus, he ruled over various realms from AD 37 until his death
in AD 44.
Agrippa in Historical Sources

Agrippa I Claudius Coin
46
A coin minted by Agrippa I bears laureate head of Tiberius and

the inscription, “King Agrippa the Great, Friend of the
Emperor.” Photo: Courtesy of Fritz Rudolf Künker GmbH &
Co. KG, Osnabrück; Lübke & Wiedemann KG, Leonberg,
http://www.kuenker.com
Agrippa was on intimate terms with Rome, but also devout in
his Judaism, which made him popular with his Jewish subjects.
Josephus records an edict in which Claudius calls Agrippa a
person “very dear” to him.3 He also writes that Agrippa
ingratiated himself to the Jewish people when “he returned the
kindness which the inhabitants of Jerusalem had shewed him.
For he released them from the tax upon houses, every one of
which paid it before: thinking it a good thing to requite the
tender affection of those that loved him.”4
This desire to please the Jewish people is also seen in his

persecution of the early Christian leaders, as described in the
book of Acts:
“It was about this time that King Herod arrested some who
belonged to the church, intending to persecute them. He had
James, the brother of John, put to death with the sword. When
he saw that this pleased the Jews, he proceeded to seize Peter
also. This happened during the Feast of Unleavened Bread.”
(Acts 12:1-3)
47
Agrippa was a skilled diplomat who knew how to appease both

the Roman Emperor and the Jewish populace, staying in the
good graces of both.
Agrippa’s Coins
Agrippa_I_prutah
A bronze prutah issued by Herod Agrippa I. Photo: Classical
Numismatic Group, Inc. http://www.cngcoins.com / Wikimedia
Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0
Within Jewish territories, Agrippa abided by the ban on graven
images and issued a bronze prutah which featured a royal
umbrella on one side, along with the inscription, “King
Agrippa.”5 The reverse sided displayed three ears of barley and
the date.
Agrippa’s other coins, which were circulated outside of the

predominantly Jewish areas in his realm, bore graven images of
either himself or the emperor. The reverse sides included reliefs
of temples and goddesses. One rare coin featured his bust on
one side and an image of his son, Agrippa II riding a horse on
the reverse.
Agrippa’s Building Campaigns
48
Agrippa was not the builder that his grandfather was; indeed,
none of the Herodian rulers that followed could match Herod the
Great’s impressive construction campaigns. He was, however, a
great builder in his own right, and is perhaps most famous for
two building campaigns in particular.
Josephus records that Agrippa initiated significant building

projects in the city of Berytus (modern-day Beruit, Lebanon).
He writes:
“Now as Agrippa was a great builder in many places, he paid a

peculiar regard to the people of Berytus. For he erected a theater
for them, superior to many others of that sort, both in
sumptuousness and elegance: as also an amphitheater, built at
vast expenses: and besides these, he built them baths and
porticos; and spared for no costs in any of his edifices, to render
them both handsome and large.”6
Some ruins from Roman-era Berytus can still be seen in the

center of Beruit today.
Roman_baths_beirut_AKKhalifeh_30
The remains of Roman baths at Berytus (modern-day Beirut.
Photo: A.K.Khalifeh / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0
49
Josephus also describes a new wall, which he called the Third

Wall, that Agrippa built to protect the northern part of the city as
it grew. Agrippa did not complete this wall, however, as he was
afraid the emperor Claudius would think he was preparing the
city for a rebellion. Josephus writes:
It was Agrippa who encompassed the parts added to the old city
with this wall: which had been all naked before. For as the city
grew more populous, it gradually crept beyond its old limits:
and those parts of it that stood northward of the temple, and
joined that hill to the city, made it considerably larger….Since
therefore its inhabitants stood in need of a covering, the father of
the present King, and of the same name with him, Agrippa,
began that wall we spoke of. But he left off building it when he
had only laid the foundations; out of the fear he was in of
Claudius Cæsar: lest he should suspect that so strong a wall was
built in order to make some innovation in public affairs.7
This wall was eventually completed by the Jewish insurgents of

the Great Revolt who realized they needed protection after a
Roman attack burned the undefended northern part of the city.
Agrippa Third Wall

A section of the Third Wall excavated by Sukenik and Mayer.
50
The location of Agrippa’s Third Wall has been the matter of

debate for many years. Edwin Robinson identified the remains
of an ancient wall north of the Old City as the Third Wall. It
was excavated from 1925-1927 by E.L Sukenik and L.A.
Mayer, who concluded it was indeed Agrippa’s Third Wall.8 It
was excavated again in 1965 by Kathleen Kenyon; while she
never published an excavation report in her lifetime, she
nevertheless concluded it was the siege wall (also known as a
circumvallation wall), built by the Roman general, Titus.9 From
1972-1974, the wall was again excavated, this time by Sara Ben-
Arieh and Ehud Netzer. In an article published in the Israel
Exploration Journal they concluded, “We can certainly ascribe
this [wall section] to Josephus’s ‘Third Wall.’”10
More recently, excavations in Jerusalem’s downtown Russian

Compound revealed the remains of a tower jutting out from an
ancient wall. On the western side of the tower, numerous
ancient ballista and sling stones fired from Roman catapults
during the Jewish Revolt were discovered on the ground.
Archaeologists have suggested it is part of Agrippa’s Third
Wall.11
Agrippa’s Death
Agrippa’s death is recorded by the historians Luke and

Josephus. Both accounts appear to have independent sources,
51
and agree at numerous points, although Josephus’ description is

more detailed.
Luke records the incident as occurring at Caesarea (Acts 12:19)

and says, “On an appointed day Herod put on his royal robes,
took his seat upon the throne, and delivered an oration to them.
And the people were shouting, ‘The voice of a god, and not of a
man!’ Immediately an angel of the Lord struck him down,
because he did not give God the glory, and he was eaten by
worms and breathed his last.” (Acts 12:21-23).
Israel Aerial View

Caesarea Maritima – The remains of Herod the Great’s seaside
palace can be seen in the middle of the photo jutting out into the
sea. The amphitheater is to the left and the theater is to the right.
Photo: Courtesy of Ferrell Jenkins,
https://ferrelljenkins.blog/2012/11/27/acts-24-photo-
illustrations-caesarea/
Compare Luke’s account with Josephus’:
Now when Agrippa had reigned three years over all Judea, he
came to the city Cesarea; which was formerly called Strato’s
tower. And there he exhibited shews, in honour of Cesar, upon
his being informed that there was a certain festival celebrated to
52
make vows for his safety. At which festival a great multitude

was gotten together, of the principal persons, and such as were
of dignity through his province. On the second day of which
shews, he put on a garment made wholly of silver, and of a
contexture truly wonderful; and came into the theater early in
the morning. At which time the silver of his garment being
illuminated by the fresh reflexion of the suns rays upon it, shone
out after a surprizing manner: and was so resplendent as to
spread an horror over those that looked intently upon him. And
presently his flatterers cried out, one from one place, and
another from another; (though not for his good;) that “He was a
God.” And they added, “Be thou merciful to us. For although we
have hitherto reverenced thee only as a man, yet shall we
henceforth own thee as superior to mortal nature.” Upon this the
King did neither rebuke them, nor reject their impious flattery.
…A severe pain also arose in his belly; and began in a most
violent manner. He therefore looked upon his friends, and said,
“I, whom you call a god, am commanded presently to depart this
life: while providence thus reproves the lying words you just
now said to me. And I who was by you called immortal, am
immediately to be hurried away by death. But I am bound to
accept of what providence allots, as it pleases God. For we have
by no means lived ill: but in a splendid and happy manner.”
When he said this, his pain was become violent. Accordingly he
was carried into the palace: and the rumour went abroad every
where that he would certainly die in a little time.…And when he
had been quite worn out by the pain in his belly, for five days,
he departed this life. Being in the fifty fourth year of his age,
and in the seventh year of his reign.12
53
It is easy to see the points of similarity: Agrippa’s beautiful

robe, the people hailing him as a god, Agrippa accepting their
praise, and suffering an immediate, painful death as a result.
Because of the details in Josephus’ account, it is possible to

pinpoint the exact location of this account. In Caesarea, Herod
Agrippa almost certainly resided in his grandfather’s luxurious
seaside palace. On either side of it was the amphitheater and the
theater. Josephus says it occurred in the theater, and today many
tourists flock to the remains of the theater. However, clues in
his description lead to the conclusion that this event occurred
within the amphitheater, and it is to this structure Josephus is
referring with the imprecise term of “theater.” Todd Bolen has
given three reasons to believe Agrippa accepted the worship of
people in the amphitheater13:
The Time of Day – Josephus specifically says this occurred,

“early in the morning,” when the sun’s rays reflected off of his
dazzling robe. The Theater is west-facing, however, and the
height of the seating makes it improbable that the sun would
have reflected off of his robes in the morning if he was seated in
the position of honor near the stage. The amphitheater on the
other hand, has fewer rows of seating, and the sun’s rays would
have easily reflected off of the king’s robes if he had been in the
western stands.
54
Josephus says Agrippa was in the theater on the “second day” of

a “festival” in “honor of Caesar.” Scholars have suggested that
this was either the quinquennial celebration of the founding of
Caesarea on March 5, AD 44, or a celebration of the emperor
Claudius’ birthday on August 1, AD 44. Both were known to
have included sports as part of the festivities, and, thus, the
amphitheater is the more logical location.
Josephus describes another incident in Caesarea in which Pilate
sat on his tribunal (bema) in the great stadium.14 It is reasonable
to conclude that the bema from which Agrippa addressed the
crowd was still located in the amphitheater a decade later.
The accounts by Josephus and Luke independently corroborate
each other and the various lines of evidence suggest that
Agrippa’s fateful decision to accept the praise of the people as a
god occurred in the amphitheater of Caesarea in AD 44.
Caesarea-S-027
The low seating of the amphitheater would have made it
possible for the sun to shine off of Agrippa’s silver robe in the
early morning light. Photo: Bukvoed / Wikimedia Commons /
GFDL / CC-BY 3.0
CONCLUSION
55
Like many of the Herodian rulers, King Agrippa I sought to

maintain the support of Rome. Unlike his grandfather, Herod
the Great, who was despised by the Jewish people, Agrippa
enjoyed the good will of his subjects and actively sought to seek
their favor. This is reflected in various ancient historical
sources, be they biblical (Luke) or extra-biblical (Josephus).
a.1601746703291692/2365720950227593
Herod Antipas: An Archaeological Biography
Antipas
When Herod the Great died, his kingdom was divided among
his sons by Caesar Augustus. Herod Antipater, better known as
Antipas, was granted the right to rule Galilee and Perea. He was
given the title of Tetrarch (“ruler of a quarter”), although he was
sometimes known as King Herod, as his father had been (Mk
6:14). Antipas ruled from Herod the Great’s death in either 4BC
or 1 BC1 until he was deposed by Caligula in AD 39.
Since he governed Galilee during the years of Jesus’ ministry,

Antipas was the Herod Jesus knew.2 Christ once called him
“that fox” (Lk 13:32), and eventually stood trial before him,
although he refused to respond to his questioning (Lk 23:9).
56
Herod Antipas and John the Baptist

Herod Antipas is arguably most famous for beheading John the
Baptist. The prophet had been publicly criticizing him for
divorcing his first wife, the daughter of the Nabatean king,
Aretas IV, in order to marry Herodias, the wife of his brother
Herod Philip I3 (Mt 14:1-5; Josephus Antiquities 18.5.1). While
Antipas wanted to kill the Baptizer, he feared the people, who
revered John as a prophet, and chose to imprison him instead.
Some time later, we read of the infamous event.
But when Herod’s birthday came, the daughter of Herodias

danced before the company and pleased Herod, so that he
promised with an oath to give her whatever she might ask.
Prompted by her mother, she said, “Give me the head of John
the Baptist here on a platter.” And the king was sorry, but
because of his oaths and his guests he commanded it to be
given. He sent and had John beheaded in the prison, and his
head was brought on a platter and given to the girl, and she
brought it to her mother. (Mt 14:6-11)
800px-Machaerus_Panorama
Herod Antipas’ citadel-fortress of Machaerus. Photo: Tbantle /
57
Josephus also describes the beheading of John, and adds an

important detail: this occurred at his desert fortress of
Machaerus, located in modern-day Jordan, on the eastern edge
of the Dead Sea.4 Various excavations have been carried out at
Machaerus, most recently by archeologist Győ ző Vörös and a
team from the Hungarian Academy of Arts.5 They have
revealed the remains of the Herodian palace, along with its
many rooms, 30-foot tall walls, a 50-foot deep cistern, and a
monumental mikvah (ritual baptismal bath). The very spot of
Herod Antipas’s infamous birthday party has also been
discovered: a formal peristyle courtyard that was once
surrounded with porticoes on all sides. It is even possible to
identify the place where the Antipas would have been seated, in
a semi-circular apse, with his throne in the axial center of the
courtyard.6 Vörös has concluded, “The historical data of the
Antiquities on John’s arrest and jail by Tetrarch Herod Antipas
is attested by all the Gospels, and their accounts are consistent
with and complement that of Josephus.”7
Antipas’ divorce and remarriage ultimately led to a disastrous

war between his army and that of Aretas IV. Josephus records
that it the Jews “thought that the destruction of Herod’s army
came from God: and that very justly, as a punishment of what he
did against John that was called the baptist.”8
Machaerus5
58
A September 2006 aerial photograph of the unguarded and

abandoned archaeological site of Machaerus, with its unfinished
monument-presentation project. The physical status of the
citadel, before the Hungarian Mission launched the work in July
2009 (APAAME_20060910_DLK-0145). View from the north-
east. Photo: David Kennedy
The Coins of Herod Antipas
As Tetrarch of Galilee, Herod Antipas had the right to mint his
own coins. The archaeological record reveals that he actually
minted relatively few coins during his reign. Morten Hørning
Jensen notes, “Herod Antipas’s coinage is telling for the impact
(or lack of it) that he had on Galilee. In his 43 years as a ruler,
he issued only five series of coins. And the first was not issued
until his 24th regnal year. Moreover, all of them were small in
number.”9
According to numismatist, Arthur L. Friedberg, “His coins were

generally of one basic design: a palm branch on the obverse and
a Greek inscription within the wreath, usually a variation of
Herod Tetrarch, on the other. On a few coins, the inscription is
the name of the city of Tiberius, meant to commemorate it’s
founding.”10 Unlike is brother Philip, who was the first
Herodian rule to feature images of emperors, and even himself,
on his coins, Herod Antipas observed the ban against graven
images so as not to offend his Jewish subjects.
59
Herod_Antipas
A coin of Herod Antipas, dated to year 34 (AD 30). Photo: CNG
coins / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0
The Inscriptions of Herod Antipas
Antipas Inscription
An inscription from Kos, Greece, which commemorates Herod
Antipas. Photo: Harvard Image Library / CC BY 4.0
Two inscriptions on the Greek Islands of Kos and Delos refer to
Herod Antipas, and indicate that they once accompanied statues
in his honor. The inscription on Kos reads, “Herod, the son of
Herod the King, tetrarch…” The Delos inscription bears a
similar inscription and was once part of a roofed gateway to the
temple of Apollo, indicating he was involved in improving that
structure.11 Jensen observes, “Antipas’ worries about adhering
to the ban against images are put in perspective by two
monumental inscriptions found at Cos and Delos, respectively…
revealing how Antipas took part in the regular Greco-Roman
cult practice outside Galilee.”12
The Building Projects of Herod Antipas

Herod Antipas built the city of Tiberias (mentioned in Luke
6:23) to replace Sepphoris as his capital, likely completing the
work around AD 23.13 It was constructed according to the
Greco-Roman conventions of the day, including a forum and
60
public baths. Antipas also constructed a synagogue for the

Jewish inhabitants of the city.14 Excavations of first-century
Tiberias have unearthed a stone road, a city gate, and a stadium.
Antipas was not the builder his father was, and aside from
Sepphoris and Tiberias, his projects were limited.15
TiberiasGate
The gate complex of Tiberias with the Sea of Galilee in the
background. The gate is to the left of the bridge. Byzantine city
walls were incorporated into the Roman gate. Photo: Photo
courtesy of Biblewalks.com /
https://www.biblewalks.com/Tiberias_South_Gate
Summary
The historical and archaeological evidence suggests that Herod
Antipas walked a fine line between pacifying his devoutly
Jewish subjects and encouraging Greco-Roman culture and
life.16 The way in which he “played both sides of the fence,”
seeking to appease both Jews and Romans may be, in part,
behind Jesus’ contemptuous response when people told him that
Herod wanted to kill him: “Go tell that fox, ‘I will drive out
demons and heal people today and tomorrow, and on the third
day I will reach my goal.’” (Lk 13:32).
61
a.1601746703291692/2314054235394265
King Jeroboam II: An Archaeological Biography
Almost 150 years after Jeroboam, son of Nebat, broke away

from Judah and was crowned king of the northern tribes of
Israel, Jeroboam II took the throne.
“In the fifteenth year of Amaziah the son of Joash, king of

Judah, Jeroboam the son of Joash, king of Israel, began to reign
in Samaria, and he reigned forty-one years. And he did what
was evil in the sight of the LORD. He did not depart from all the
sins of Jeroboam the son of Nebat, which he made Israel to sin”
(2 Ki 14:23-24).
Jeroboam’s Kingdom
Jeroboam ruled for 41 years in the 8th century BC; this
consisted of a 12-year coregency with his father, Joash/Jehoash
(ca. 793-782 BC), and 29 years of sole reign (ca. 782-753 BC).1
During this time he oversaw a prolonged period of prosperity in
Israel. Despite his wickedness, God spoke to him through the
prophet Jonah, and allowed his kingdom to expand.
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Image: www.bible-history.com
Scripture records that Jeroboam, “restored the border of Israel
from Lebo-hamath as far as the Sea of the Arabah, according to
the word of the LORD, the God of Israel, which he spoke by his
servant Jonah the son of Amittai, the prophet, who was from
Gath-hepher. For the LORD saw that the affliction of Israel was
very bitter, for there was none left, bond or free, and there was
none to help Israel.” (2 Ki 14:45-46)
Assyrian raids had weakened the Aramean kingdom to the

north, creating favorable conditions for Jeroboam to restore the
northern border of Israel.2 It is interesting to note that Jeroboam
expanded the northern border to Lebo-hamath, the same
boundary marking the extent of Solomon’s kingdom(1 Ki 8:65).
Jeroboam’s kingdom not only expanded in territory, it grew in

prosperity. A storehouse at Samaria was a collection point for
oil and wine flowing throughout the kingdom, as evidenced by
the Samaria Ostraca (see below). A massive grain silo dating to
the time of Jeroboam is prominent at Megiddo. It is 11 meters in
diameter and 7 meters deep and would have stored 450 cubic
meters of grain. Two spiral staircases lead to the bottom of the
silo.
63
The grain silo at Megiddo which was likely constructed during

the reign of Jeroboam II. Photo: www.HolyLandPhotos.org
Todd Bolen summarizes Jeroboam’s kingdom this way:
“No king of Israel ruled longer than Jeroboam II, and no dynasty
had as many monarchs sit on the throne as did that of
Jeroboam’s forebear, Jehu. Jeroboam’s rule stands in stark
contrast to that of his predecessors and successors. The half-
century before him witnessed the most violent and trying time of
persecution Israel had ever faced. Beaten down so that they were
like “dust at threshing time,” the apostate rulers of Israel
ultimately sought out even the Lord for salvation (2 Kgs 13:7).
The last half of the ninth century was most unlike the period of
expansion and economic growth that Jeroboam fostered, and the
stability that he established would be unknown after his death.”3
The Samaria Ostraca

In 1910, a group of more than 100 ostraca (pottery fragments
with ink inscriptions) were discovered in excavations at
Samaria, the capital city of the Northern Kingdom. Both the
archaeological stratum in which they were discovered, and the
style of the paleo-Hebrew script indicate they were written in
the 8th century BC.4 They contain receipts of shipments of
wine and oil in and around Samaria in the 9th, 10th, and 15th
64
years of a king, likely Jeroboam II.5 Some scholars have

suggested the ostraca may come from the reigns of two kings,
Joash/Jehoash and then his son, Jeroboam, or may have been
from the reign of Joash/Jeohash while Jeroboam was younger or
serving as co-regent.
A recent study by a multi-disciplinary team at Tel Aviv

university used new image processing and computer learning
techniques to analyze 39 of the Samaria ostraca. They
discovered that only two scribes wrote these ostraca, and both
were located in Samaria, rather than the countryside, indicating
a palace bureaucracy during the reign of Jeroboam II.6
The Samaria Ostraca testify to prosperity during the time of

Jeroboam, and provide information about the administration of
the Northern Kingdom during this period.
Two of the Samaria ostraca: No. 14 (left) and No. 18 (right).

Photo: Tel Aviv University
The Megiddo Seal
65
A replica of the Megiddo Seal of Shema, servant of King

Jeroboam II. Photo: Ferrell Jenkins,
https://ferrelljenkins.blog/2018/07/15/the-shema-seal-from-
megiddo/
The historicity of Jeroboam was established by the discovery of
a seal belonging to an official in his courts. The “Megiddo
Seal,” as it called, was discovered in excavations at Megiddo in
the early 1900’s. The seal was made of jasper, and depicted a
crouching lion, along with the inscription, “(belonging) to
Shema, Servant of Jeroboam.”7 Kenneth Kitchen notes, “The
famous seal of ‘Shema servant [=minister of state] of Jeroboam’
is almost universally recognized to belong to the reign of
Jeroboam II of Israel…attempts to date it to Jeroboam I’s reign
are unconvincing.”8 The seal itself disappeared while being
transported to the Turkish sultan in Constantinople and hasn’t
been seen since; thankfully, a bronze cast was made of the seal
before it was shipped.
The Shema Bulla
The clay impression from a seal of a servant of the Israelite

King Jeroboam II (8th century BC). Photo: Dani Machlis/Ben
Gurion University
In 2020, Ben-Gurion University Professor, Yuval Goren,
claimed to have authenticated a bulla (clay seal impression) of
Shema, servant of Jeroboam.9 The bulla’s impression is almost
66
identical to the much larger Megiddo Seal. It bears the image of

a roaring lion and a paleo-Hebrew inscription, “(Belonging) to
Shema, Servant of Jeroboam.” The clay bulla was purchased in
the 1980’s without provenance from a Bedouin antiquities
dealer, leading many to believe it was a forgery. However,
Goren claimed to have developed a strict set of testing protocols
involving a series of overlapping tests from a variety of
disciplines, which led him to conclude the bulla was authentic.
The authentication of the seal impression of Shema, the servant
of Jeroboam, if accurate and properly understood, is another
artifact which affirms the historicity of King Jeroboam II.
The Earthquake in the Days of Jeroboam
A leaning wall at Hazor is evidence of Amos’ earthquake.

Photo: https://www.icr.org/article/scientific-scriptural-impact-
amos-earthquake/
The prophet Amos noted an earthquake that occurred during the
reigns of Uzziah of Judah and Jeroboam of Israel (Amos 1:1).
Archaeological evidence for this earthquake has been found at
sites all around the Levant, including at Hazor, Deir ‘Alia,
Gezer, Lachish, Tell Judeideh, and ‘En Haseva.10
Archaeologists have discovered damaged walls at each of these
sites, including broken ashlars, displaced rows of stones, leaning
or bowed walls, and walls collapsed with sections still lying
course-upon-course. Because this evidence is tightly dated
67
stratigraphically to the middle of the 8th century BC, scholars

believe the there was a single, regional earthquake which
occurred around 750 BC (+/- 30 years).11 This earthquake,
which had a magnitude of up to 8.2, shook cities and damaged
buildings. The event provided Amos with an excellent image to
describe God’s judgment on the people of Israel for their
wickedness. With prosperity came luxury, idolatry, immorality,
corruption, and oppression of the poor throughout the kingdom.
As Steven Austin notes, “Amos spoke of the land being shaken
(Am 8:8), houses being smashed (Am 6:11), altars being
cracked (Am 3:14), and even the Temple at Bethel being struck
and collapsing (Am 9:1). The prophet’s repeated contemporary
references to the earthquake’s effects is why it bears his
name.”12
Conclusion
Jeroboam II ruled the northern Kingdom of Israel for longer
than any other king. Numerous discoveries affirm his historicity
and enlighten our understanding of the administration of his
kingdom. Despite his wickedness, and that of the people he
ruled, God’s graciously spoke to His people through the
prophets Jonah and Amos. The prosperity and stability
experienced by Jeroboam II and the Northern Kingdom are a
testimony to God’s unmerited favor.
68
a.1601746703291692/2307760406023648
Shishak: An Archaeological Biography
Shishak blog
It seems fitting that, having explored the lives of Hebrew,

Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian kings, we should now
consider an Egyptian Pharaoh. While many Pharaohs in the
book of Genesis are not named, following the convention of
Moses’ day, later Pharaohs in Scripture are named, following
the convention at the time of later authors.1 One of the most
prominent Egyptian rulers identified in Scripture is the Pharaoh
Shishak.
Shishak is mentioned in six times in the Bible in connection

with two events. When Jeroboam, son of Nebat, rebelled
against the king, Solomon sought to kill him. In 1 Kings 11:40
we read, “Solomon tried to kill Jeroboam, but Jeroboam fled to
Egypt, to Shishak the king, and stayed there until Solomon’s
death.” Some time later, in the fifth year of King Rehoboam,
Solomon’s son, Pharaoh Shishak attacked Jerusalem (1 Ki 14:25
and 2 Ch 12:2). Because the Jewish leaders humbled
themselves, the prophet Shemaiah brought a word from the
Lord: “Since they have humbled themselves, I will not destroy
them but will soon give them deliverance. My wrath will not be
poured out on Jerusalem through Shishak. They will, however,
69
become subject to him, so that they may learn the difference

between serving me and serving the kings of other lands.” (2 Ch
12:7-8). Instead of conquering the city of Jerusalem, Scripture
records that Shishak carried off the treasures from the Temple
and the royal palace. (2 Ch 12:9).
Sheshonq sphynx2
A Sphynx of Sheshonq (possibly Sheshonq I) in the Brooklyn
Museum. Photo: The Brooklyn Museum / CC BY 3.0
Who is Pharaoh Shishak?
Shoshenq1ScarabPetrie
Scarab of Shoshenq I. Photo: From Scarabs and Cylinders With
Names (1917), by Flinders Petrie / Wikimedia Commons /
Public Domain
Based on linguistic, historical and chronological grounds, nearly
all Egyptologists identify the biblical pharaoh Shishak with
Sheshonq I (also spelled Shoshenq and Sheshonk)2. Some
scholars, using a radically revised Egyptian chronology, have
tried to identify Shishak with Ramesses II (David Rohl) or
Thutmose III (David Down), but these ideas have not been
widely accepted. Linguistically, Sheshonq [Egyptian ššnq] is
virtually identical to Shishak [Hebrew ‫ ִׁש יַׁש ק‬šîšaq], and is
nothing like Ramses or Thutmose.3 While some have objected
that the “n” is dropped from the Egyptian form in the Hebrew
rendering, it is sometimes spelled with and sometimes without
70
the “n” even in Egyptian texts.4 Moreover, Sheshonq I left a

record of his military campaign in Canaan on the Bubastite
Portal at the Great Temple at Karnak, that dates to time the
Bible describes Shishak’s invasion of Judah. Egyptologist,
Kenneth Kitchen, concludes:
Sh. I [Shoshenq I] definitely campaigned in Palestine c. 926 BC,

while in the biblical record, Rehoboam of Judah suffered
Shishak’s invasion from Egypt at this actual date on the best
chronology available. No other Shishak/Shoshenq (of seven!)
did, and there was only one king Rehoboam in Judah. So the
Egyptian historical background and the biblical accounts do
independently correspond in time, persons, and place so far as
the data go.5
Shishak/Sheshonq I was the first Pharaoh of the 22nd Dynasty

and reigned from approximately 945 to 924 BC. He had served
as a general under Psusennes II, the last Pharaoh of the 21st
Dynasty, and appears to have taken the throne without a
struggle.6 Being of Libyan descent, he was not considered a
“true” Egyptian, and his dynasty is sometimes called the Libyan
dynasty.7
Shishak’s Campaign in Canaan

Karnak_Tempel_19
71
In this relief on the wall of the Great Temple at Karnak, the

Pharaoh Shoshenq I (biblical Shishak) listed the places he
conquered in his campaign in Israel and Judah in 926 BC.
Photo: Olaf Tausch / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY 3.0
Near the end of his reign, shortly after King Solomon died,
Shishak invaded the lands of Judah and Israel. Upon returning
to Egypt, he commissioned a record of his success to be
inscribed on a wall of the Great Temple of Amun-Re at Karnak.
Known as the Bubastite Portal, it lists over 150 places he claims
to have conquered in his conquest of the land to the north. Each
“name ring” portrays a bound prisoner with a cartouche beneath
it on which a toponym is listed in Egyptian hieroglyphics. While
some of these name rings have been lost to erosion, many
remain. One of the places that Shishak conquered was
Megiddo. This was confirmed in the 1920’s, when excavators at
Megiddo discovered a fragment of a victory stele that the
Egyptian pharaoh had erected to commemorate his conquest of
the city.8 Other biblical places that Shishak claims to have
conquered include Gibeon, Arad, Gezer, Beth-Shan and the
field of Abraham (possibly Hebron).
Sheshonq stele megiddo

A fragment of Pharaoh Shoshenq’s victory stele found at
Megiddo. Photo:
https://megiddoexpedition.wordpress.com/past-excavations/#jp-
carousel-434
72
What about Jerusalem?

While Shishak’s inscription generally affirms the biblical
description of his invasion of Judah, one of the most difficult
questions to answer is why Jerusalem, which is the only city
mentioned in 1 Kings 14:25, does not seem to be among the
places mentioned on the Bubastite Portal. Several solutions
have been proposed. It could be one of the name rings that has
been lost to erosion; it is known that the row recording the
places in Judah is heavily damaged. Another theory is, that
because Rehoboam gave Shishak the treasures of the Temple
and his royal palace, the city was not destroyed (2 Chron. 12:7-
9). Thus, Rehoboam saved Jerusalem from destruction by
paying tribute to the Egyptian king.9 One final solution has
been proposed by Egyptologist, Kenneth Kitchen. He has
reconstructed name rings 105 and 106 to read, h(y)dbt dwt – the
“Heights or Highlands of Davit” or “Heights of David.”
Kitchen has found confirmation of Davit as an alternate spelling
for David in a sixth-century AD Ethiopic inscription with a clear
reference to King David (from one of his Psalms). He also
notes that the toponyms in the Shishak list are arranged
geographically, and the “Heights of Davit” occurs in a row
which includes sites in southern Judah and the Negev, the same
general area in which David was a fugitive when he was on the
run from Saul. Kitchen claims that, while not certain, there is a
“high degree of possibility” that Shishak claimed to have
conquered an area called the Heights of David, when he invaded
73
Judah in the 10th century BC.10 Some scholars believe that this
may be a reference to the city of Jerusalem.
Heights of David
Some of the place name rings that are listed on the Triumphal
Relief of Shoshenq I at Karnak. Rings 105 and 106 have been
reconstructed by Egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen to read,
“Heights or Highlands of David.” Image: Drawing by Champion
in University of Chicago Oriental Institute Epigraphic Survey
(1954), Reliefs and inscriptions at Karnak: The Bubastite portal,
vol. III. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Political Opportunist
Scripture records that Shishak harbored Jeroboam when he fled
from Solomon (1 Kings 11:40). According to the Bubastite
Portal, after Jeroboam returned and became ruler of the northern
Kingdom, Shishak then invaded Canaan, attacking both the
southern kingdom of Judah and the northern kingdom of Israel.
Some have objected that this discrepancy is evidence of the
Bible’s historical inaccuracy. Why would Shishak attack
Jeroboam, whom he had recently protected? One explanation is
that Shishak was an astute political opportunist. Archaeologist,
Dr. Bryant Wood explains:
Shishak evidently had his eye on his northern neighbor for some
time. By harboring Jeroboam, he was contributing to the
74
division of Israel. When the split occurred, it was an opportune

time for him to deal a major blow to the two now weakened
kingdoms, so he launched a campaign. The underlying cause
seems to have been to break Israel’s commercial monopoly in
the north and to obtain much needed booty, rather than to annex
the area.11
One Final Clue

Given King Solomon’s wealth (2 Ch 9:13-28), if Shishak did
indeed pillage the Temple and royal treasuries, then vast
amounts of gold and silver flooded the Egyptian coffers. Is
there any evidence of this? It is interesting to note that when
Shishak’s son, Osorkon I became king, he erected a granite
pillar in a temple at Bubastis, in the eastern Nile Delta, on which
he boasts of making an offering of 2,300,000 deben (383 tons!)
of gold and silver to the deities of Egypt.12 Further, his
successor, Sheshonq II, was buried in a coffin made of pure
silver. Some have questioned where the Egyptian pharaoh’s
acquired so much gold and silver. One plausible explanation is
that it may have come, in large part, from the royal treasury and
Temple of Jersualem, as well as from other cities taken in
Shishak’s invasion of Judah and Israel in 926/5 BC.13
Sheshonq II coffin
The sphynx-headed, silver coffin of Sheshonq II. Photo: (c)
Aidan McRae Thomson /
75
https://www.flickr.com/photos/amthomson/29475555428/ Used
with permission.
Summary
The evidence from ancient texts (the Bible and the inscription
on the Bubastite Portal) and from archaeology (Shishak’s
victory stele at Megiddo and destruction layers at various sites)
converge to affirm that Shishak was Sheshonq I, and that he did
indeed invade Judah and Israel. Discrepancies in the events, as
recorded by each side, are to be expected, and are plausibly
explained. It would appear that Shishak did not destroy
Jerusalem, but took a great amount of gold and silver from the
city, making Jerusalem an Egyptian vassal state, as described in
Scripture (2 Ch 12:7-8). Due, in part, to his effective political
maneuvers, history records that Shishak was one of the most
powerful Pharaohs of the 22nd Dynasty, consistent with his
image in the pages of Scripture.
a.1601746703291692/2297888270344195
King Manasseh: An Archaeological Biography
In our bioarchaeographies of the Hebrew kings, we’ve seen how

archaeology helps us tell the story of their lives. Numerous
archaeological discoveries have affirmed biblical details about
the reigns of kings like Uzziah, Ahaz, and Hezekiah.
76
Archaeology has also illuminated Scripture, filling in the wider

historical context duing which these kings reigned. The subject
of our next bioarchaeography, King Manasseh, is known for his
long and wicked reign, but also for his repentance and
restoration.
Manasseh reigned for 55 years (2 Ki 21:1), from approximately
696-642 BC, although the first 11 years were likely a co-
regency with his father, Hezekiah.1 He seemed to revel all
manner of evil, including various forms of idolatry, witchcraft,
and even child-sacrifice. (2 Ki 21:3-9;2 Ch 33:3-7). Scripture
records that Manasseh led the people of God astray and did
“more evil than the nations had done whom the LORD
destroyed before the people of Israel.” (2 Ki 21:9)
Manasseh is named in several archaeological artifacts which
attest to his historicity and help us understand the world at the
time he reigned.
The Seal of Manasseh
The possible seal of Manasseh. Photo: Israel Exploration
Society
Two seals have appeared on the antiquities market, both bearing
the inscription, “Belonging to Manasseh, son of the king.” The
term “son of the king” refers to royal princes, whether they
eventually ascended the throne or not.2 While it is doubtful that
one of the seals (bearing a star and crescent) refers to the King
Manasseh3, the other may be the seal that Manasseh used during
77
his co-regency with his father.4 In the Corpus of Western

Semitic Stamp Seals, Nahman Avigad concluded, “a thorough
microscopic examination of the stone revealed that the
engraving does not give the impression of being recent.
Moreover, the script, showing a fluent classic Hebrew hand,
appears to be
authentic in form and spirit.”5 Interestingly, it bears the same
iconography – the Egyptain winged scarab – as that of numerous
seals attributed to King Hezekiah. While some may be surprised
to see an Egyptian symbol on a Hebrew king’s seal, it must be
noted that Hezekiah established an alliance with Egypt against
the Assyrians (2 Ki 18:21; Isaiah 36:6). Further, it may have
symbolized a desire to permanently unite the northern and
southern kingdoms together with God’s divine blessing.6
Manasseh’s Kingdom
Manasseh inherited a strong and stable kingdom from his father.
Evidence of the administration of the Kingdom of Judah during
the reigns of Hezekiah and Manasseh has been found in
excavations at numerous sites. Jar handles bearing a stamp
with a winged-beetle and the phrase LMLK (“to the king”),
along with the name of a city, have been unearthed throughout
ancient Judah. Many scholars believe these are connected with
Hezekiah’s “storehouses” (2 Ch 32:27-28), and held olive oil,
food, wine, etc – goods that were paid as taxes to the king.7
Recently, a large administrative complex was unearthed outside
of the old city of Jerusalem which archaeologists believe
operated as a storage facility during the reigns of Hezekiah and
78
Manasseh. Over 120 inscribed jar handles were discovered

within the structure, including some that bore the LMLK seal.8
In addition to the LMLK jar handles, a group of clay seal
impressions, called fiscal bullae, also bear the phrase LMLK
(“to the king”). One was recently unearthed by the Temple
Mount Sifting project which read, “Gibeon, to the king.”
Archaeologist, Gabriel Barkay has dated it to the reign of
Manasseh.9 All of this is evidence of a complex and highly-
organized tax system in Judah begun during Hezekiah’s reign
and extending into his son’s reign, something that would have
been necessary to pay the tribute that the Assyrians demanded of
Manasseh.
A two-winged LMLK (‘Belonging to the King’) jar handle
discovered during the Arnona excavations. Photo: Yaniv
Berman / Israel Antiquities Authority
Manasseh and Assyria
Manasseh’s long reign coincided with the reigns of two
significant Assyrian kings: Esarhaddon (ca, 680–669 BC) and
Ashurbanipal (668–627 BC). While his father, Hezekiah, (with
God’s help) successfully resisted Assyrian domination, at some
point Manasseh became an Assyrian vassal. In Assyrian
inscriptions, Manasseh and the kingdom of Judah are only
mentioned in the list of subservient kings/states.10
Manasseh in Esarhaddon’s Annals
The annals of Esarhaddon make reference to “Manasseh, king
of Judah.” Photo: The British Museum / CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
79
In annals of Esarhaddon, Manasseh is listed as one of the 22

kings from the area of the Levant and the islands whom the
Assyrian king conscripted to deliver timber and stone for the
rebuilding of his palace at Nineveh. In this inscription, Judah
and the other states are clearly treated as vassals, required to do
Assyria’s bidding:
“I called up the kings of the country Hatti and (of the region) on
the other side of the river (Euphrates) (to wit) : Ba’lu, king of
Tyre, Manasseh (Me,-na-si-i), king of Judah (Ia-ti-di)…[etc.]…
together 22 kings of Hatti, the seashore and the islands; all these
I sent out and made them transport under terrible difficulties, to
Nineveh, the town (where I exercise) my rulership, as building
material for my palace: big logs, long beams (and) thin boards
from cedar and pine trees, products of the Sirara and Lebanon
(Lab-na-na) mountains.”11
Manasseh in Ashurbanipal’s Annals
Esarhaddon’s son and successor, Ashurbanipal, also mentions
“Manasseh, King of Judah” in his annals, which are recorded on
the Rassam Cylinder, named after Hormuzd Rassam, who
discovered it in the North Palace of Nineveh in 1854. This ten-
faced, cuneiform cylinder includes a record of Ashurbanipal’s
campaigns against Egypt and the Levant. It states:
The Rassam Prism contains the annals of Ashurbanipal, who
records a tribute brought by “Manasseh, king of Judah.” Photo:
The British Museum / CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
80
“In my first campaign I marched against Egypt (Magan) and

Ethiopia (Meluhha). Tirhakah (Targa), king of Egypt (Musur)
and Nubia (Kicsu), whom Esarhaddon, king of Assyria, my own
father, had defeated and in whose country he (Esarhaddon) had
ruled, this (same) Tirhakah forgot’ the might of Ashur, Ishtar
and the (other) great gods, my lords, and put his trust upon his
own power …. (Then) I called up my mighty armed forces
which Ashur and Ishtar have entrusted to me and took the
shortest (lit .: straight) road to Egypt (Musur) and Nubia .
During my march (to Egypt) 22 kings from the seashore, the
islands and the mainland, Ba’al, king of Tyre, Manasseh (Mi-in-
si-e), king of Judah (la-ti-di)…[etc.]…servants who belong to
me, brought heavy gifts (tdmartu) to me and kissed my feet . I
made these kings accompany my army over the lard-as well as
(over) the sea-route with their armed forces and their ships.”12
It is important to note that Manasseh and the other kings are
called, “servants who belong to me,” clearly indicating they
were Assyrian vassals. Moreover, Manasseh was one of the
kings who brought tribute to Ashurbanipal and kissed his feet.
One is reminded of the image of Jehu bringing tribute to
Shalmaneser III bowing before him that is inscribed on the
Black Obelisk.
Manasseh’s Imprisonment and Release
Manasseh was eventually taken captive by the Assyrians and
imprisoned at Babylon. Scripture records:
“The LORD spoke to Manasseh and to his people, but they paid
no attention. Therefore the LORD brought upon them the
81
commanders of the army of the king of Assyria, who captured

Manasseh with hooks and bound him with chains of bronze and
brought him to Babylon. And when he was in distress, he
entreated the favor of the LORD his God and humbled himself
greatly before the God of his fathers. He prayed to him, and God
was moved by his entreaty and heard his plea and brought him
again to Jerusalem into his kingdom. Then Manasseh knew that
the LORD was God.” (2 Ch 33:10-13).
While Assyrian sources are silent on the specifics of Manasseh’s
imprisonment, some scholars have suggested that Manasseh
may have joined a widespread rebellion (or at least been
suspected of having supported it) in 652-648 BC. This rebellion
was led by Shamash-shum-ukin, the king of Babylon, against
his brother, the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, in an attempt to
take the empire for himself.13
Ashurbanipal inspects the prisoners after subduing his brother
at the siege of Babylon. The cuneiform inscription reads, ” I,
Ashurbanipal, king of the universe, king of the land of Ashur,
who, at the command of the great gods has attained the desires
of his heart: the garments and ornaments – the royal insignia of
Shamash-shum-ukin, the faithless brother – his harem, his
officials, his battle troops, his (battle) chariot, his processional
chariot – his state vehicle, all the provisions which were in his
palace, the people, male and female, great and small – they
made to pass before me.” Photo: Anthony Huan / Wikimedia
Commons via Flickr / CC BY-SA 2.0
Summary
82
Archaeological findings within Israel provide us with a better

understanding of the administration of the kingdom of Judah
during King Manasseh’s reign. Assyrian texts offer more
information on Manasseh’s role as a vassal, and the wider geo-
political situation of his day. The historical account of
Manasseh’s life in Scripture serves as a warning against pride
and offers a testimony to the grace of God when people humble
themselves and ask Him for forgiveness.
Cover Photo: A seal bearing the phrase, “Belonging to

Manasseh, son of the king.” I don’t normally include photos of
unprovenanced items obtained on the antiquities market in my
blogs. However, renowned Hebrew scholar, Nahman Avigad,
regarded it as “authentic in form and spirit” and included under
“Hebrew Seals” it in his classic worKing Manasseh: An
Archaeological Biography
In our bioarchaeographies of the Hebrew kings, we’ve seen how

archaeology helps us tell the story of their lives. Numerous
archaeological discoveries have affirmed biblical details about
the reigns of kings like Uzziah, Ahaz, and Hezekiah.
Archaeology has also illuminated Scripture, filling in the wider
historical context duing which these kings reigned. The subject
of our next bioarchaeography, King Manasseh, is known for his
long and wicked reign, but also for his repentance and
restoration.
83
Manasseh reigned for 55 years (2 Ki 21:1), from approximately

696-642 BC, although the first 11 years were likely a co-
regency with his father, Hezekiah.1 He seemed to revel all
manner of evil, including various forms of idolatry, witchcraft,
and even child-sacrifice. (2 Ki 21:3-9;2 Ch 33:3-7). Scripture
records that Manasseh led the people of God astray and did
“more evil than the nations had done whom the LORD
destroyed before the people of Israel.” (2 Ki 21:9)
Manasseh is named in several archaeological artifacts which

attest to his historicity and help us understand the world at the
time he reigned.
The Seal of Manasseh
The possible seal of Manasseh. Photo: Israel Exploration

Society
Two seals have appeared on the antiquities market, both bearing
the inscription, “Belonging to Manasseh, son of the king.” The
term “son of the king” refers to royal princes, whether they
eventually ascended the throne or not.2 While it is doubtful that
one of the seals (bearing a star and crescent) refers to the King
Manasseh3, the other may be the seal that Manasseh used during
84
his co-regency with his father.4 In the Corpus of Western

Semitic Stamp Seals, Nahman Avigad concluded, “a thorough
microscopic examination of the stone revealed that the
engraving does not give the impression of being recent.
Moreover, the script, showing a fluent classic Hebrew hand,
appears to be
authentic in form and spirit.”5 Interestingly, it bears the same
iconography – the Egyptain winged scarab – as that of numerous
seals attributed to King Hezekiah. While some may be surprised
to see an Egyptian symbol on a Hebrew king’s seal, it must be
noted that Hezekiah established an alliance with Egypt against
the Assyrians (2 Ki 18:21; Isaiah 36:6). Further, it may have
symbolized a desire to permanently unite the northern and
southern kingdoms together with God’s divine blessing.6
Manasseh’s Kingdom
Manasseh inherited a strong and stable kingdom from his father.
Evidence of the administration of the Kingdom of Judah during
the reigns of Hezekiah and Manasseh has been found in
excavations at numerous sites. Jar handles bearing a stamp
with a winged-beetle and the phrase LMLK (“to the king”),
along with the name of a city, have been unearthed throughout
ancient Judah. Many scholars believe these are connected with
Hezekiah’s “storehouses” (2 Ch 32:27-28), and held olive oil,
food, wine, etc – goods that were paid as taxes to the king.7
Recently, a large administrative complex was unearthed outside
85
of the old city of Jerusalem which archaeologists believe

operated as a storage facility during the reigns of Hezekiah and
Manasseh. Over 120 inscribed jar handles were discovered
within the structure, including some that bore the LMLK seal.8
In addition to the LMLK jar handles, a group of clay seal
impressions, called fiscal bullae, also bear the phrase LMLK
(“to the king”). One was recently unearthed by the Temple
Mount Sifting project which read, “Gibeon, to the king.”
Archaeologist, Gabriel Barkay has dated it to the reign of
Manasseh.9 All of this is evidence of a complex and highly-
organized tax system in Judah begun during Hezekiah’s reign
and extending into his son’s reign, something that would have
been necessary to pay the tribute that the Assyrians demanded of
Manasseh.
A two-winged LMLK (‘Belonging to the King’) jar handle

discovered during the Arnona excavations. Photo: Yaniv
Berman / Israel Antiquities Authority
Manasseh and Assyria
Manasseh’s long reign coincided with the reigns of two
significant Assyrian kings: Esarhaddon (ca, 680–669 BC) and
Ashurbanipal (668–627 BC). While his father, Hezekiah, (with
God’s help) successfully resisted Assyrian domination, at some
point Manasseh became an Assyrian vassal. In Assyrian
86
inscriptions, Manasseh and the kingdom of Judah are only

mentioned in the list of subservient kings/states.10
Manasseh in Esarhaddon’s Annals
The annals of Esarhaddon make reference to “Manasseh, king of

Judah.” Photo: The British Museum / CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
In annals of Esarhaddon, Manasseh is listed as one of the 22
kings from the area of the Levant and the islands whom the
Assyrian king conscripted to deliver timber and stone for the
rebuilding of his palace at Nineveh. In this inscription, Judah
and the other states are clearly treated as vassals, required to do
Assyria’s bidding:
“I called up the kings of the country Hatti and (of the region) on
the other side of the river (Euphrates) (to wit) : Ba’lu, king of
Tyre, Manasseh (Me,-na-si-i), king of Judah (Ia-ti-di)…[etc.]…
together 22 kings of Hatti, the seashore and the islands; all these
I sent out and made them transport under terrible difficulties, to
Nineveh, the town (where I exercise) my rulership, as building
material for my palace: big logs, long beams (and) thin boards
from cedar and pine trees, products of the Sirara and Lebanon
(Lab-na-na) mountains.”11
87
Manasseh in Ashurbanipal’s Annals

Esarhaddon’s son and successor, Ashurbanipal, also mentions
“Manasseh, King of Judah” in his annals, which are recorded on
the Rassam Cylinder, named after Hormuzd Rassam, who
discovered it in the North Palace of Nineveh in 1854. This ten-
faced, cuneiform cylinder includes a record of Ashurbanipal’s
campaigns against Egypt and the Levant. It states:
The Rassam Prism contains the annals of Ashurbanipal, who

records a tribute brought by “Manasseh, king of Judah.” Photo:
“In my first campaign I marched against Egypt (Magan) and
Ethiopia (Meluhha). Tirhakah (Targa), king of Egypt (Musur)
and Nubia (Kicsu), whom Esarhaddon, king of Assyria, my own
father, had defeated and in whose country he (Esarhaddon) had
ruled, this (same) Tirhakah forgot’ the might of Ashur, Ishtar
and the (other) great gods, my lords, and put his trust upon his
own power …. (Then) I called up my mighty armed forces
which Ashur and Ishtar have entrusted to me and took the
shortest (lit .: straight) road to Egypt (Musur) and Nubia .
During my march (to Egypt) 22 kings from the seashore, the
islands and the mainland, Ba’al, king of Tyre, Manasseh (Mi-in-
si-e), king of Judah (la-ti-di)…[etc.]…servants who belong to
me, brought heavy gifts (tdmartu) to me and kissed my feet . I
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made these kings accompany my army over the lard-as well as

(over) the sea-route with their armed forces and their ships.”12
It is important to note that Manasseh and the other kings are

called, “servants who belong to me,” clearly indicating they
were Assyrian vassals. Moreover, Manasseh was one of the
kings who brought tribute to Ashurbanipal and kissed his feet.
One is reminded of the image of Jehu bringing tribute to
Shalmaneser III bowing before him that is inscribed on the
Black Obelisk.
Manasseh’s Imprisonment and Release

Manasseh was eventually taken captive by the Assyrians and
imprisoned at Babylon. Scripture records:
“The LORD spoke to Manasseh and to his people, but they paid
no attention. Therefore the LORD brought upon them the
commanders of the army of the king of Assyria, who captured
Manasseh with hooks and bound him with chains of bronze and
brought him to Babylon. And when he was in distress, he
entreated the favor of the LORD his God and humbled himself
greatly before the God of his fathers. He prayed to him, and God
was moved by his entreaty and heard his plea and brought him
again to Jerusalem into his kingdom. Then Manasseh knew that
the LORD was God.” (2 Ch 33:10-13).
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While Assyrian sources are silent on the specifics of Manasseh’s

imprisonment, some scholars have suggested that Manasseh
may have joined a widespread rebellion (or at least been
suspected of having supported it) in 652-648 BC. This rebellion
was led by Shamash-shum-ukin, the king of Babylon, against
his brother, the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, in an attempt to
take the empire for himself.13
Ashurbanipal inspects the prisoners after subduing his brother at

the siege of Babylon. The cuneiform inscription reads, ” I,
Ashurbanipal, king of the universe, king of the land of Ashur,
who, at the command of the great gods has attained the desires
of his heart: the garments and ornaments – the royal insignia of
Shamash-shum-ukin, the faithless brother – his harem, his
officials, his battle troops, his (battle) chariot, his processional
chariot – his state vehicle, all the provisions which were in his
palace, the people, male and female, great and small – they
made to pass before me.” Photo: Anthony Huan / Wikimedia
Commons via Flickr / CC BY-SA 2.0
Summary
Archaeological findings within Israel provide us with a better
understanding of the administration of the kingdom of Judah
during King Manasseh’s reign. Assyrian texts offer more
information on Manasseh’s role as a vassal, and the wider geo-
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political situation of his day. The historical account of

Manasseh’s life in Scripture serves as a warning against pride
and offers a testimony to the grace of God when people humble
themselves and ask Him for forgiveness.
Cover Photo: A seal bearing the phrase, “Belonging to

Manasseh, son of the king.” I don’t normally include photos of
unprovenanced items obtained on the antiquities market in my
blogs. However, renowned Hebrew scholar, Nahman Avigad,
regarded it as “authentic in form and spirit” and included under
“Hebrew Seals” it in his classic work Corpus of Western
Semitic Stamp Seals. If it was good enough for Avigad, it’s
good enough for me. Photo: Israel Exploration Journal. Corpus
of Western Semitic Stamp Seals. If it was good enough for
Avigad, it’s good enough for me. Photo: Israel Exploration
Journal.
a.1601746703291692/2284389861694036
King David: An Archaeological Biography
King David
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Our next bioarchaeography is about one of the most fiercely-

debated figures in the Old Testament.
Some scholars believe King David was more myth than man
who, if he existed, was nothing more than a tribal chief, and
certainly not the historical king of a dynasty in Israel. For
example, University of Sheffield Professor, Dr. Philip R.
Davies, has stated, “I’m not the only scholar who suspects that
the figure of King David is about as historical as King Arthur.”1
Archaeologist, Israel Finkelstien has been quoted as saying,
“The united kingdom of David and Solomon, described in the
Bible as a regional power, was at most, a small tribal
kingdom….David’s kingdom was simply 500 people with sticks
in their hands shouting and cursing and spitting”2
This is in sharp contrast to the picture the Bible paints of the

empire David ruled over. His rise from humble shepherd to
mighty military commander to king over all Judah and Israel is a
gripping story. Yet the account reads more like history than
myth, and, at times, is reminiscent of the lists of conquered
kingdoms that the kings of other nations left for posterity. The
Bible describes David reigning in Hebron as king over the tribe
of Judah for a period of seven years before the elders of Israel
come to crown him king over the entire nation. He reigned over
all Israel and Judah for 33 more years, conquering the nations
around him and extending the reach of his empire. When David
conquered the Jebusite city of Jerusalem, Hiram, king of Tyre,
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sent carpenters and stonemasons with cedar logs to build a

palace for him. When David defeated Hadadezer, king of Zobah,
Tou, the King of Hamath, sent congratulations to him along with
articles of gold, silver and bronze. Scripture records:
King David dedicated these articles to the Lord, as he had done

with the silver and gold from all the nations he had subdued:
Edom and Moab, the Ammonites and the Philistines, and
Amalek. He also dedicated the plunder taken from Hadadezer
son of Rehob, king of Zobah. (2 Sam 8:11-12 NIV)
Later in his reign, David took a census to determine the number

of fighting men in his Kingdom. It took more than nine months
to count his soldiers, and resulted in a tally of over 800 000 (2
Sam 24:9). In all, the Bible describes David ruling over an
organized and vast empire which included parts of modern-day
Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Israel.
What evidence is there for King David and his kingdom?
Tel Dan Stele – “House of David”

jrslm_300116_tel_dan_stele_01
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The Tel Dan Stele with the “House of David” inscription,

testifying to the historicity of David and the reality of his
dynasty. Photo Credit: Oren Rozen / Wikimedia Commons /
CC-BY-SA-4.0
Any discussion of the archaeology related to King David must
begin with the Tel Dan Stele. In 1993 archaeologists excavating
at Tel Dan, the site of the ancient city of Dan in northern Israel,
discovered a broken stone, approximately 32 cm high by 22 cm
wide, with an Aramaic inscription on it. The next year, two
more fragments of the stele were unearthed. The stele fragment
made an instant impact, as it bore the inscription, “bytdwd”
(Beit David, or House of David). The stele records the victory of
the King of Aram (likely Hazael, although his name is not
given) over the King of Israel, and his ally, the king of the
“House of David.” It dates to the ninth century B.C., about 200
years after David’s rule.
While critics have attempted to suggest alternative readings, the

majority of scholars now accept that the Tel Dan Stele is a clear
reference to King David. Archaeologist, Yosef Garfinkel
explains the importance of the inscription: “‘House of David’
means ‘dynasty of David’. So now we know that there was a
guy called David and he had a dynasty…this is absolutely clear
that David is not a mythological figure. So the mythological
paradigm collapsed in one moment.”3
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Moabite Stone/Mesha Inscription – “House of David”

moabite stone small
The Moabite Stone, also known as the Mesha Inscription. Photo
Credit: Public Domain / Wikimedia Commons
In 1994, epigrapher Andre Lemaire proposed that the famous
Moabite Stone also contained the phrase, “House of David.”
The Moabite Stone contains an inscription by Mesha, King of
Moab, who boasts about his successful rebellion from the King
of Israel, an event described in 2 Kings 3. The stone was
intentionally broken by locals in Jordan, where it was
discovered, but not before squeezes of the inscription were
taken. The inscription in question is difficult to read because of
a break in the stone, and a crucial letter is missing in Line 31.
Lemaire concluded, “My own examination of the stone and the
squeeze, which is now being restored and cleaned of
accumulated dust, confirms that t follows the b. I would now,
for the first time, reconstruct the missing letter as a d (d). The
result: bt[d]wd (dw[d]tb), the ‘House of [D]avid!’”4
In 2019, Israel Finkelstein, Nadav Na’aman, and Thomas Römer

published a paper in the Journal of the Institute of Archaeology
of Tel Aviv University analyzeing Line 31 on the Moabite
Stone. They argue that there is a vertical stroke which indicates
a transition between two sentences and that the letter bet should
be read as the start of a name (Balak), rather than Beit (House).5
Around the same time, Michael Langlois, a scholar with the
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French Researcher Center in Jerusalem, published an article in

the Journal Semitica, which supported Lemaire’s initial reading
of “House of David.” He claims there is no such vertical stroke
in the image, but that the line break comes later. Langlois has
spent years using high resolution images, computer algorithms
to perform Polynomial Texture Mapping (PTM) of the stele to
create a 3-D image. Recently he used Reflectance
Transformation Imaging (RTI) – photos of the stele itself and
the original squeeze from various angles and in different
lighting, to create a high-resolution backlit image of the
inscription. In his article, Langlois argues that the new
technology shows a previously overlooked dot, the customary
way scribes at that time indicated a break between words, which
comes exactly after the area interpreted “House of David,”
confirming Lemaire’s initial reading.6
mesha_31_btdwd
New imaging techniques by scholar, Michael Langois, improves
the reading of the “House of David” inscription on the Moabite
Stone. Image courtesy of Micahel Langois,
https://michaellanglois.fr/en/publications/les-rois-la-cite-et-la-
maison-de-david-sur-la-stele-de-mesha-a-la-lumiere-de-
nouvelles-techniques-dimagerie/
Battle Relief of Pharoah Shishak – “Highlands of David”
Karnak_Tempel_19
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In this relief on the wall of the Great Temple at Karnak, the

Pharaoh Shoshenq I (biblical Shishak) listed the places he
conquered in his campaign in Israel and Judah in 926 BC.
Photo: Olaf Tausch / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY 3.0
Egyptologist, Kenneth Kitchen, has identified a third possible
reference to David in Egypt. Pharaoh Shoshenq I (also
Sheshonk, called Shishak in the Bible), invaded Palestine in
926/5 BC. When he returned to Egypt, he commissioned a
scene to be inscribed on the walls of the Temple of Amun in
Karnak detailing his success. One of the places he claims to
have conquered is h(y)dbt dwt – the “Heights or Highlands of
Davit.” Kitchen has found a sixth-century AD Ethiopic
inscription with a clear reference to King David (from one of his
Psalms) in which his name is spelled Davit. He further argues
that the toponyms in the Shishak list are arranged
geographically, and the “Heights of Davit” (name rings 105 and
106) occur in a row which includes sites in southern Judah and
the Negev, the same general area in which David was a fugitive
when he was on the run from Saul. Kitchen claims that, while
not certain, there is a “high degree of possibility” that Shishak
claimed to have conquered an area called the Heights of David,
when he invaded Judah in the 10th century BC.7 It should be
noted that not all scholars are convinced by Kitchen’s reading.
They note that, just because an Ethiopian text from the 6th
century AD refers to David as Davit, it does not logically follow
that they did so over 1300 years earlier. Moreover, others
maintain that rings 105 and 106 read neither David, nor Davit.
In short, the jury is still out on this inscription.
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Heights of David
Some of the place name rings that are listed on the Triumphal
Relief of Shoshenq I at Karnak. Rings 105 and 106 have been
reconstructed by Egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen to read,
“Heights or Highlands of David.” Image: Drawing by Champion
in University of Chicago Oriental Institute Epigraphic Survey
(1954), Reliefs and inscriptions at Karnak: The Bubastite portal,
vol. III. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
King David’s Palace
Large Stone Structure
The Large Stone Structure was identified by archaeologist, Eilat
Mazar, as the palace of King David. Photo: Photo courtesy of
Dr. Eilat Mazar.
In 2005, Israeli archaeologist, Dr. Eilat Mazar, announced that
she had unearthed the remains of David’s palace. Mazar had
noticed that the Bible described David going down, or
descending, from his residence to the fortress (2 Sam. 5:17).
She reasoned that David would have built his palace north of
this fortress and outside the northern city wall, given that he was
planning to expand the city. Her excavations in this area
unearthed what she called the Large Stone Structure, a massive
building complex which she describes as “the product of
inspiration, imagination and considerable economic
investment.”8 Mazar was digging near where Kathleen Kenyon
had earlier discovered a stone decoration that would have
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adorned the top of a pillar, called a proto-Aeolic capital, one of

the most beautiful and intricate ones ever discovered in Israel.
On the basis of the pottery found beneath the Large Stone
Structure, she dated the first phase of its construction to the
beginning of the Iron Age IIa, likely around the middle of the
tenth century BC, precisely the time the Bible describes King
David ruling over the United Kingdom of Israel. The discovery
of the biggest, and most beautiful building in the northern part
of the old city which dates to the time of David has led many to
believe Mazar has uncovered the remains of King David’s
palace. Of course, many critics who believe the biblical
accounts of King David to be legendary, have been quick to
criticize Mazar’s work and her use of Scripture as a reliable
ancient text.
David’s Government – Judahite Cities

If a united monarchy existed in the 10th century BC, as
described in the Bible, one might expect to find evidence of a
common political administration throughout the kingdom.
Some archaeologists claim to have found such evidence of a
complex society in the archaeological remains at several sites.
QEIYAFA_C
An aerial view of Khirbet Qeiyafa. Photo: ‫ אברהם גרייצר‬/
Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 4.0
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From 2007-2013, Yosef Garfinkel (Hebrew University) and

Saar Ganor (Israel Antiquities Authority) conducted excavations
at Khirbet Qeiyafa, a fortress dating to the time of King David.
It is located 30 km southwest of Jerusalem, on the summit of a
hill that is strategically located within the kingdom of Judah and
on the road from Philistia to Jerusalem. The excavators have
identified it as biblical Shaarayim (1 Sam. 17:52) because of its
two gates, and claim that there is clear evidence of urban
planning, such as the casemate city wall with houses that were
built into the wall. A lack of pig bones, an ostracon identified as
one of the earliest Hebrew inscriptions ever discovered, and
cultic shrines absent of any images of people or animals (ie.
graven images) have been used to identify Khirbet Qeiyafa as an
Israelite fortress, rather than a Philistine outpost. Two large
structures were identified as royal public buildings: one was a
palatial residence, the other a storehouse.9 It is estimated that
100,000 tons of stone were used to build the city, which would
have required a significant central government to oversee such a
construction project.10 It is likely far beyond what a tribal
chieftain could have constructed.11
Tel-Eton Ashlar Stones

These large ashlar stones form the main entrance to a building at
Tel ‘Eton that dates to the 10th century BC. Photo Credit:
Avraham Faust/ Tel ‘Eton Archaeological Expedition)
Another site, El Eton, was recently excavated by archaeologists
from Bar-Ilan University, who unearthed an ancient city that
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also dates to the time of King David. Researchers discovered a

monumental structure, which they’ve dubbed the “governor’s
residency,” that was built using ashlar stones and deep
foundations with quality building materials. Scholars suggest
that this too is evidence of a complex society and strong
political administration during the construction phase. The
excavators have dated the site using radiocarbon from the
foundation deposit, as well as olive pits and coal found on the
floor, indicating that the Tel ‘Eton residence was first built in
the late 11th or 10th century BC.12 This is the second such
monumental structure dating to the Davidic and Solomonic eras
discovered in the region (with Khirbet Qeiyafa being the first).
Davidic Kings
hezekiah-bulla
This bulla (seal impression) of King Hezekiah originally sealed
a document written on a papyrus. The thin chords with which
the document was tied left their mark on the reverse of the bulla.
Photo Credit: Ouria Tadmor / Eilat Mazar. Used with
permission.
After King David’s reign, 20 monarchs from his family line
reigned in succession after him, beginning with Solomon over
the United Monarchy, and then as kings of the southern
Kingdom of Judah. Numerous archaeological discoveries
relating to these Davidic kings have been unearthed. Many
scholars point to the nearly identical gates at Hazor, Megiddo,
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and Gezer as evidence of Solomon’s building activity.13

Inscriptions on seal impressions attest to several kings,
including Uzziah, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, while others, such as
Manasseh and Jehoiachin are mentioned by name in Assyrian
and Babylonian writings.14 These finds independently
corroborate specific details in Scripture and are consistent with
the biblical description of a Davidic line of kings who reigned in
Israel and Judah for generations.
Summary
The clear “House of David” inscription from Tel Dan
establishes that David was a historical figure who was over a
dynasty and is affirmed by two further inscriptions which may
refer to him. This direct evidence is supported by the other
finds in Jerusalem and other cities within the kingdom of Judah,
which also point to the existence of a complex united monarchy
in the 10th century BC, as described in the Bible. Other
inscriptions affirm specific kings in the Davidic line. Prior to
1993, there was very little archaeological evidence to support
the historicity of King David. Since that time, numerous
discoveries have confirmed his existence and indicate he ruled
over a significant kingdom. In light of these discoveries it
seems reasonable to stop comparing King David to King Arthur.
a.1601746703291692/2275190759280613
102
Darius I: An Archaeological Biography
One of the ways in which archaeology is beneficial to biblical

studies is the way in which it furnishes background information
that helps us a better understand the world in which events in
Scripture took place. Such is the case with the history of the
Jewish people during Persian-era and the subject of our next
bioarchaeography, King Darius I, (commonly called Darius the
Great).
Darius in Biblical History
The book of Ezra recounts how the Persian king Cyrus allowed
the people of Judah to return to Jerusalem from their Babylonian
captivity. In the second month of the second year after their
arrival, the people began to rebuild the temple (Ez 3:8). Their
enemies began a campaign of discouraging the people and
frustrating their efforts from the reign of Cyrus down to the
reign of king Darius (Ez 4:5). Thus, the construction of the
temple, which had begun in 536 BC, was halted until work
resumed at the encouragement of the prophets Haggai and
Zechariah (Ez 5:1-2) in 520 BC.1
The Persepolis Audience Relief likely depicts Darius I on his
throne. Photo: Marco Prins / Livius.org / CC0 1.0 Universal
This time Tattenai, the governor of the province Beyond-the-
River, challenged the Jews and sent a letter to King Darius to
see if King Cyrus had issued a decree to rebuild the temple (Ez
5:6-17). Darius issued an order to search the archives and a
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copy of the royal decree in question was discovered in the

citadel of Ecbatana (Ez 6:1). The king then wrote to Tattenai to
affirm the decree of Cyrus and inform him not to interfere with
the rebuilding of the temple, but rather to fund it from the royal
treasury. Anyone who attempted to change the edict was
sentenced to death by impaling (Ez 6:3-12).
Who was King Darius who helped with the rebuilding of the
Jewish Temple in Jerusalem? (Note: I used the term King Darius
in this article to refer to Darius I, not the ruler known as King
Darius in the book of Daniel, whose identity is not conclusively
known).
Darius’ Rises to Power
King Darius was not the rightful heir to the Persian throne; he
was the son of Hystaspes, the satrap (provincial governor) of
Parthia. 2 He had been serving in Egypt as a spearbearer with
the Immortals under Cambyses II, the son of Cyrus and true heir
to his kingdom.3 When Cambyses died, Darius returned to
Media where he killed an imposter named Gaumâta who, posing
as Smerdis the brother of Cambyses, had usurped the throne.4
The primary source for Darius’ rise to power is the Behistun
Inscription of King Darius, a tri-lingual inscription and rock
relief on a cliff near the city of Kermanshah, Iran. In it, Darius
identifies an Achaemenid, and claims, “From antiquity we have
been noble; from antiquity has our dynasty been royal.”5 He
claims that it was Cambyses who secretly killed his own brother
and that he alone who had the courage to remove the usurper
from the throne: “There was none who dared to act against
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Gaumâta, the Magian, until I came. Then I prayed to

Ahuramazda; Ahuramazda brought me help… I, with a few
men, slew that Gaumâta, the Magian, and the chief men who
were his followers…I dispossessed him of the kingdom. By the
grace of Ahuramazda [his god] I became king; Ahuramazda
granted me the kingdom.”6
Since Darius was from a different branch of the royal family, he
viewed his ascension as taking the throne back from a foreigner.
Apart from the Behistun Inscription, Herodotus also provides a
detailed account of Darius’s rise to power. Because of the
intrigue surrounding Darius’s accension, some modern scholars
have suggested that Darius may have killed Cambyses’ brother
himself and concocted the story of an imposter to hide his crime
and justify his claim to the throne.
The Behistun Inscription of Darius I. Photo: Todd Bolen,
BiblePlaces.com
The Kingdom of Darius
After gaining the throne, Darius had to quell revolts throughout
the kingdom. He consolidated and expanded the empire through
a series of military campaigns. While he decisively conquered
Egypt and the Indus Valley, his invasion of Greece was less
successful, resulting in his defeat at the famous battle of
Marathon in 490 BC.
The remains of the Palace of Darius at Persepolis. Photo: Todd
Bolen / BiblePlaces.com
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Darius’s strength was in administration and he reorganized the

empire into new satrapies, securing an annual tribute from each
province. Darius also undertook many ambitious building
projects during his reign, developing land and sea routes
throughout the kingdom. The “Royal Road” connected the
empire, stretching from Susa to Sardis – 1700 miles – with fresh
horses stationed ever 15 miles, so couriers could cover the
distance in one week’s time.7 At Susa he constructed a new
palace and an apadana (audience hall), which served as the
setting for the events recorded in the book of Esther, during the
reign of his son, Xerxes. He also built a new capital for the
Achaemenid Empire at Persepolis. During excavations at
Persepolis in 1933, Friedrich Krefter unearthed two stone boxes,
foundation deposits that Darius had placed inside the corner-
walls. Inside each box was a pair of gold and silver plaques
with a trilingual inscription in which Darius boasts of the extent
of his kingdom.8 They read:
“Darius the great king, king of kings, king of countries, son of
Hystaspes, an Achaemenid. King Darius says: This is the
kingdom which I hold, from the Sacae who are beyond Sogdia
[the Scythians] to Kush, and from Sind [India] to Lydia – [this
is] what Ahuramazda, the greatest of gods, bestowed upon me.
May Ahuramazda protect me and my royal house!”9
The DPh Foundataion Inscription of Darius on a gold tablet was
discovered at Persepolis. Photo: Wikimedia Commons / Public
Domain
Darius and the Rebuilding of the Jewish Temple
106
This cuneiform tablet records a transaction which lists a servant

of Tattannu, Governor Across-The-River as a witness. Photo
Credit: Olaf M. Teflmer / BPK / Vorderasiatisches Museum,
SMB
Numerous details in the account of Darius in the book of Ezra
have been affirmed through archaeology. When the Jewish
people began rebuilding the temple in Jerusalem, Tattenai, the
governor of the province Beyond-the-River, wrote directly to
King Darius for affirmation that this was allowed. A group of
Persian tablets called the Tattannu Fragment Archive, includes a
cuneiform document – a promissory note dated to the 20th year
of Darius, in which one of the witnesses is a servant of “Tattanu,
Governor Across-the-River.”10 The consensus among scholars
today is that Tattannu and Tattenai are one and the same
person.11 Furthermore, it is not surprising that the governor
would write directly to the king about such matters. The
Aramaic letters from Elephantine provide evidence such
inquiries were sent directly to the king himself, who would pay
close attentions to details like this in his kingdom.12
Upon receiving the letter, King Darius ordered that a search be
made of the royal archives. Scripture is clear that a scroll (not a
tablet) was found in the archives in the citadel of Ecbatana (Ez
6:1-2). Persian scholar Edwin Yamauchi writes, “We know that
Persian officials wrote on scrolls of leather and papyrus from the
remains of clay bullae found in the east and discoveries made in
Egypt. Diodorus (2.32.4) informs us that the Persians had
“royal parchments” recording events of the past.”13 Geo
Widengren notes that the practice of keeping archives in a
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citadel/fortress was a practice that went on for centuries, as there

is evidence of documents being kept in the “fortress of the
archives” in the Sasanian Empire.14
A Google Earth image of the remains of ancient Ecbatana
within the modern city of Hamedan, Iran. Photo:
http://www.travellingthepast.com/iran/ecbatana-and-hamadan/
Even Darius’ commands in his response to Tattanai are similar
to those known from history. It was common practice for
Persian kings to help restore the sanctuaries of their subjects, as
is seen in memorandum from the governor Bagoas regarding the
rebuilding of the Jewish temple at Elephantine.15 Tolerance
and support for local religions and traditions was a means
through which Darius secured peace in his empire, and the
good-will of the gods of the nations he conquered. This is
reflected in the biblical text where, in return for aid rebuilding
the Temple, Darius asked that the people offer “sacrifices to the
God of heaven and pray for the life of the king and his sons (Ez
6:10). Finally, his threat to impale on a beam those who tried to
alter the edict (Ez 6:11), was a very real Persian threat.
Herodotus records that Darius impaled 3000 of the chief men
when he conquered Babylon.16
The Death of Darius
The tomb of Darius I. Photo: Bernard Gagnon / Wikimedia
Darius ruled the Persian Empire from 522 BC until his death in
November 486 BC. It is possible to pinpoint his death so
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specifically, since the last letter from Babylon dated to the reign
of Darius was written on November 17, 486 BC, and the first
one from the reign of his son Xerxes is dated December 1st of
the same year.17 He was buried in a monumental tomb that had
been carved into a cliff at Naqsh-e Rustam, 3 miles northwest o
Persepolis. Undoubtably Darius I was one of the greatest
Persian rulers; he had inherited a loosely organized kingdom
and left behind well-organized empire.18
Conclusion
Darius the Great appears briefly in Scripture to give aid to the
Jewish people in rebuilding the temple. Apart from his role in
the book of Ezra, he is mentioned only a handful of other times
in the Bible. Archaeology has not only affirmed biblical details
about King Darius, it has illuminated thDarius I: An
One of the ways in which archaeology is beneficial to biblical

studies is the way in which it furnishes background information
that helps us a better understand the world in which events in
Scripture took place. Such is the case with the history of the
Jewish people during Persian-era and the subject of our next
bioarchaeography, King Darius I, (commonly called Darius the
Great).
Darius in Biblical History
109
The book of Ezra recounts how the Persian king Cyrus allowed
the people of Judah to return to Jerusalem from their Babylonian
captivity. In the second month of the second year after their
arrival, the people began to rebuild the temple (Ez 3:8). Their
enemies began a campaign of discouraging the people and
frustrating their efforts from the reign of Cyrus down to the
reign of king Darius (Ez 4:5). Thus, the construction of the
temple, which had begun in 536 BC, was halted until work
resumed at the encouragement of the prophets Haggai and
Zechariah (Ez 5:1-2) in 520 BC.1
The Persepolis Audience Relief likely depicts Darius I on his

throne. Photo: Marco Prins / Livius.org / CC0 1.0 Universal
This time Tattenai, the governor of the province Beyond-the-
River, challenged the Jews and sent a letter to King Darius to
see if King Cyrus had issued a decree to rebuild the temple (Ez
5:6-17). Darius issued an order to search the archives and a
copy of the royal decree in question was discovered in the
citadel of Ecbatana (Ez 6:1). The king then wrote to Tattenai to
affirm the decree of Cyrus and inform him not to interfere with
the rebuilding of the temple, but rather to fund it from the royal
treasury. Anyone who attempted to change the edict was
sentenced to death by impaling (Ez 6:3-12).
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Who was King Darius who helped with the rebuilding of the
Jewish Temple in Jerusalem? (Note: I used the term King Darius
in this article to refer to Darius I, not the ruler known as King
Darius in the book of Daniel, whose identity is not conclusively
known).
Darius’ Rises to Power

King Darius was not the rightful heir to the Persian throne; he
was the son of Hystaspes, the satrap (provincial governor) of
Parthia. 2 He had been serving in Egypt as a spearbearer with
the Immortals under Cambyses II, the son of Cyrus and true heir
to his kingdom.3 When Cambyses died, Darius returned to
Media where he killed an imposter named Gaumâta who, posing
as Smerdis the brother of Cambyses, had usurped the throne.4
The primary source for Darius’ rise to power is the Behistun

Inscription of King Darius, a tri-lingual inscription and rock
relief on a cliff near the city of Kermanshah, Iran. In it, Darius
identifies an Achaemenid, and claims, “From antiquity we have
been noble; from antiquity has our dynasty been royal.”5 He
claims that it was Cambyses who secretly killed his own brother
and that he alone who had the courage to remove the usurper
from the throne: “There was none who dared to act against
Gaumâta, the Magian, until I came. Then I prayed to
Ahuramazda; Ahuramazda brought me help… I, with a few
men, slew that Gaumâta, the Magian, and the chief men who
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were his followers…I dispossessed him of the kingdom. By the

grace of Ahuramazda [his god] I became king; Ahuramazda
granted me the kingdom.”6
Since Darius was from a different branch of the royal family, he

viewed his ascension as taking the throne back from a foreigner.
Apart from the Behistun Inscription, Herodotus also provides a
detailed account of Darius’s rise to power. Because of the
intrigue surrounding Darius’s accension, some modern scholars
have suggested that Darius may have killed Cambyses’ brother
himself and concocted the story of an imposter to hide his crime
and justify his claim to the throne.
The Behistun Inscription of Darius I. Photo: Todd Bolen,

BiblePlaces.com
The Kingdom of Darius
After gaining the throne, Darius had to quell revolts throughout
the kingdom. He consolidated and expanded the empire through
a series of military campaigns. While he decisively conquered
Egypt and the Indus Valley, his invasion of Greece was less
successful, resulting in his defeat at the famous battle of
Marathon in 490 BC.
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The remains of the Palace of Darius at Persepolis. Photo: Todd

Bolen / BiblePlaces.com
Darius’s strength was in administration and he reorganized the
empire into new satrapies, securing an annual tribute from each
province. Darius also undertook many ambitious building
projects during his reign, developing land and sea routes
throughout the kingdom. The “Royal Road” connected the
empire, stretching from Susa to Sardis – 1700 miles – with fresh
horses stationed ever 15 miles, so couriers could cover the
distance in one week’s time.7 At Susa he constructed a new
palace and an apadana (audience hall), which served as the
setting for the events recorded in the book of Esther, during the
reign of his son, Xerxes. He also built a new capital for the
Achaemenid Empire at Persepolis. During excavations at
Persepolis in 1933, Friedrich Krefter unearthed two stone boxes,
foundation deposits that Darius had placed inside the corner-
walls. Inside each box was a pair of gold and silver plaques
with a trilingual inscription in which Darius boasts of the extent
of his kingdom.8 They read:
“Darius the great king, king of kings, king of countries, son of

Hystaspes, an Achaemenid. King Darius says: This is the
kingdom which I hold, from the Sacae who are beyond Sogdia
[the Scythians] to Kush, and from Sind [India] to Lydia – [this
is] what Ahuramazda, the greatest of gods, bestowed upon me.
May Ahuramazda protect me and my royal house!”9
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The DPh Foundataion Inscription of Darius on a gold tablet was

discovered at Persepolis. Photo: Wikimedia Commons / Public
Domain
Darius and the Rebuilding of the Jewish Temple
This cuneiform tablet records a transaction which lists a servant

of Tattannu, Governor Across-The-River as a witness. Photo
Credit: Olaf M. Teflmer / BPK / Vorderasiatisches Museum,
SMB
Numerous details in the account of Darius in the book of Ezra
have been affirmed through archaeology. When the Jewish
people began rebuilding the temple in Jerusalem, Tattenai, the
governor of the province Beyond-the-River, wrote directly to
King Darius for affirmation that this was allowed. A group of
Persian tablets called the Tattannu Fragment Archive, includes a
cuneiform document – a promissory note dated to the 20th year
of Darius, in which one of the witnesses is a servant of “Tattanu,
Governor Across-the-River.”10 The consensus among scholars
today is that Tattannu and Tattenai are one and the same
person.11 Furthermore, it is not surprising that the governor
would write directly to the king about such matters. The
Aramaic letters from Elephantine provide evidence such
inquiries were sent directly to the king himself, who would pay
close attentions to details like this in his kingdom.12
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Upon receiving the letter, King Darius ordered that a search be

made of the royal archives. Scripture is clear that a scroll (not a
tablet) was found in the archives in the citadel of Ecbatana (Ez
6:1-2). Persian scholar Edwin Yamauchi writes, “We know that
Persian officials wrote on scrolls of leather and papyrus from the
remains of clay bullae found in the east and discoveries made in
Egypt. Diodorus (2.32.4) informs us that the Persians had
“royal parchments” recording events of the past.”13 Geo
Widengren notes that the practice of keeping archives in a
citadel/fortress was a practice that went on for centuries, as there
is evidence of documents being kept in the “fortress of the
archives” in the Sasanian Empire.14
A Google Earth image of the remains of ancient Ecbatana within

the modern city of Hamedan, Iran. Photo:
http://www.travellingthepast.com/iran/ecbatana-and-hamadan/
Even Darius’ commands in his response to Tattanai are similar
to those known from history. It was common practice for
Persian kings to help restore the sanctuaries of their subjects, as
is seen in memorandum from the governor Bagoas regarding the
rebuilding of the Jewish temple at Elephantine.15 Tolerance
and support for local religions and traditions was a means
through which Darius secured peace in his empire, and the
good-will of the gods of the nations he conquered. This is
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reflected in the biblical text where, in return for aid rebuilding

the Temple, Darius asked that the people offer “sacrifices to the
God of heaven and pray for the life of the king and his sons (Ez
6:10). Finally, his threat to impale on a beam those who tried to
alter the edict (Ez 6:11), was a very real Persian threat.
Herodotus records that Darius impaled 3000 of the chief men
when he conquered Babylon.16
The Death of Darius
The tomb of Darius I. Photo: Bernard Gagnon / Wikimedia

Darius ruled the Persian Empire from 522 BC until his death in
November 486 BC. It is possible to pinpoint his death so
specifically, since the last letter from Babylon dated to the reign
of Darius was written on November 17, 486 BC, and the first
one from the reign of his son Xerxes is dated December 1st of
the same year.17 He was buried in a monumental tomb that had
been carved into a cliff at Naqsh-e Rustam, 3 miles northwest o
Persepolis. Undoubtably Darius I was one of the greatest
Persian rulers; he had inherited a loosely organized kingdom
and left behind well-organized empire.18
Conclusion
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Darius the Great appears briefly in Scripture to give aid to the

Jewish people in rebuilding the temple. Apart from his role in
the book of Ezra, he is mentioned only a handful of other times
in the Bible. Archaeology has not only affirmed biblical details
about King Darius, it has illuminated the wider cultural
landscape of the Persian Empire that point in history.e wider
cultural landscape of the Persian Empire that point in history.
a.1601746703291692/2248408015292221
Quirinius: An Archaeological Biography
Quirinius blog
“In those days Caesar Augustus issued a decree that a census

should be taken of the entire Roman world. (This was the first
census that took place while Quirinius was governor of Syria.)
And everyone went to his own town to register.” (Luke 2:1-3)
arch1-196x300-quirinius-inscription
This inscription (Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae #9502) names P.
Sulpicius Quirinius as duumvir. Photo Credit: biblehistory.net
Publius Sulpicius Quirinius (or Cyrenius in the Greek) was a
well-known Roman official who lived ca. 51 BC – AD 21. He
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is mentioned by numerous ancient authors, including Josephus,

Suetonius, Pliny the Elder, Cassius Dio, Tacitus, Strabo, and
Caesar Augustus himself. Quirinius is described as a man “of
great dignity,”1 who was “extremely rich”2 and who held a
variety of roles in the Roman empire including those of
senator3, duumvir4, consul5, and legate6. He rose to fame
through his skill as a military commander when he conquered
the Pisidian tribes of the Homonadenses during the reign of
Caesar Augustus.7 Quirinius was married twice, first to Appia
Claudia, and later to Aemilia Lepida, both of whom he divorced.
The latter he accused of having tried to poison him8 and of
claiming that he was her son’s father, which he said was
impossible.9 Perhaps the most succinct biography of Quirinius
comes from Tacitus:
“About the same time he [Tiberius] requested the Senate to let

the death of Sulpicius Quirinus be celebrated with a public
funeral. With the old patrician family of the Sulpicii this
Quirinus, who was born in the town of Lanuvium, was quite
unconnected. An indefatigable soldier, he had by his zealous
services won the consulship under the Divine Augustus, and
subsequently the honours of a triumph for having stormed some
fortresses of the Homonadenses in Cilicia. He was also
appointed adviser to Caius Cæsar in the government of
Armenia, and had likewise paid court to Tiberius, who was then
at Rhodes. The emperor now made all this known to the Senate,
and extolled the good offices of Quirinus to himself, while he
censured Marcus Lollius, whom he charged with encouraging
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Caius Cæsar in his perverse and quarrelsome behaviour. But

people generally had no pleasure in the memory of Quirinus,
because of the perils he had brought, as I have related, on
Lepida, and the meanness and dangerous power of his last
years.”10
The Difficulties
Luke’s mention of Quirinius in connection with the census, and
his role in Syria at that time, have caused no shortage of
difficulty for those who hold to the historical reliability of
Scripture. Some critics have declared that there is no known
Roman census around the time of Christ’s birth11, and thus
Luke is in error. This, however, is the logical fallacy,
argumentum ex silentio (argument from silence). Others have
pointed out that Quirinus was the governor of Syria in 6 AD,
and that he oversaw a census at that time, not at the time of
Christ’s birth up to a decade earlier. For example, in his book,
The History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ,
Emil Schürer concludes, “There is no alternative but to
recognize that the evangelist based his statement on uncertain
historical information.”12 Is this true? Is there no alternative
but to conclude that Luke was mistaken?
Proposed Solutions
Various proposals to this supposed problem have been
proposed. Some have suggested that it is Josephus, not Luke,
119
who has made the error in dating Quirinius’ role as governor of

Syria.13 Others have proposed that, since the Greek word for
“first” (proto) can be translated “before,” the verse in question
could be translated, “This was the census that took place before
Quirinius was governor of Syria.” However, this would be such
an awkward wording that Greek scholar, Daniel Wallace, has
concluded, “such a view is almost impossible.“14 Still others
believe Quirinius served as governor of Syria twice, suggesting
that his tombstone has been discovered near Tivoli, which
declares that he was “twice Legate” of Augustus in Syria.15
However, this tombstone inscription is fragmentary and the
owner’s name is missing, making any connection with Quirinius
speculative at best. The only thing one can really conclude from
this inscription is that a person could serve as Legate of Caesar
twice. Yet another theory proposes there were two Legates of
Syria at the same time, Quirinius being one of them. Some of
these proposals have more validity than others, and it is beyond
the scope of this blog to analyze each individually.
Trivoli Tombstone
This inscription is from a tombstone discovered near Trivoli,
Italy. It’s owner was once “Twice Legate” of Augustus in Syria.
Photo credit: Todd Bolen, BiblePlaces.com NOTE: This Photo
is part of an excellent resource called the Photo Companion to
the Bible – https://www.bibleplaces.com/luke-photo-
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However, I would suggest that a better alternative is to take a

general approach to this problem. If we step back and analyze
what is known from history and what Scripture does and does
not say, we will see that Luke’s comments about Quirinius are
consistent with the type of roles this famous Roman official was
given by Caesar. He was a man whose “zealous services” had
benefited Rome in various ways, including conducting a census
in 6 AD, and may well have overseen some sort of “registration”
(ESV) at an earlier date.
In his book, Was Christ Born At Bethlehem, Sir William

Ramsay noted, “The only certain dates in the life of Quirinius
are his consulship in B.C. 12, his second government of Syria
beginning in A.D. 6, and his prosecution of his former wife,
Domitia Lepida in A.D. 20 and his death and public funeral in
A.D. 21.”16 In the years since he penned those words, no
significant discovery has been made that positively dates other
events in Quirinius’s life. The only other major event that is
know is his role in Syria leading the war against the
Homonadenses sometime between 12 BC and 6 AD. Beyond
various theories, we cannot even say with certainty the exact
year this took place. The fact is, that much of what is known
about Quirinius’s life around the time of Christ’s birth is
unknown.
beirut_tombstone_aemilius_census_quirinius_in_apamea
121
The tombstone of Q. Aemilius Secundus, who conducted a

census for the Legate Quirinius in Apamea in Syria. Photo: Jona
Lendering / Livius.org / CC0 1.0 Universal
It is also important to note what the verse does not say. Luke
does not say that Quirinius was the Governor (Legate) of Syria.
Despite the way it is translated in our English versions of the
Bible, in the original Greek, it says he was governing in Syria.
Luke uses the verb ἡγεμονεύω (hēgemoneuō), which means
Quirinius was exercising authority in some capacity, but does
not necessarily mean he was holding the specific office of
governor.17 Most scholars agrees that he was the Legate of
Syria in 6 AD, which is when Archelaus was deposed and
Quirinius was sent into Syria to settle his estate. Josephus
writes that Quirinius “came himself into Judea, which was now
added to the province of Syria, to take an account of their
substance, and to dispose of Archelaus’s money; but the Jews,
although at the beginning they took the report of a taxation
heinously, yet did they leave off any further opposition to it.”18
His position as the Governor (Legate) of Syria at this time is
confirmed by the discovery of a tombstone in Beruit, known
popularly as the Q. Aemilius Secundus inscription. In it,
Quirinius is called the “legato Augusti Caesaris Syriae.”19 So
we know that Quirinius was the Governor (Legate) of Syria
around 6 AD, and it would appear he oversaw a census in
conjunction with taxing the population. This is likely the census
referred to in Acts 5:37; so, Luke is aware of the second census,
which is likely why he notes that the one at Jesus’ birth was the
“first” one.
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Quirinius may well have been governing in some capacity in

Syria around the time of Christ’s birth and conducted an earlier
registration. There are two plausible options to consider:
Some have suggested he may have been Legate of Syria twice.

As we have seen, the Trivoli tombstone inscription is evidence
this occurred. While critics have pointed out that Publius
Quintus Varus was the Legate of Syria from 7-4 BC, there is
some debate around who followed him as Legate in Syria.
Holden and Geisler conclude, “The probability that Quirinius
was governor of Syria on two different occasions also cannot be
ignored – once while prosecuting military action against the
Homonadensians between 12 and 2 BC, and then a second time
beginning about 6 AD.”20
Even if he wasn’t the Legate of Syria, he may have held a
different role that would be considered governing, consistent
with Luke’s description. Jared M. Compton summarizes:
“Quirinius’s personal chronology is not fully known,
particularly around the years of Jesus’ birth. Thus, it is not
impossible that he held another office at the time which Luke
appropriately describes with (h[gemoneuontoj thj Suriaj)
hegmoneuontos tēs Surias, a description as we saw which could
also appropriately describe the office from which he took his
well-known census.”21
123
The second thing to note from Luke 2:2, is that the text does not
say that it was a tax census. This is an unfortunate
misunderstanding due to the way this verse is translated in the
King James Version. In the Greek it uses the word ἀπογράφω
(apographō), which is best translated as a “registration” or
“census.” To be sure, the Romans did conduct censuses for the
purposes of taxation, and several such ones are known from
history.
Are there any registrations to which Luke might have referred?

As mentioned in the previous bioarchaeography of Caesar
Augustus, he himself records a census that was begun in 8 BC,
and another event in 2 BC in which the “entire Roman people”
gave him the title of “Father of My Country.” 22 Josephus
likely makes note of this event and says that 6000 pharisees
refused to swear loyalty to Caesar. Some modern scholars have
theorized that there was an empire-wide registration associated
with this event, which would explain how Josephus knew there
were 6000 pharisees who refused to take the oath to Caesar.
One ancient writer – Orosius – likely referred to this registration
when he wrote that census Luke refers to was the one in which
all great nations took an oath of loyalty to Caesar and were
“made part of one society.”23
Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n1SMALL
124
A scene depicting a Roman census on a plaque from the Altar of

Domitius Ahenobarbus dating to the late 2nd century BC. Photo:
Jastrow / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain
The point is, there are various registrations known from history
around the time of Christ’s birth to which Luke may have been
referring. Critics who dismiss these because they are off by a
year or two, seem to be overly confident in the precision of their
dating of ancient events, and often fail to consider how long an
empire-wide census would take to complete. For comparison,
David’s census of Israel alone took over nine months to
complete (2 Sam. 24:9). It is also possible that the earlier
census which Quirinius oversaw at the time of Christ is yet
unknown to history. Kenneth Kitchen’s maxim holds true: the
absence of evidence is not evidence of absence, otherwise one is
making an argument from silence. Stepping back and taking a
general approach allows us to see that Luke’s description of
census around the time of Christ is consistent with what is
known about the type of roles that Quirinius held in ancient
Rome.
Summary
Daniel Wallace has observed, “Evangelicals often have a
tendency to find implausible solutions to difficulties in the Bible
and to be satisfied that they have once again vindicated the
Word of God. On the other hand, critical scholars tend to find
errors in the Bible where none exist.”24 Rather than rely on
speculative theories, I have chosen to analyze the historical data,
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and every known inscription relating to Quirinius (see Appendix

A below), and have concluded that what is known about
Quirinius from history consistent is with Luke’s statement.
While some critics resort to arguments from silence and make
bold declarations about there being “no alternative” but to
accept that Luke was wrong, I believe that there are plausible
alternatives, especially in light of our incomplete knowledge of
both Quirinius’s life and the history of Judea at the time of
Christ’s birth.
a.1601746703291692/2244928348973521
Herod the Great: An Archaeological Biography
It’s been said that every story needs a villain. In the case of the
Christmas narrative recorded in the Gospel of Matthew, the
villain is none other than Herod the Great. King Herod looms
large and menacing in Jerusalem when the Magi arrive looking
for the new king who had been born.
This amphora fragment bears the Latin inscription, “Belonging
to Herod king of Judea.” Photo: Todd Bolen, BiblePlaces.com
Now after Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea in the days of
Herod the king, behold, wise men from the east came to
Jerusalem, saying, “Where is he who has been born king of the
Jews? For we saw his star when it rose and have come to
worship him. “When Herod the king heard this, he was troubled,
and all Jerusalem with him…” (Matt. 2:1-3)
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Understanding who Herod the Great was and the historical

context surrounding the birth of Jesus illuminates and affirms
the story recorded in Scripture.
HEROD’S RISE TO POWER
In the days of Herod, king of Judea…(Luke 1:5)
Herod’s father, Antipater, was favored by Caesar Augustus, and
appointed procurator of Judea in 47 BC. One of his first acts
was to make his son, Herod, governor of Galilee.1 Herod was
then promoted to Tetrarch of Galilee by Marc Antony, and in 40
BC, was named the King of Judea by the Roman senate.2
Unfortunately, Judea already had a king, Antigonus, who was
from the royal Hasmonean family. Antigonus sided with the
Parthians who conquered Jerusalem. After three years of bloody
fighting, Herod and his army reconquered Jerusalem and, in 37
BC, secured his hold on Jerusalem as the unrivaled King of
Judea.3
This coin depicts Herod’s helmet on one side and a tripod,
surrounded by the Greek inscription, BAΣIΛEΩΣ HPΩΔOY,
meaning “of King Herod” on the other. It is dated Year 3 (37
BC) and have been minted to commemorate his victory in
Jerusalem. Photo: wildwinds.com, ex Freeman & Sear, Sale 12,
Oct. 2002.
While Herod was officially the “King of the Jews,” his lineage
proved problematic; his father was Idumean, and he was
considered a “half-Jew.”4 To help overcome this, he divorced
his first wife, Doris, and married Mariamne, a Hasmonean
127
princess. He also appealed to Jewish sensitivities by ensuring

that no graven image appeared on the coins that he minted. But
perhaps the greatest way that Herod secured the good-will of the
people he governed was through his glorious expansion to the
Temple complex. Even Jesus’ disciples were impressed by the
magnificent buildings.
HEROD’S BUILDINGS
And as he came out of the temple, one of his disciples said to
him, “Look, Teacher, what wonderful stones and what
wonderful buildings!” (Mark 13:1)
This seaside hippodrome in Caesarea Maritima was built by
Herod the Great. Photo: Image courtesy of
www.HolyLandPhotos.org
Herod the Great was a prolific builder. During his reign he
initiated great building projects throughout Israel, including at
Jerusalem, Sebaste (Samaria), Caesarea Maritima, Jericho,
Sepphoris, Paneas and Hebron. He built a fortress at Masada
and his fortress-palace called the Herodium (or Herodion). He
constructed palaces, ports, theaters, stadiums, hippodromes,
gymnasiums, water systems, and gardens.5 Josephus recorded
that his building activity was not limited to his own realm: “And
when he had built so much, he showed the greatness of his soul
to no small number of foreign cities.”6
The Western wall of the Temple Mount with first-century street
and fallen stones below. The lowest courses of stones of the
Temple Mount are in their original position from the time of
128
King Herod. This photo and caption are part of the Photo
Companion to the Bible – Mark. It is an excellent resource from
BiblePlaces.com: https://www.bibleplaces.com/photo-
Arguably, Herod’s greatest achievement was his expansion of
the Temple. Herodian ashlar stones can still be seen in the
retaining wall surrounding the Temple mount, and some of the
stonework from the buildings has been found in the rubble at the
base of the wall which Roman soldiers threw down when they
destroyed the temple in 70 AD. Josephus wrote, “Accordingly,
in the fifteenth year of his reign, Herod rebuilt the temple, and
encompassed a piece of land about it with a wall, which land
was twice as large as that before enclosed. The expenses he laid
out upon it were vastly large also, and the riches about it were
unspeakable.”7
Some of the tile designs that were reconstructed by the Temple
Mount Sifting Project. These tiles likely once adorned the floors
of some of the buildings that surrounded the Temple and/or
from under the colonnade. Photo: Temple Mount Sifting Project
https://tmsifting.org/en/
In 2016, Archaeologists from the Temple Mount Sifting Project
successfully restored some of the stunning flooring tile patterns
from the Second Temple using colored stone floor tile segments
found in the earth and rubble that had originally come from the
Temple Mount. Seven specific floor tile designs were assembled
by using basic geometry, the known size of a Roman foot
(approximately 29.6 cm), and similarities to the tile designs used
129
by Herod at other sites, including his palaces at Masada,

Herodium and Jericho.8
A doric capital that would have once been atop on of the
columns in Solomon’s Portico. Photo: Temple Mount Sifting
Project https://tmsifting.org/en/
In 2017, the Temple Mount Sifting Project displayed a capital
from one of the columns that formed the eastern colonnade of
the Second Temple, known in the New Testament as
“Solomon’s Colonnade” (John 10:23; Acts 5:12).9
In his book, The Architecture of Herod the Great Builder, Ehud
Netzer describes Herod as a builder who was ahead of his time:
“Herod not only showed interest in the field of construction but
also had a profound understanding of planning and architecture,
and therefore took an active and important part in the erection of
many of his buildings…Herod’s grasp of the realm of
construction seems to me to be beyond the times in which he
lived. The combination of an vibrant ruler, having an analytical
mind and at the same time a pragmatic approach, together with a
far reaching imagination, led him to initiate building projects
that reflect a line of thought similar to that of an architect acting
in the 20th or 21st century!”10
HEROD’S CRUELTY
Then Herod, when he saw that he had been tricked by the wise
men, became furious, and he sent and killed all the male
children in Bethlehem and in all that region who were two years
130
old or under, according to the time that he had ascertained from

the wise men.(Matt. 2:16)
The Slaughter of the Innocents, by Giovanni Pisano (1250-
1314), in the Sant’Andrea Church, Pistoia. Photo: Wikimedia
The “Slaughter of the Innocents” is unknown to historians
outside of the Bible, but its cruelty consistent with the type of
person Herod was, particularly in his later years. He drowned
his brother-in-law, Aristobulus, an 18-year old High Priest,
because he thought the Romans would favor the popular young
man over him as ruler of Judea.11 He ordered his Hasmonean
mother-in-law, Alexandra to be executed,12 as well as his
beloved second wife, Miriamme.13He also ordered that his sons
Alexander and Aristobulus,14 as well as Anitpater15be killed.
Caesar Augustus was said to have quipped that it was better to
be Herod’s pig (hus) than his son (huios).16 In modern times,
Herod the Great has been variously diagnosed with Paranoid
Schizophrenia or with Paranoid Personality Disorder.17
The sad reality is that the slaughter of boys in Bethlehem may
have been too insignificant an event for historians, such as
Josephus who wrote nearly a century later, to take note of.
William F. Albright estimated the population of Bethlehem at
the time of Jesus’ birth to be about 300 people.18 Historian,
Paul Maier estimates that there may have been only a dozen
boys or so who were slaughtered19 – a tragic event, but not the
sort of thing that would catch the attention of historians of the
day.
131
Gordon Franz concludes:

“The slaughter of the innocents is unattested in secular records,
but the historical plausibility of this event happening is
consistent with the character and actions of Herod the Great.
Besides killing his enemies, he had no qualms in killing family
members and friends as well. Herod would not have given a
second thought about killing a handful of babies in a small,
obscure village south of Jerusalem in order to keep his throne
secure for himself.”20
HEROD’S DEATH
But when Herod died, behold, an angel of the Lord appeared in
a dream to Joseph in Egypt, saying, “Rise, take the child and his
mother and go to the land of Israel, for those who sought the
child’s life are dead.” (Matt. 2:19-20)
The dating of Herod’s death is linked to the dating of the birth
of Christ, since it was a short time afterward that Joseph took his
child and moved back to Israel from Egypt, where he had fled.
Anyone who studied the dating of Herod’s death21 knowns that
it is a convoluted journey through contradictory data, involving
the date Herod’s sons began to rule, Josephus’ account linking
his death to a lunar eclipse,22 and possible copying errors that
were propagated in later manuscripts of Josephus.23 The
consensus view is that he died in 4 BC; the minority view is that
he died in 1 BC, with Jesus’ birth occurring in the year or two
before Herod’s death.
132
An aerial view of the Herodium, Herod’s fortress-palace.

Photo: Asaf T / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain
Josephus records that Herod knew that he was unpopular as his
end drew near and that people would celebrate his death. So he
ordered that a group of men who had come to Jericho be killed
when he died, stating, “Every family of them, will weep at it,
whether they will or no.”24 Upon his passing, this command
was not carried out. Herod’s remains were taken back to the
Herodium, where he was buried.
This reconstructed sarcophagus was discovered near a
mausoleum at the Herodium. Some scholars believe it once
contained the body of Herod the Great. Photo: A.D. Riddle /
BiblePlaces.com
In 2007, Ehud Netzer announced that, after a 35-year search, he
had found Herod’s tomb half-way up the eastern slop of the
Herodium.25 Near the tomb he discovered hundreds of red
limestone fragments from an eight-foot long sarcophagus
adorned with intricate rosettes. While there was no tell-tale
inscription, Netzer believes it to be the sarcophagus of Herod the
Great, which had been deliberately destroyed by those who
hated the Jewish king. Other scholars have questioned this
conclusion, however, pointing out that neither the mausoleum
nor the sarcophagus was impressive enough for a king of
Herod’s riches and ego.
CONCLUSION
133
Herod the Great’s reign left a mark on Israel that can still be
seen today in the Herodian architecture that remains. Some of
the “wonderful stones” the disciples pointed out to Jesus can
still be seen today at the Temple Mount. His reign was also
documented by historians, such as Josephus, who did not shy
away from the terrible things he did. Herod’s paranoia and
tempestuous behavior provide the historical background to his
command to kill all the boys two years of age and under in
Bethlehem in his attempt to eliminate yet another perceived
threat to his throHerod the Great: An Archaeological Biography
It’s been said that every story needs a villain. In the case of the
Christmas narrative recorded in the Gospel of Matthew, the
villain is none other than Herod the Great. King Herod looms
large and menacing in Jerusalem when the Magi arrive looking
for the new king who had been born.
This amphora fragment bears the Latin inscription, “Belonging

to Herod king of Judea.” Photo: Todd Bolen, BiblePlaces.com
Now after Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea in the days of
Herod the king, behold, wise men from the east came to
Jerusalem, saying, “Where is he who has been born king of the
Jews? For we saw his star when it rose and have come to
worship him. “When Herod the king heard this, he was troubled,
and all Jerusalem with him…” (Matt. 2:1-3)
134
Understanding who Herod the Great was and the historical

context surrounding the birth of Jesus illuminates and affirms
the story recorded in Scripture.
HEROD’S RISE TO POWER

In the days of Herod, king of Judea…(Luke 1:5)
Herod’s father, Antipater, was favored by Caesar Augustus, and

appointed procurator of Judea in 47 BC. One of his first acts
was to make his son, Herod, governor of Galilee.1 Herod was
then promoted to Tetrarch of Galilee by Marc Antony, and in 40
BC, was named the King of Judea by the Roman senate.2
Unfortunately, Judea already had a king, Antigonus, who was
from the royal Hasmonean family. Antigonus sided with the
Parthians who conquered Jerusalem. After three years of bloody
fighting, Herod and his army reconquered Jerusalem and, in 37
BC, secured his hold on Jerusalem as the unrivaled King of
Judea.3
This coin depicts Herod’s helmet on one side and a tripod,

surrounded by the Greek inscription, BAΣIΛEΩΣ HPΩΔOY,
meaning “of King Herod” on the other. It is dated Year 3 (37
135
BC) and have been minted to commemorate his victory in

Jerusalem. Photo: wildwinds.com, ex Freeman & Sear, Sale 12,
Oct. 2002.
While Herod was officially the “King of the Jews,” his lineage
proved problematic; his father was Idumean, and he was
considered a “half-Jew.”4 To help overcome this, he divorced
his first wife, Doris, and married Mariamne, a Hasmonean
princess. He also appealed to Jewish sensitivities by ensuring
that no graven image appeared on the coins that he minted. But
perhaps the greatest way that Herod secured the good-will of the
people he governed was through his glorious expansion to the
Temple complex. Even Jesus’ disciples were impressed by the
magnificent buildings.
HEROD’S BUILDINGS
And as he came out of the temple, one of his disciples said to
him, “Look, Teacher, what wonderful stones and what
wonderful buildings!” (Mark 13:1)
This seaside hippodrome in Caesarea Maritima was built by

Herod the Great. Photo: Image courtesy of
www.HolyLandPhotos.org
136
Herod the Great was a prolific builder. During his reign he

initiated great building projects throughout Israel, including at
Jerusalem, Sebaste (Samaria), Caesarea Maritima, Jericho,
Sepphoris, Paneas and Hebron. He built a fortress at Masada
and his fortress-palace called the Herodium (or Herodion). He
constructed palaces, ports, theaters, stadiums, hippodromes,
gymnasiums, water systems, and gardens.5 Josephus recorded
that his building activity was not limited to his own realm: “And
when he had built so much, he showed the greatness of his soul
to no small number of foreign cities.”6
The Western wall of the Temple Mount with first-century street

and fallen stones below. The lowest courses of stones of the
Temple Mount are in their original position from the time of
King Herod. This photo and caption are part of the Photo
Companion to the Bible – Mark. It is an excellent resource from
BiblePlaces.com: https://www.bibleplaces.com/photo-
Arguably, Herod’s greatest achievement was his expansion of
the Temple. Herodian ashlar stones can still be seen in the
retaining wall surrounding the Temple mount, and some of the
stonework from the buildings has been found in the rubble at the
base of the wall which Roman soldiers threw down when they
destroyed the temple in 70 AD. Josephus wrote, “Accordingly,
in the fifteenth year of his reign, Herod rebuilt the temple, and
encompassed a piece of land about it with a wall, which land
137
was twice as large as that before enclosed. The expenses he laid

out upon it were vastly large also, and the riches about it were
unspeakable.”7
Some of the tile designs that were reconstructed by the Temple

Mount Sifting Project. These tiles likely once adorned the floors
of some of the buildings that surrounded the Temple and/or
from under the colonnade. Photo: Temple Mount Sifting Project
https://tmsifting.org/en/
In 2016, Archaeologists from the Temple Mount Sifting Project
successfully restored some of the stunning flooring tile patterns
from the Second Temple using colored stone floor tile segments
found in the earth and rubble that had originally come from the
Temple Mount. Seven specific floor tile designs were assembled
by using basic geometry, the known size of a Roman foot
(approximately 29.6 cm), and similarities to the tile designs used
by Herod at other sites, including his palaces at Masada,
Herodium and Jericho.8
A doric capital that would have once been atop on of the

columns in Solomon’s Portico. Photo: Temple Mount Sifting
Project https://tmsifting.org/en/
138
In 2017, the Temple Mount Sifting Project displayed a capital

from one of the columns that formed the eastern colonnade of
the Second Temple, known in the New Testament as
“Solomon’s Colonnade” (John 10:23; Acts 5:12).9
In his book, The Architecture of Herod the Great Builder, Ehud

Netzer describes Herod as a builder who was ahead of his time:
“Herod not only showed interest in the field of construction but

also had a profound understanding of planning and architecture,
and therefore took an active and important part in the erection of
many of his buildings…Herod’s grasp of the realm of
construction seems to me to be beyond the times in which he
lived. The combination of an vibrant ruler, having an analytical
mind and at the same time a pragmatic approach, together with a
far reaching imagination, led him to initiate building projects
that reflect a line of thought similar to that of an architect acting
in the 20th or 21st century!”10
HEROD’S CRUELTY
Then Herod, when he saw that he had been tricked by the wise
men, became furious, and he sent and killed all the male
children in Bethlehem and in all that region who were two years
old or under, according to the time that he had ascertained from
the wise men. (Matt. 2:16)
139
The Slaughter of the Innocents, by Giovanni Pisano (1250-

1314), in the Sant’Andrea Church, Pistoia. Photo: Wikimedia
The “Slaughter of the Innocents” is unknown to historians
outside of the Bible, but its cruelty consistent with the type of
person Herod was, particularly in his later years. He drowned
his brother-in-law, Aristobulus, an 18-year old High Priest,
because he thought the Romans would favor the popular young
man over him as ruler of Judea.11 He ordered his Hasmonean
mother-in-law, Alexandra to be executed,12 as well as his
beloved second wife, Miriamme.13 He also ordered that his
sons Alexander and Aristobulus,14 as well as Anitpater15 be
killed. Caesar Augustus was said to have quipped that it was
better to be Herod’s pig (hus) than his son (huios).16 In modern
times, Herod the Great has been variously diagnosed with
Paranoid Schizophrenia or with Paranoid Personality
Disorder.17
The sad reality is that the slaughter of boys in Bethlehem may

have been too insignificant an event for historians, such as
Josephus who wrote nearly a century later, to take note of.
William F. Albright estimated the population of Bethlehem at
the time of Jesus’ birth to be about 300 people.18 Historian,
Paul Maier estimates that there may have been only a dozen
140
boys or so who were slaughtered19 – a tragic event, but not the

sort of thing that would catch the attention of historians of the
day.
Gordon Franz concludes:
“The slaughter of the innocents is unattested in secular records,

but the historical plausibility of this event happening is
consistent with the character and actions of Herod the Great.
Besides killing his enemies, he had no qualms in killing family
members and friends as well. Herod would not have given a
second thought about killing a handful of babies in a small,
obscure village south of Jerusalem in order to keep his throne
secure for himself.”20
HEROD’S DEATH
But when Herod died, behold, an angel of the Lord appeared in
a dream to Joseph in Egypt, saying, “Rise, take the child and his
mother and go to the land of Israel, for those who sought the
child’s life are dead.” (Matt. 2:19-20)
The dating of Herod’s death is linked to the dating of the birth

of Christ, since it was a short time afterward that Joseph took his
child and moved back to Israel from Egypt, where he had fled.
141
Anyone who studied the dating of Herod’s death21 knowns that

it is a convoluted journey through contradictory data, involving
the date Herod’s sons began to rule, Josephus’ account linking
his death to a lunar eclipse,22 and possible copying errors that
were propagated in later manuscripts of Josephus.23 The
consensus view is that he died in 4 BC; the minority view is that
he died in 1 BC, with Jesus’ birth occurring in the year or two
before Herod’s death.
An aerial view of the Herodium, Herod’s fortress-palace. Photo:

Asaf T / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain
Josephus records that Herod knew that he was unpopular as his
end drew near and that people would celebrate his death. So he
ordered that a group of men who had come to Jericho be killed
when he died, stating, “Every family of them, will weep at it,
whether they will or no.”24 Upon his passing, this command
was not carried out. Herod’s remains were taken back to the
Herodium, where he was buried.
This reconstructed sarcophagus was discovered near a

mausoleum at the Herodium. Some scholars believe it once
contained the body of Herod the Great. Photo: A.D. Riddle /
BiblePlaces.com
142
In 2007, Ehud Netzer announced that, after a 35-year search, he

had found Herod’s tomb half-way up the eastern slop of the
Herodium.25 Near the tomb he discovered hundreds of red
limestone fragments from an eight-foot long sarcophagus
adorned with intricate rosettes. While there was no tell-tale
inscription, Netzer believes it to be the sarcophagus of Herod the
Great, which had been deliberately destroyed by those who
hated the Jewish king. Other scholars have questioned this
conclusion, however, pointing out that neither the mausoleum
nor the sarcophagus was impressive enough for a king of
Herod’s riches and ego.
CONCLUSION
Herod the Great’s reign left a mark on Israel that can still be
seen today in the Herodian architecture that remains. Some of
the “wonderful stones” the disciples pointed out to Jesus can
still be seen today at the Temple Mount. His reign was also
documented by historians, such as Josephus, who did not shy
away from the terrible things he did. Herod’s paranoia and
tempestuous behavior provide the historical background to his
command to kill all the boys two years of age and under in
Bethlehem in his attempt to eliminate yet another perceived
threat to his throne.
a.1601746703291692/2232444590221897
Gallio: An Archaeological Biography
143
Screenshot (1347)
Lucius Annaeus Novatus was born ca. 5 BC in Corduba

(modern-day Córdoba, Spain). His father was Seneca the Elder
and his brother was the philosopher, Seneca the Younger, who
became the tutor of the future Emperor Nero. Upon his
adoption by the Roman senator, Junius Gallio, he changed his
name to Lucius Junius Gallio Annaeanus.1 In AD 51, he was
chosen to serve as the proconsul of Achaea in Greece. It was in
this role that the Apostle Paul met him in Corinth when the Jews
brought charges against him.
In Acts 18:12-16 we read:
“But when Gallio was proconsul of Achaia, the Jews made a

united attack on Paul and brought him before the tribunal,
saying, “This man is persuading people to worship God contrary
to the law.”
But when Paul was about to open his mouth, Gallio said to the
Jews, “If it were a matter of wrongdoing or vicious crime, O
Jews, I would have reason to accept your complaint. But since it
is a matter of questions about words and names and your own
law, see to it yourselves. I refuse to be a judge of these things.”
144
And he drove them from the tribunal.”
Extra-Biblical Sources
Seneca
This bust of Gallio’s brother, Seneca, is in the
Antikensammlung Berlin. Photo Credit: I, Calidius / Wikimedia
Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0 (Background removed by author)
Our knowledge of Gallio comes not only from Scripture, but
also from other writers outside of the Bible. Gallio’s brother,
Seneca, described him as a person who could not be swayed by
shameless flattery. He wrote of his character in Naturales
Quaestiones:
“One began by paying homage to his intellect, the greatest and

worthiest of all, which one had rather see consecrated to the
service of heaven than wasted in weak human effort; he ran
away from one who talked thus. Or one began to praise his thrift
he was so indifferent to money that he seemed neither to possess
it nor to condemn it he cut short the very first words of the
panegyric.”2
The poet Statius, described him as being “honey-tongued.”3
145
We see in these contemporary characterizations the same well-

spoken, incisive man who is described in the book of Acts as the
Proconsul of Achaia.
Archaeologically there are two significant discoveries that relate

to Gallio: the bema in Corinth and the Delphi Inscription.
The Bema
Corinth Bema small
The Bema (Speakers Platform). located in the North West
Market of ancient Corinth dates to the early first century AD.
Photo Credit: Berthold Werner / Wikimedia Commons / CC
BY-SA 3.0
Luke records that Paul was brought before the tribunal in
Corinth; the Greek work that is used is bema, which means
judgement seat. A bema is an elevated platform from which city
officials would address the public.4 The bema of ancient
Corinth was discovered in the Market during excavations in the
early 20th century. It was identified as the bema through a Latin
inscription nearby that read, “…he revetted the rostra [the Latin
equivalent of a bema] and paid personally the expense of
making all its marble.”5 The platform itself rises 2.3 m (7.5
146
feet) above the pavement in the Market and it was likely here
that Gallio passed judgement in the case against Paul.
The Delphi Inscription

Gallio-inscription-3-fragments-tb051603751b2-bibleplaces
In this inscription from Delphi, Greece, the Roman emperor
Claudius names “my friend and proconsul L. Iunius Gallio.”
Photo credit: Todd Bolen, BiblePlaces.com (This Photo is part
of an excellent resource called the Photo Companion to the
Bible – https://www.bibleplaces.com/acts18/)
The most famous – and most important – artifact relating to
Gallio is the Delphi Inscription (sometimes called the Gallio
Inscription). In 1905, a French excavation team at Delphi,
Greece, unearthed a group of four fragments inscribed with a
Greek inscription. Over the next few years, five more fragments
were uncovered which turned out to be a copy of a letter from
the Emperor Claudius to the city, addressing the problem of
their sparse population.7 The inscription was likely attached at
one time to the walls of the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. It has
been reconstructed to read:
“Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, 12th year of

tribunician power, acclaimed emperor for the 26th time, father
of the country, sends greetings to [… ]. For long have I been
well-disposed to the city of Delphi and solicitous for its
147
prosperity, and I have always observed the cult of the Pythian

Apollo. Now since it is said to be destitute of citizens, as my
friend and proconsul L. Iunius Gallio recently reported to me,
and desiring that Delphi should regain its former splendour, I
command you (singular) to invite well-born people also from
other cities to come to Delphi as new inhabitants, and to accord
them and their children all the privileges of the Delphians as
being citizens on like and equal terms. For if some are
transferred as colonists to these regions….”8
The Delphi inscription is of immense importance for New

Testament studies. First, it confirms that Gallio was the
proconsul of Achaia, as Luke recorded in the book of Acts. At
that time Achaia was a Roman senatorial province, which
included the cities of Athens, Corinth, and Delphi.9 Secondly, it
helps us pinpoint the date of Paul’s stay in Corinth. The
inscription states that Claudius had been “acclaimed emperor for
the 26th time,” dating it to between January and August, AD 52.
In his book on biblical chronology, Dr. Andrew Steinmann
notes that, since Proconsuls usually took office on May 1st and
served for only one year, we know that Gallio served as
Proconsul of Achaia from the second half of AD 51 to the first
half of AD 52.10 The Gallio Inscription is a fixed marker by
which we can date most of Paul’s ministry and much of the
history of the early church.
Temple Apollo Delphi Bernard Gagnon CC BY SA 4

148
The Delphi Inscription was likely attached to the walls of this

Temple of Apollo in Delphi at one time. Photo Credit: Bernard
Gagnon / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 4.0
Summary
Luke is a historian who claims to have carefully investigated
everything and to have consulted with eyewitnesses (Luke 1:1-
4). In the case of the judgement of Gallio, he likely heard this
account directly from the Apostle Paul himself, with whom he
traveled. The details in the biblical account align with what is
known about Gallio from sources outside of the Bible and have
been affirmed by archaeological findings.
a.1601746703291692/2221997151266641
NOVEMBER 8, 2019BRYAN WINDLE

Tiglath-Pileser III: An Archaeological Biography
Screenshot (1361)
One of the greatest Assyrian kings is the subject of our next

bioarchaeography: Tiglath-Pileser III.
Incirli Stele
149
The Incirli Stele is an ancient boundary stone with a Phoenician

inscription that dates to the 8th century BC. On it, Tiglath-
Pileser III is referred to as “Puwal, the great king of Assyria.”
Photo: A.D. Riddle / BiblePlaces.com
In the spring of 745 BC, Pulu, the governor of Calah, seized the
Assyrian throne during a rebellion against the weak king, Ashur-
nirari V. He assumed the name, Tiglath-Pileser, and quickly
reorganized the kingdom by centralizing his power and creating
a standing army.1 As with many ancient kings, his thoughts
turned to expanding his empire; Tiglath-Pileser III led various
campaigns, subjugating lands both near and far, including the
area of Syria and Palestine. He ruled from ca. 745-727 BC,
eventually merging the kingdoms of Assyria and Babylonia.2
Tiglath-Pileser III had significant interactions with the kings of

Judah and Israel which are recorded in Scripture, as well as in
Assyrian inscriptions. He seems to have been actively involved
with the politics of Palestine and Syria.
In biblical descriptions the Assyrian king is called both Pul (2

Kings 15:19) and Tiglath-Pileser (2 Kings 15:29). The same is
true in extra-biblical inscriptions, as Tiglath-Pileser is referred
to as “Puwal, the great king of Assyria,” on the Incirli Trilingual
Inscription3 and as Pulu in Babylonian inscriptions.4
150
Tiglath-Pileser III and Menahem, King of Israel

Tiglath Pileser Stele Israel Museum Jerusalem Ardon Bar-Hama
The Stele of Tiglath-Pileser III names Menahm of Syria as one
of the kings who brought him tribute. Photo Credit: The Israel
Museum, Jerusalem / Ardon Bar-Hama
In 743 BC, Tiglath-Pileser III marched toward the
Mediterranean and received tribute from many of the kings of
the area.5 One of those kings was Menahem, King of Israel. In
2 Kings 15:19 we read, “Then Pul king of Assyria invaded the
land, and Menahem gave him a thousand talents of silver to gain
his support and strengthen his own hold on the kingdom.” In
Assyrian inscriptions, Tiglath-Pilesar III boasts, “As for
Menahem I overwhelmed him like a snowstorm and he . . . fled
like a bird, alone, and bowed to my feet”6 “Menahem of
Samaria” is also listed as one of the 17 kings of the west from
whom he received tribute. What was that tribute? He claims to
have received from these kings, “gold, silver, tin, iron, elephant-
hides, ivory, linen garments with multicolored trimmings, blue-
dyed wool, purple-dyed, wool, ebony-wood, boxwood-wood,
whatever was precious enough for a royal treasure.”7
Tiglath-Pileser III and Ahaz, King of Judah

Years later, Pekah, an Israelite official, assassinated Menahem’s
son, Pekahiah, and succeeded him as king (2 Kings 15:25). He
teamed up with Rezen, King of Syria, and laid siege to
151
Jerusalem. Ahaz, the King of Judah, turned to Tiglath-Pilesar III

for help:
“So Ahaz sent messengers to Tiglath-pileser king of Assyria,

saying, “I am your servant and your son. Come up and rescue
me from the hand of the king of Syria and from the hand of the
king of Israel, who are attacking me.” Ahaz also took the silver
and gold that was found in the house of the LORD and in the
treasures of the king’s house and sent a present to the king of
Assyria. And the king of Assyria listened to him.” (2Kings 16:7-
9a)
A clay tablet called the “Annals of Tiglath-Pilesar III” was

discovered in his palace in 1873 when Austen Henry Layard
excavated at Calah (Nimrud). Technically, the tablet is not an
annal in the sense of being a year-by-year description of his
reign, but rather a summary statement of Tiglath-Pileser’s
military and building accomplishments.8 It lists a group of
kings in Syria and Palestine who paid him tribute of “gold,
silver, tin, multi-colored garments, linen garments, red-purple
wool, [all kinds of] costly articles, produce of the sea (and) dry
land, the commodities of their lands, royal treasures, horses
(and) mules broken to the yo[ke]…”9 Among the kings listed is
“Jeohahaz the Judahite.” This inscription confirms the tribute
the Bible describes King Ahaz bringing to Tiglath-Pileser III,
although the biblical inventory lists only what Ahaz gave, or
only the most precious items of gold and silver.
152
Tiglath Pileser Summary Statement 7 British Museum

The Annals of Tiglath-Pileser III (Summary Statement Seven).
Photo Credit: THe British Museum / CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
Tiglath Pileser III and Hoshea, King of Israel
In 2Kings 15:30 Scripture records that “Hoshea son of Elah
conspired against Pekah son of Remaliah. He attacked and
assassinated him, and then succeeded him as king in the
twentieth year of Jotham son of Uzziah.” If the Annals of
Tiglath-Pilesar III are to be believed, he was behind the
assassination. He says, “They overthrew their king Pekah and I
placed Hoshea as king over them. I received from them 10
talents of gold, 1,000(?) talents of silver as their tribute and
brought them to Assyria.”10
Eventually, all of Syria was conquered by the Assyrians and

Tiglath-Pileser III deported people from the northern half of
Israel.11 2 Kings 15:29 records, “In the days of Pekah king of
Israel, Tiglath-Pileser king of Assyria came and captured Ijon,
Abel-beth-maacah, Janoah, Kedesh, Hazor, Gilead, and Galilee,
all the land of Naphtali, and he carried the people captive to
Assyria.” In an Assyrian inscription, Tiglath-Pileser III likely
refers to this event: “Israel (lit . : “Omri-Land”)…all its
inhabitants (and) their possessions I led to Assyria.”12
153
Tiglath-Pileser III Tribute

Tiglath-Pileser III receiving tribute. Photo: Detroit Institute of
Arts / Public Domain
Summary
The Bible describes the interactions between Tiglath-Pileser III
and various Hebrew kings. Assyrian inscriptions describe these
same interactions, albeit from the Assyrian perspective. At
many points, the details in Scripture are affirmed by details in
the Assyrian texts.
When Tiglath-Pileser III died in ca. 727 BC, he left a kingdom

that he had expanded through his military conquests and
reforms, such that the neo-Assyrian empire would continue to be
the world’s greatest kingdom for more than 100 years to come.
a.1601746703291692/2218789191587437
King Jehoiachin: An Archaeological Biography
Some of the Hebrew kings, such as King Uzziah (54 years) had
very long reigns; others, such as the subject of our next
bioarchaeography, ruled for a very short time.
154
King Jehoiachin became king of Judah upon his father’s death,

but only reigned for three months.
Jehoiachin was eighteen years old when he became king, and he
reigned three months in Jerusalem. His mother’s name was
Nehushta the daughter of Elnathan of Jerusalem. And he did
what was evil in the sight of the LORD, according to all that his
father had done. (2 Kings 24:8-9)
He is referred to by three different names in Scripture: Jeconiah
(meaning, “Yahweh will be steadfast” – 1 Chron. 3:16),
Jehoiachin (meaning “Yahweh will uphold” – 2 Kings 24:8),
and Coniah (“Yahweh has upheld him” – Jer. 37:1).1 It is not
known why he had different names, although kings in the
ancient world sometimes had multiple names: either a given
name and a throne name (ie. Mattaniah was given the throne
name Zedekiah) or a longer form and a shortened (ie. Jeconiah
shortened to Coniah).
There are only four known images of King Nebuchadnezzar;
this stele contains the best-preserved likeness. It is sometimes
mistakenly called the Tower of Babel Stele. Howeever, it bears
an image of the great Babylonian ziggurat, called the
Etemenanki, not the biblical Tower of Babel. It is held in the
Schøyen Collection, and is officially labeled MS 2063. Photo
credit: JoeRussel / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain
Jehoiachin came to the throne in the midst of a period of
turmoil, with the Babylonian army of King
Nebuchadnezzarbesieging the city. Scripture records that
Jehoiachin’s father, Jehoiakim had rebelled against Babylon:
155
During Jehoiakim’s reign, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon

invaded the land, and Jehoiakim became his vassal for three
years. But then he changed his mind and rebelled against
Nebuchadnezzar. (2Kings 24:1)
At the tender age of 18, Jehoiachin faced the wrath of
Nebuchadnezzar for the rebellion his father had begun. Rather
than fight a losing battle, he decided to give himself up to the
king of Babylon.
Scripture records: “And Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came
to the city while his servants were besieging it, and Jehoiachin
the king of Judah gave himself up to the king of Babylon…The
king of Babylon took him prisoner in the eighth year of his reign
and carried off all the treasures of the house of the LORD and
the treasures of the king’s house…And the king of Babylon
made Mattaniah, Jehoiachin’s uncle, king in his place, and
changed his name to Zedekiah.” (2 Kings 24:10-17)
Jehoiachin Taken Captive
Interestingly, we have a Babylonian account of siege of
Jerusalem and Jehoiachin’s capture, recording precisely the
same details as recorded in Scritpure.
The Babylonian Chronicle 5, also known as the Jerusalem
Chronicle, records the events from ca. 605-595 BC, early in
Nebuchadnezzar’s reign. Photo Credit: The British Museum /
CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
The Babylonian Chronicles are a series of clay tablets that
record the history of the kings of Babylon, from Nabopolassar
156
(ca. 625 BC) through to Cyrus (ca. 539 BC). They are believed
to have been discovered in the ruins of Babylon by Hormuzd
Rassam in the 19th century and brought back to London.2 They
weren’t translated until decades later, when the first tablet (BM
92502) was published in 1887 by Theophilus G. Pinches, an
Assyriologist at the British Museum.3 The Babylonian
Chronicle 5 (BM 21946), sometimes dubbed, “The Jerusalem
Chronicle,” was translated by Donald Wiseman in 1956, and
covers the period from 605 – 595 BC. It is famous for the fact
that it records the siege of Jerusalem:
“In the seventh year, the month of Kislîmu, the king of Akkad
[Nebuchadnezzar] mustered his troops, marched to Hatti-land
and besieged the city of Judah and on the second day of the
month of Addaru [February/March 597] he seized the city and
captured the king. [Jehoiachin]. He appointed there a king of
his own choice, [Mattaniah/Zedekiah”] and received its heavy
tribute and sent to Babylon.”4
While he is not named explicitly, Jehoiachin is clearly referred
to, as well as his successor, Zedekiah, and the fact that
Nebuchadnezzar to a heavy tribute from Jerusalem (specified in
the biblical text as the treasures of the Temple and the King’s
Palace).
Jehoiachin in Captivity
According to 2 Kings 24, Jehoiachin was taken as a prisoner to
Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar. Being a king, he may have been
placed under house arrest or in a special prison for royal
prisoners, rather than being kept in a common prison.
157
Eventually, when Nebuchadnezzar died and his son Evil-

Merodach (Awil-Marduk in Babylonian) became king,
Jehoiachin was released from prison. The biblical record reads:
And in the thirty-seventh year of the exile of Jehoiachin king of
Judah, in the twelfth month, on the twenty-seventh day of the
month, Evil-merodach king of Babylon, in the year that he
began to reign, graciously freed Jehoiachin king of Judah from
prison. And he spoke kindly to him and gave him a seat above
the seats of the kings who were with him in Babylon. So
Jehoiachin put off his prison garments. And every day of his life
he dined regularly at the king’s table, and for his allowance, a
regular allowance was given him by the king, according to his
daily needs, as long as he lived. (2 Kings 25:27-30)
The Jehoiachin Ration Tablet contains a record of the oil ration
for King Jehoiachin and his sons while they were prisoners in
Babylon. Photo Credit: Ferrell Jenkins –
https://ferrelljenkins.blog/2012/02/08/evil-merodach-562-560-
graciously-freed-jehoiachin/
Archaeological evidence has come to light which affirms that
Jehoiachin was indeed a prisoner in Babylonia. Between 1899
and 1917, Robert Koldewey oversaw the excavations at the
ancient city of Babylon. In an underground room near the Ishtar
Gate, he discovered a large cache of cuneiform tablets which
documented the rations for prisoners and skilled laborers of
Babylon.5 The tablets date from the 10th-35th year of King
Nebuchadnezzar and they list the names, professions and
nationalities of the prisoners who were receiving rations,
158
including Judahites, as well as those from Tyre, Byblos, Egypt,

Lydia and Greece.6
Several of the tablets mentioned “Iaukin,” the “king of Iakadu,”
identified as Jehoiachin, king of Judah, and list the rations given
to the royal family:
• One fragmented tablet reads, “…to Jehoiachin, king…”
• Another has been reconstructed to read, “10 sila of oil
to…Jehoiachin, king of Judah…2 ½ sila of oil to the five sons of
the king of Judah.”
• Yet another reads, “10 sila to Jehoiachin…2 ½ sila for
the five sons of the king of Judah.”7
A seal that may have belonged to Jehoiachin’s son, Pedaiah (1
Chron. 3:17-18). It reads, “Belonging to Pedayahu [Pedaiah],
the king’s son.” Photo: Chris McKinny/BiblePlaces.com
The “Jehoiachin Ration Tablets,” as they have come to be
known, are important for several reasons. First, they establish
that Jehoiachin was actually in captivity in Babylon, and that he
was still recognized as the king of Judah.8 Moreover, he
received more rations than others who are named in the tablets,
implying that he was given special honor. Since these tablets
come from earlier in the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, it means he
was being treated favorably even before Evil-Merodach released
him from prison. Finally, the tablets confirm that he had
numerous sons. The Babylonian records state that he had five
sons, while biblical text says he had seven sons (2 Chron. 3:17-
18). The difference may be explained by the fact that
159
Jehoiachin only had five sons at the time the ration tablets were
inscribed, and that he had two more later in life.
A Babylonian cuneiform tablet mentioning a village called Al-
Yahudu (the Judean town). Photo: ‫ עמית אבידן‬/ Wikimedia
Finally, the Talmud records that Jehoiachin eventually lived at
Nehardea, not far from Sippar. It is interesting to note that
numerous cuneiform tablets are known that refer to a village
called Al-Yahudu (“the Judaean town”) near Sippar, affirming
that Jewish captives did live in that general area.9
Summary
The archaeological evidence affirms the historical details
surrounding the life of king Jehoiachin as recorded in the
biblical text. Moreover, the Babylonian inscriptions provide a
glimpse into the life of the royal family while in exile in
Babylon. Eugene Merrill has analyzed the Babylonian sources
and concludes: “The effect of all this has been mutually
enlightening: The history of Judah/Judea/Yehud has been put on
unassailable chronological grounds and the Chronicles in turn
have taken on a new humanness and pathos through the color
provided by the Old Testament.”1King Jehoiachin: An
Some of the Hebrew kings, such as King Uzziah (54 years) had
very long reigns; others, such as the subject of our next
bioarchaeography, ruled for a very short time.
160
King Jehoiachin became king of Judah upon his father’s death,

but only reigned for three months.
Jehoiachin was eighteen years old when he became king, and he

reigned three months in Jerusalem. His mother’s name was
Nehushta the daughter of Elnathan of Jerusalem. And he did
what was evil in the sight of the LORD, according to all that his
father had done. (2 Kings 24:8-9)
He is referred to by three different names in Scripture: Jeconiah

(meaning, “Yahweh will be steadfast” – 1 Chron. 3:16),
Jehoiachin (meaning “Yahweh will uphold” – 2 Kings 24:8),
and Coniah (“Yahweh has upheld him” – Jer. 37:1).1 It is not
known why he had different names, although kings in the
ancient world sometimes had multiple names: either a given
name and a throne name (ie. Mattaniah was given the throne
name Zedekiah) or a longer form and a shortened (ie. Jeconiah
shortened to Coniah).

161

Jehoiachin came to the throne in the midst of a period of
turmoil, with the Babylonian army of King Nebuchadnezzar
besieging the city. Scripture records that Jehoiachin’s father,
Jehoiakim had rebelled against Babylon:
During Jehoiakim’s reign, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon

invaded the land, and Jehoiakim became his vassal for three
years. But then he changed his mind and rebelled against
Nebuchadnezzar. (2Kings 24:1)
At the tender age of 18, Jehoiachin faced the wrath of

Nebuchadnezzar for the rebellion his father had begun. Rather
than fight a losing battle, he decided to give himself up to the
king of Babylon.
Scripture records: “And Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came

to the city while his servants were besieging it, and Jehoiachin
the king of Judah gave himself up to the king of Babylon…The
king of Babylon took him prisoner in the eighth year of his reign
and carried off all the treasures of the house of the LORD and
the treasures of the king’s house…And the king of Babylon
162
made Mattaniah, Jehoiachin’s uncle, king in his place, and

changed his name to Zedekiah.” (2 Kings 24:10-17)
Jehoiachin Taken Captive

Interestingly, we have a Babylonian account of siege of
Jerusalem and Jehoiachin’s capture, recording precisely the
same details as recorded in Scritpure.

CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
The Babylonian Chronicles are a series of clay tablets that
record the history of the kings of Babylon, from Nabopolassar
(ca. 625 BC) through to Cyrus (ca. 539 BC). They are believed
to have been discovered in the ruins of Babylon by Hormuzd
Rassam in the 19th century and brought back to London.2 They
weren’t translated until decades later, when the first tablet (BM
92502) was published in 1887 by Theophilus G. Pinches, an
Assyriologist at the British Museum.3 The Babylonian
Chronicle 5 (BM 21946), sometimes dubbed, “The Jerusalem
Chronicle,” was translated by Donald Wiseman in 1956, and
covers the period from 605 – 595 BC. It is famous for the fact
that it records the siege of Jerusalem:
163
“In the seventh year, the month of Kislîmu, the king of Akkad
[Nebuchadnezzar] mustered his troops, marched to Hatti-land
and besieged the city of Judah and on the second day of the
month of Addaru [February/March 597] he seized the city and
captured the king. [Jehoiachin]. He appointed there a king of
his own choice, [Mattaniah/Zedekiah”] and received its heavy
tribute and sent to Babylon.”4
While he is not named explicitly, Jehoiachin is clearly referred

to, as well as his successor, Zedekiah, and the fact that
Nebuchadnezzar to a heavy tribute from Jerusalem (specified in
the biblical text as the treasures of the Temple and the King’s
Palace).
Jehoiachin in Captivity
According to 2 Kings 24, Jehoiachin was taken as a prisoner to
Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar. Being a king, he may have been
placed under house arrest or in a special prison for royal
prisoners, rather than being kept in a common prison.
Eventually, when Nebuchadnezzar died and his son Evil-
Merodach (Awil-Marduk in Babylonian) became king,
Jehoiachin was released from prison. The biblical record reads:
164
And in the thirty-seventh year of the exile of Jehoiachin king of

Judah, in the twelfth month, on the twenty-seventh day of the
month, Evil-merodach king of Babylon, in the year that he
began to reign, graciously freed Jehoiachin king of Judah from
prison. And he spoke kindly to him and gave him a seat above
the seats of the kings who were with him in Babylon. So
Jehoiachin put off his prison garments. And every day of his life
he dined regularly at the king’s table, and for his allowance, a
regular allowance was given him by the king, according to his
daily needs, as long as he lived. (2 Kings 25:27-30)
The Jehoiachin Ration Tablet contains a record of the oil ration

for King Jehoiachin and his sons while they were prisoners in
Babylon. Photo Credit: Ferrell Jenkins –
https://ferrelljenkins.blog/2012/02/08/evil-merodach-562-560-
graciously-freed-jehoiachin/
Archaeological evidence has come to light which affirms that
Jehoiachin was indeed a prisoner in Babylonia. Between 1899
and 1917, Robert Koldewey oversaw the excavations at the
ancient city of Babylon. In an underground room near the Ishtar
Gate, he discovered a large cache of cuneiform tablets which
documented the rations for prisoners and skilled laborers of
Babylon.5 The tablets date from the 10th-35th year of King
Nebuchadnezzar and they list the names, professions and
nationalities of the prisoners who were receiving rations,
165
including Judahites, as well as those from Tyre, Byblos, Egypt,

Lydia and Greece.6
Several of the tablets mentioned “Iaukin,” the “king of Iakadu,”

identified as Jehoiachin, king of Judah, and list the rations given
to the royal family:
One fragmented tablet reads, “…to Jehoiachin, king…”

Another has been reconstructed to read, “10 sila of oil to…
Jehoiachin, king of Judah…2 ½ sila of oil to the five sons of the
king of Judah.”
Yet another reads, “10 sila to Jehoiachin…2 ½ sila for the five
sons of the king of Judah.”7
A seal that may have belonged to Jehoiachin’s son, Pedaiah (1

Chron. 3:17-18). It reads, “Belonging to Pedayahu [Pedaiah],
the king’s son.” Photo: Chris McKinny/BiblePlaces.com
The “Jehoiachin Ration Tablets,” as they have come to be
known, are important for several reasons. First, they establish
that Jehoiachin was actually in captivity in Babylon, and that he
was still recognized as the king of Judah.8 Moreover, he
received more rations than others who are named in the tablets,
implying that he was given special honor. Since these tablets
come from earlier in the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, it means he
166
was being treated favorably even before Evil-Merodach released

him from prison. Finally, the tablets confirm that he had
numerous sons. The Babylonian records state that he had five
sons, while biblical text says he had seven sons (2 Chron. 3:17-
18). The difference may be explained by the fact that
Jehoiachin only had five sons at the time the ration tablets were
inscribed, and that he had two more later in life.
A Babylonian cuneiform tablet mentioning a village called Al-

Yahudu (the Judean town). Photo: ‫ עמית אבידן‬/ Wikimedia
Finally, the Talmud records that Jehoiachin eventually lived at
Nehardea, not far from Sippar. It is interesting to note that
numerous cuneiform tablets are known that refer to a village
called Al-Yahudu (“the Judaean town”) near Sippar, affirming
that Jewish captives did live in that general area.9
Summary
The archaeological evidence affirms the historical details
surrounding the life of king Jehoiachin as recorded in the
biblical text. Moreover, the Babylonian inscriptions provide a
glimpse into the life of the royal family while in exile in
Babylon. Eugene Merrill has analyzed the Babylonian sources
and concludes: “The effect of all this has been mutually
167
enlightening: The history of Judah/Judea/Yehud has been put on

unassailable chronological grounds and the Chronicles in turn
have taken on a new humanness and pathos through the color
provided by the Old Testament.”100
a.1601746703291692/2209744469158576
Pontius Pilate: An Archaeological Biography
Screenshot (1275)
Archaeology tells a story, but it does so piece-by-piece.

Sometimes artifacts tell a general story, helping us understand a
certain culture in greater detail. Sometimes a discovery tells a
specific story, providing information about certain aspects of a
person’s life. Such is the case with the subject of our next
archaeological biography. In this article we’ll explore the life of
Pontius Pilate.
Ancient Writings
Pontius Pilate ruled as the Roman Prefect of Judea from 26-36
AD. Numerous ancient texts provide information about him,
including the New Testament gospels, Philo’s On the Embassy
to Gaius, Josephus’ Antiquities of the Jews and The Jewish
Wars, as well as The Annals, by Tacitus.
168
The Jewish philosopher, Philo, provides the earliest, surviving

written account (ca. 41 AD). He describes Pontius Pilate as one
of the “emperor’s lieutenants,” who was “a man of a very
inflexible disposition, and very merciless as well as very
obstinate.” In Philo’s opinion, Pilate was “exceedingly angry,
and…at all times a man of most ferocious passions” who had a
habit of insulting others cruelly, and murdering people “untried
and uncondemned.”1
The New Testament gospels, written in the middle-to-the-end of

the first century, add to our knowledge of Pontius Pilate. His
cruelty is mentioned by Luke, who records an account of Pilate
mixing the blood of Galileans with their sacrifices (Lk 13:1).
Both Luke and Matthew refer to Pilate as the governor, using
the Greek word, hēgemōn, which is a general word referring to a
leader of any kind. Of course, Pilate is infamous for
condemning Jesus of Nazareth to death by crucifixion, as
recorded in each of the gospels.
Tacitus,_Annals,_Florence,_Plut._68,2
An 11th century copy of The Annals, by Tacitus. Photo Credit:
The Jewish historian, Josephus, says that Pilate was “sent by
Tiberius as prefect to Judaea”2 and that he condemned Jesus “to
169
the cross.”3 The Roman historian, Tacitus, records how

“Christus…suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of
Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius
Pilatus.”4
Both Philo and Josephus record numerous incidents in which

Pilate offended the Jewish people with both his cruelty and his
insensitivity to their religious beliefs and how he relented when
they threatened to go to Caesar.5 Josephus records an incident
in which Pilate used sacred money from the Temple treasury to
build an aqueduct to bring water into the city. When many Jews
protested, he had them beaten by his soldiers, resulting in many
deaths.6
These ancient texts paint a picture of a cruel man who attempted

to impose the Roman peace on Judea with an iron fist. He was
also self-seeking, and attempted to keep reputation in good
standing with the Roman Emperor, Tiberius.
The Pilate Stone

pontius_pilate_inscriptionsmall
The Pilate Stone confirms that Pontius Pilate was Prefect of
Judea. Photo Credit: BRBurton / Wikimedia Commons / Public
Domain
170
Archaeological evidence for Pontius Pilate was discovered in

1961, when an inscribed stone was unearthed in excavations
near the theater at Caesarea Maritima. The limestone block was
originally part of a dedication to Tiberius Caesar, although the
stone had been reused as part of a flight of steps during fourth
century repairs to the theater.7 Three of the original four lines
of text are still readable and can be reconstructed to read,
“Tiberium…Pontius Pilate…Prefect of Judea…” It is clear that
the stone was originally part of a structure called a Tiberium,
possible a temple dedicated to Tiberius Caesar.8
Interestingly, the “Pilate Stone,” as it has come to be known,

confirms that Pilate’s title was prefect, and not procurator, as
Tacitus, writing in the second century, mistakenly calls him.
The title of Roman governors changed from prefect to
procurator during the reign of the emperor Claudius (41-54
AD),9 so his mistake is understandable. The Pilate stone
confirms that Pilate was indeed the Prefect of Judea.
Israel Aerial View

An aerial view of Caesara Maratima, where Pontius Pilate
normally resided. In 6 BC, Judea became a Roman province and
Caesarea Maratima became the provincial capital. The Roman
Prefects likely resided in Herod’s former palace, seen in the
center of the photograph, jutting out into the sea. Photo Credit:
171
Ferrell Jenkins / https://ferrelljenkins.blog/2012/11/27/acts-24-

photo-illustrations-caesarea/
The Pilate Ring
pilat-ring
A copper ring bearing the inscription “of Pilatus” Image Credit
– drawing: J. Rodman; photo: C. Amit, IAA Photographic
Department, via Hebrew University
More recently, a second artifact with Pilate’s name on it has
come to light. During the 1968-69 excavations at the Herodium,
a copper ring was discovered in an archaeological layer that
dated no later than 71 AD.10 In 2018, it was taken out of
storage, cleaned, photographed and reanalyzed, revealing the
Greek inscription ΠΙΛΑΤΟ (PILATO).11 Given the rarity of the
name Pilate in the first century, and the fact that rings like this
were common among Roman soldiers, many scholars have
suggested it once belonged to Pontius Pilate or to one of his
servants.
Cate Bonesho, Assistant Professor in Early Judaeism at the

University of California, Los Angeles, has suggested that the
grammar of the Greek inscription indicates that the ring was
used to mark to whom items were sent. Thus, it may have been
worn by someone working for Pilate who collected goods on
behalf of the Prefect and then sent them to him.12
172
Pilate’s coins
AN00031802_001_l
A bronze prutah, minted by Pontius Pilate. It bears the
inscription LIZ, which signifies the 17th year of Tiberius (30/31
AD). Photo Credit: British Museum / CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
While he was Prefect of Judea, Pontius Pilate minted two types
of small bronze coins, called prutahs. The first, minted in 29
AD, has three bound ears of barley on one side and a simpulum
(a ladle used by Roman priests to pour wine over sacrifices) on
the other side. It bears the inscription, “Julia, of Caesar” in
reference to the wife of Augustus. The second type was minted
in 30 AD and displays a lituus (a staff used by Roman priests to
show their authority). The inscription reads, “Tiberius Caesar”
on one side and shows a wreath with the date on the other
side.13
In an article in the journal, New Testament Studies, Joan E.

Taylor points out that Pilate specifically included symbols that
were used primarily in the Roman Imperial cults on his coins.
She concludes, “In using exclusively Roman cultic items in his
coinage designed for a province largely composed of Jews and
Samaritans, Pilate was promoting Roman religion, manifested
largely in the imperial cult, in an environment in which there
were strong sensitivities.”14
173
Summary
The archaeological evidence for Pontius Pilate, as well as the
description in ancient texts, align with the biblical description of
the Prefect of Judea who sentenced Jesus of Nazareth to be
crucified. He was a cruel leader, committed to furthering the
interests of Rome in the Judean province. At the same time, he
was self-seeking, and aware of the importance of maintaining
the support of the emperor Tiberius. In the end, however, Pilate
was summoned back to Rome in 37 AD and tried for his cruelty
and for executing men without a proper trial.15 Eusebius
records that Pilate had fallen into misfortune and became his
own executioner.16
a.1601746703291692/2183107295155627
King Jehu: An Archaeological Biography
The subject of our next bioarchaeography is King Jehu a man

who had served for years as a commander in the army of Israel
(2 Kings 9:5), and was infamous for the ferocious way he drove
his chariot (2 Kings 9:20). One day, while in a council of war, a
prophet arrived and anointed him king of Israel, and gave him a
message from the Lord: “You shall strike down the house of
Ahab your master, so that I may avenge on Jezebel the blood of
my servants the prophets, and the blood of all the servants of the
LORD” (2 Kings 9:7). In the bloody coup that followed, Jehu
174
killed Joram, king of Israel, Ahaziah, king of Judah, and

Jezebel, the Queen mother. He further arranged for the murder
of “all who remained of the house of Ahab in Jezreel, all his
great men and his close friends and his priests, until he left him
none remaining.” (2 Kings 10:11). Then, Jehu deceitfully called
for a solemn assembly for Baal, at which he slaughtered the
prophets, priests and worshipers, and demolished the temple of
Baal. (2 Kings 10:25-27). Having secured the throne, Jehu
reigned over Israel for 28 years from ca. 841-814 BC.1
Jehu likely drove a chariot similar to these Assyrian chariots

pictured on the Balawat Gates of Shalmaneser III, which date to
the same time period. Photo: The Trustees of the British
Museum, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
Jehu’s Reign at Samaria
The Iron Age ruins of the Israelite palace on the acropolis at

Samaria. Photo: Todd Bolen, BiblePlaces.com
Like the Israelite kings of Israel before him, Jehu reigned over
Israel from Samaria (2 Kings 10:36). Omri had moved the
Israelite capital from Tirzah to Samaria and built a palace at the
top of the hill he had purchased from Shemer (1 Kings 16:24).
Parts of this palace were excavated by the Harvard Expedition
(1908-1910). The original structure was later expanded,
possibly by Omri’s son, although recent scholarship has
suggested that some of the renovations previously associated
175
with Ahab should be attributed to Jehu.2 Having reigned in

Samaria for close to three decades, he no doubt would have
made changes to the architecture of the site as evidence of his
power. Much of the original Israelite architecture was erased
when Herod the Great built a temple to Augustus on the
acropolis.
Jehu’s Destruction of Baal

Jehu’s “zeal for the LORD” (2 Kings 10:16) began well, with
his destruction of the cult of Baal. Jehu’s predecessor, King
Ahab, had “set up an altar for Baal in the temple of Baal that he
built in Samaria.” (1 Kings 16:32). In 2 Kings 10:27 we read
that Jehu “demolished the pillar of Baal, and demolished the
house of Baal, and made it a latrine to this day.”
No evidence of the Temple of Baal was discovered by either of

the teams that excavated Samaria, but the site was not fully
explored. It makes sense that the Temple would have been
located on the acropolis, as ancient temples were often located
on the highest point of a site. However, the eastern half of the
acropolis has never been excavated.3
176
An Iron Age toilet discovered at Lachish in a desecrated gate

shrine. Photo: Israel Antiquities Authority
The practice of desecrating a holy site by setting up a toilet in it
is attested in antiquity. While conclusive evidence of Jehu’s
destruction of Baal worship has yet to be unearthed, evidence of
Hezekiah’s religious reforms was discovered at Lachish in 2016.
There, a gate-shrine was discovered, along with two four-horned
altars that had their horns intentionally broken off. Within the
shrine, excavators also found a toilet – evidence of intentional
desecration.4 Based on the biblical description, Jehu did
something similar at the temple of Baal at Samaria.
Jehu in Assyrian Inscriptions

Jehu’s reign corresponded with that of Shalmaneser III, and he
is mentioned in numerous Assyrian inscriptions.
The Marble Slab Inscription from Ashur contains the Annals of

Shalmaneser III and record the tribute he received from King
Jehu. Photo: Ardon Bar-Hama, http://cojs.org/annals_edition_2-
_marble_slab_inscription-_839_bce/
One of the longest versions of Shalmaneser III’s annals was
discovered on a large stone tablet in the wall of the city of
Ashur. It records the various campaigns he took through the
177
first 21 years of his reign.5 In his 18th year, Shalmaneser

describes how he crossed the Euphrates river to defeat Hazael of
Damascus. In addition to this victory, he wrote, “I received
tribute from Ba’ali-manzeri of Tyre and from Jehu of the house
of Omri.”6 Other copies of Shalmaneser’s annals have been
discovered with the same description of Jehu’s tribute. These
include inscriptions on two monumental bulls discovered at
Nimrud (ancient Calah),7 in an annalistic tablet,8 as well as on
the Kurba’il stature of Shalmaneser III.9 This statue was
discovered at Fort Shalmaneser, but appears to have been
dedicated to the god Adad at Kurba’il.
The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III contains a record of the

tribute he received from King Jehu, and may contain an image
of his likeness. Photo: The Trustees of the British Museum, CC
BY-NC-SA 4.0
The most famous inscription naming Jehu is recorded on the
Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III. This black alabaster
monument was discovered in the central building at Nimrud by
archaeologist Sir Austen Henry Layard in 1846. It records
Shalmaneser III’s military achievements throughout the first 31
years of his reign and includes reliefs of the tributes that were
paid by five of the regions that he conquered.10 The inscription
over one of these reliefs reads, “Tribute of Jehu, son of Omri.
Silver, gold, a golden bowl, a golden beaker, golden goblets,
pitchers of gold, lead, staves for the hand of the king, javelins, I
178
received from him.”11 This relief contains an image of

Shalmaneser III receiving this tribute from a prostrate figure.
Many scholars believe this to be an image of King Jehu.
Archaeologist, Dr. Bryant Wood explains the image:
“The Black Obelisk represents the only possible likeness of a

king of Israel or Judah. All 14 of the Israelites are bearded, have
long hair and wear a pointed cap. They also wear a belted tunic
that has a fringe at the bottom. In addition, the Israelite porters
wear a mantle or cloak over the tunic that extends over the
shoulders and is fringed or tasseled down the front on both
sides. The kneeling figure, however, does not wear the outer
cloak. His position before Shalmaneser may explain its absence.
He is bowing in obeisance on his hands and knees before the
Assyrian king with his chin and beard towards the ground. As a
part of this humiliation, it seems that he had to remove his outer
garment, thus forcing him to bow before the emperor of the
world in what amounts to his underwear!”12
It should be noted that, in Assyrian records, Jehu is often

associated with the “house of Omri” or described as the “son of
Omri.” Jehu was not a descendant of Omri; rather he was the
successor to the Omride dynasty. The Assyrians often referred
to successive rulers in relation to the name of the ruler of the
country with whom they had first contact.13
179
The inscription on this panel of the Black Obelisk of

Shalmaneser III reads, “The tribute of Jehu, son of Omri…” It
likely depicts King Jehu prostrate before Shalmaneser III.
Photo: The Trustees of the British Museum, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
Jehu in his World
These Assyrian inscriptions date Jehu’s tribute to the 18th year
of Shalmaneser III (841 BC), the year in which he began his
reign. While this event is not recorded in Scripture, it would be
consistent with the biblical description of the political world in
which Jehu rose to power.
More than a decade earlier, Hadadezer, the Aramean king of

Damascus, and a coalition of forces, including Ahab, king of
Israel and his 2000 chariots, fought against Shalmaneser III at
the Battle of Qarqar. This event is described on the Kurkh
Monolith of Shalmaneser III. As a chariot commander, Jehu
likely fought in that battle (2 Kings 9:25) along side his
Aramean allies.
Sometime after this, Israel and Aram became foes, as Ahab’s

son, Joram allied himself with Ahaziah, king of Judah and went
to battle against Hazael, the new king at Damascus (2 Kings
8:28).
180
Engraved on the the Kurba’il Statue of Shalmaneser III is a

record his victory over Hazael, the Aramean King of Damascus,
as well as King Jehu’s tribute. Photo: Osama Shukir Muhammed
Amin / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
Shalmaneser’s annals record that, in 841 BC, he again came to
fight against the Arameans: “Hazael of Damascus put his trust
upon his numerous army and called up his troops in great
number…I fought with him and inflicted a defeat upon him,
killing with the sword 16,000 of his experienced soldiers. I took
away from him 1211 chariots, 470 riding horses as well as his
camp. He disappeared to save his life (but) I followed him and
besieged him in Damascus (Di-mas-qi), his royal residence…. I
received tribute from Ba’ali-manzeri of Tyre and from Jehu of
the house of Omri.”14
Jehu, who had recently claimed the throne in Israel aligned

himself with Assyria, rather than his old ally – now foe, Aram-
Damascus. Thus, Jehu paid tribute to Assyria, and became a
vassal to Shalmaneser III, as recorded in the Assyrian records.
This helps explain the biblical comment about hostility with

Hazael throughout Jehu’s reign: “But Jehu was not careful to
walk in the law of the LORD, the God of Israel, with all his
181
heart. He did not turn from the sins of Jeroboam, which he made
Israel to sin. In those days the LORD began to cut off parts of
Israel. Hazael defeated them throughout the territory of
Israel…” (2 Kings 10:31-33).
Jehu and the Tel Dan
The Tel Dan Stele with the “House of David” inscription,

testifying to the historicity of David and the reality of his
dynasty. Photo Credit: Oren Rozen / Wikimedia Commons /
CC-BY-SA-4.0
Finally, we should make note of the Tel Dan Inscription and
how it relates to Jehu. While this stele is most often used to
highlight the historicity of David (and rightly so!), it appears to
be referencing the historical situation at the time of Jehu and
was likely written by Hazael, King of Aram. Kenneth Kitchen
provides the following reconstruction of the fragmentary
inscription:
[And I killed? xxx]ram, son of [xxxx], king of Israel.
And [I] killed [xxx]iah, son of [xxxx.xx]? the house of David15
182
Kitchen goes on to note, “In the whole series of the kings of

Irsael, there is one and only one king whose name ends in -ram,
and that is J(eh)oram, son of Ahab…in strict parallel with the
sentence about [Jeho]ram of Israel, we have another that our
Aramean king killed “[xxx]iah, son of [X],” plus mention of the
House of David = Judah…it is extremely likely that we should
further restore “[Ahaz]iah son of [Joram] [king of] the house of
David.”16 Thus, most scholars interpret the Tel Dan Inscription
as a victory stele of Hazael, King of Aram, claiming to have
killed Joram, king of Israel and Ahaziah, king of Judah.
The Tel Dan Stele appears to contradict the biblical account,

which clearly states that Jehu killed both Jehoram and Ahaziah
(2 Kings 9). How do we explain this discrepancy? It is hardly
surprising that Hazael would take credit for the death of his
enemies, as it was common in the Ancient Near Eastern for
kings to claim credit for the actions of others.17 Todd Bolen
points out that some scholars interpret the word qtl as “to strike”
or “defeat” rather than “to kill.” He notes that it was Hazael
who originally wounded Joram in battle, which is why he was
recovering at Jezreel when Jehu came to kill him (2 Kings 8:29).
Thus, Hazael could claim to have defeated him, as the fact that
Joram never recovered from his wounds would have “provided
Hazael with justification for taking credit for the king’s death.”
18 Others have tried to suggest that perhaps Jehu was allied with
Hazael, which caused him to take credit for the deaths of the
kings of Israel and Judah. However, the biblical text is clear
183
that Jehu and Hazael were foes, and the Assyrian inscriptions
clearly state that Jehu was allied with Shalmaneser III.
Summary
Assyrian records affirm the historicity of King Jehu, and
confirm that he was the successor to King Omri’s dynasty, as
described in Scripture. Moreover, they provide important
background information that helps us understand the world in
which Jehu came to power. Archaeology is an important tool
that often affirms and illuminates details in the biblical text.
a.1601746703291692/2156082454524778
Necho II: An Archaeological Biography
The biblical “Neco, King of Egypt” is identified with Pharaoh

Nekau/Necho II1, one of the pharaohs of the 26th Dynasty, who
ruled Egypt from ca. 610–595 BC.2 He is named in eight verses
in Scripture, and is connected with three significant events: he
defeated King Josiah of Judah at the Battle of Megiddo (2 Kings
23:28-29), he choose Eliakim as the new vassal king of Judah
(2Kings 23:34), and he was defeated by Nebuchadnezzar at the
Battle of Carchemish (Jeremiah 46:2-3). Outside of these
events, no other information is given in Scripture about Pharoah
184
Necho II. Thankfully, numerous archaeological finds help us

understand his reign and his life, which in turn, helps us
understand the biblical accounts better.
The 26th Dynasty of Egypt
A bronze statue of Pharaoh Necho II, currently housed in the
Penn Museum. Necho’s cartouche appears on the back of his
belt band. Photo: Object E 13004, Courtesy of the Penn
Museum. https://www.penn.museum/collections/object/27691
To understand the reign of Necho II, we need to understand the
global politics of that era. Assyria had been the prevailing
world power, although her dominance was beginning to fade as
the neo-Babylonian empire was beginning to flex its might.
While some kingdoms had rebelled against Assyrian control (as
Hezekiah had done earlier – 2 Kings 18:7), Necho I, king of Sais
in northern Egypt, allied himself with Ashurbanipal, king of
Assyria, who drove the Nubian Pharaohs of the 25th Dynasty
out of Egypt.3 After Necho I died in battle, Assyria recognized
his son, Psammetichus/Psamtik I as the sole ruler of Egypt.4
His son, Wehimbre Necho II succeeded him as Pharaoh, and
inherited a stabilized kingdom (the 26th Dynasty) that was
experiencing a renaissance in art, culture, and writing, which
harkened back to the glory days of Egypt.5 Ruling from Sais,
Necho II maintained his loyalty to the Assyrian kingdom.6 In
addition, he appears to have had grandiose designs, as did the
Pharaohs of old.
185
The ruins of Sais, Egypt, the royal city of the 26th Dynasty. A
Drawing from the German expedition of 1842-45. Image:
The remains of the ancient city of Sais, near the modern village
of Sa el-Hagar, Egypt. Excavations were recently carried out by
the Egypt Exploration Society and Durham University. You can
learn more about Sais here:
http://community.dur.ac.uk/penelope.wilson/intro.html Photo:
Courtesy of Penny Wilson
Herodotus records that Necho began to build a canal to the Red
Sea7, and sent a group of Egyptian and Phoenician sailors to
circumnavigate the continent of Africa.8 He also turned his
thoughts to expansion and led a campaign into Syria. Herodotus
writes that he “stopped work on the canal and engaged in
preparations for war; some of his ships of war were built on the
northern sea, and some in the Arabian Gulf, by the Red Sea
coast: the winches for landing these can still be seen. He used
these ships when needed, and with his land army met and
defeated the Syrians at Magdolus, taking the great Syrian city of
Cadytis after the battle.”9
In this relief, Pharaoh Necho II is seen facing the goddess
Hathor (with a headdress adorned by a sun-disk and cow horns).
The inscription at the top may once have read, “I grant you
every country in submission.” Photo: Walters Art Museum,
Public Domain
Necho & Judah: The Battle of Megdido
186
In his [King Josiah’s] days Pharaoh Neco king of Egypt went up

to the king of Assyria to the river Euphrates. King Josiah went
to meet him, and Pharaoh Neco killed him at Megiddo, as soon
as he saw him. (2 Kings 23:29)
A lion with the cartouche of Necho II on its shoulder. It once
lay on top of another figure (now missing), perhaps a human
captive. Photo: The Met Museum / Public Domain
Understanding the power struggle at that point in history helps
illuminate what Josiah may have been thinking in rushing into
battle with the Egyptians. After Ashurbanipal’s death in 627
BC, Assyria’s power began to wane. Egypt, who was allied
with Assyria, was growing in power and expanding into Syria-
Palestine. At the same time, Babylon was expanding its empire
under King Nabopolassar, and in 612 BC, a combined force of
Babylonians and Medes destroyed Nineveh and killed the
Assyrian king. One military commander escaped to Haran and
the Assyrians accepted Ashuruballit as their new king.10
In 609 BC, the Babylonians marched on Haran, and Necho, king
of Egypt attempted to come to the aid of Assyria. Josiah, king
of Judah attempted to intervene to stop Necho and met him at
Megiddo. Why did Josiah rush to battle? Egyptologist, Donald
Redford, explains: “For a century, moreover, ever since the
overtures of Marduk-baladin II to Hezekiah, Judah had
perceived itself as sharing a community of interest with Babylon
in international politics. Josiah simply saw himself as an ally of
the forces of right in the final destruction of Assyria.”11
The Chronicler describes the battle of Megiddo:
187
After all this, when Josiah had prepared the temple, Neco king
of Egypt went up to fight at Carchemish on the Euphrates, and
Josiah went out to meet him. But he sent envoys to him, saying,
“What have we to do with each other, king of Judah? I am not
coming against you this day, but against the house with which I
am at war. And God has commanded me to hurry. Cease
opposing God, who is with me, lest he destroy you.”
Nevertheless, Josiah did not turn away from him, but disguised
himself in order to fight with him. He did not listen to the words
of Neco from the mouth of God, but came to fight in the plain of
Megiddo. And the archers shot King Josiah. And the king said
to his servants, “Take me away, for I am badly wounded.” So
his servants took him out of the chariot and carried him in his
second chariot and brought him to Jerusalem. And he died and
was buried in the tombs of his fathers. All Judah and Jerusalem
mourned for Josiah. (2 Chronicles 35:20-24)
Egypt continued north to assist the Assyrians against the
Babylonians, who by this time had taken Haran. The Baylonian
Chronicle (BM 21901) for the years 616-609 records:
The Babylonian Chronicle for the years 616-609 BC famous for
its description of the fall of Nineveh. Photo: (c) The British
“Seventeenth year[609 BC]: in the month of Du’uzu,
Ashuruballit, king of Assyria, and a large army of Egypt [the
forces of Necho II] crossed the river [Euphrates] and marched
on to conquer Harran. [His army] entered it, but the garrison
which the king of Akkad [Nabopolassar] had left there killed
188
[defeated] them and so he encamped against Harran. Till the

month of Ululu he made attacks against the town. Nothing,
however, did he achieve and they returned [to Carchemish].”12
The Egyptians and Assyrians were unsuccessful in taking the
city and Necho returned to Egypt. On the way, he stopped at
Jerusalem to depose Jehoahaz, the son of Josiah whom the
people had made king, in order to install his own choice on the
throne. “And Pharaoh Neco made Eliakim the son of Josiah
king in the place of Josiah his father, and changed his name to
Jehoiakim. But he took Jehoahaz away, and he came to Egypt
and died there.” (2Kings 23:34) Thus, Necho established
Egyptian control of Judah, and no doubt, received tribute from
his new vassal state.
Necho & Babylon: The Battle of Carchemish
About Egypt. Concerning the army of Pharaoh Neco, king of
Egypt, which was by the river Euphrates at Carchemish and
which Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon defeated in the fourth
year of Jehoiakim the son of Josiah, king of Judah: “Prepare
buckler and shield, and advance for battle!” (Jeremiah 46:2-3)
One of the Pharaohs from Sais, possibly Necho II. Photo: Jona
Lendering / Livius.org /
CC0 1.0 Universal
In the spring of 605 BC, Nabopolassar’s son, the crown-prince,
Nebuchadnezzar, marched on Carchemish, where the Egyptian
army was wintering. There he soundly defeated Necho’s troops,
the event which the prophet Jeremiah referenced. Babylonian
189
control of northern Syria spelled the end of Necho’s control in

the region. In 601 BC, the Babylonians tried to invade Egypt,
but Necho was able to repel them and defend his borders. He
spent his latter years sowing anti-Babylonian sentiment in Syria-
Palestine.13
Conclusion
•
The Apis Stele of Necho II from Serapeum records the death of
the Apis bull, the earthly representation of the god Ptah, in year
16 of Necho II’s reign. Photo: A History of Egypt, by Flinders
Petrie, pg. 338, Public Domain
Despite his ambitions building campaigns and his military
victories, it appears that Necho II may have been best
remembered for his defeat at the hands of the Babylonians at the
Battle of Carchemish. Grimal remarks, “His reputation with
both contemporaries and subsequent generations was very poor,
despite the fact that he appears to have passed on a certain
degree of prosperity to his successors.”14 Redford summarizes,
“Among the members of the 26th Dynasty, Necho II has
received the worst press. A man of action from the start, and
endowed with an imagination perhaps beyond that of his
contemporaries, Necho had the ill luck to foster the impression
of being a failure: in hindsight his bent to action was perceived
as impetuosity, his imagination unrealistic dreaming.”15 There
is evidence that some of his inscriptions were defaced, although
the fact that there are numerous monuments of Necho II intact in
190
the delta region, which likely came from Sais, make it unlikely
that there was a systematic erasure of him in Egypt.16
The records left behind by the Babylonians and Egyptians align
with the biblical events attributed to Neco/Necho II.
Understanding the times in which he lived sheds light on his
character and illuminates the Scriptures. Necho II: An
The biblical “Neco, King of Egypt” is identified with Pharaoh

Nekau/Necho II1, one of the pharaohs of the 26th Dynasty, who
ruled Egypt from ca. 610–595 BC.2 He is named in eight verses
in Scripture, and is connected with three significant events: he
defeated King Josiah of Judah at the Battle of Megiddo (2 Kings
23:28-29), he choose Eliakim as the new vassal king of Judah
(2Kings 23:34), and he was defeated by Nebuchadnezzar at the
Battle of Carchemish (Jeremiah 46:2-3). Outside of these
events, no other information is given in Scripture about Pharoah
Necho II. Thankfully, numerous archaeological finds help us
understand his reign and his life, which in turn, helps us
understand the biblical accounts better.
The 26th Dynasty of Egypt
A bronze statue of Pharaoh Necho II, currently housed in the
Penn Museum. Necho’s cartouche appears on the back of his
belt band. Photo: Object E 13004, Courtesy of the Penn
Museum. https://www.penn.museum/collections/object/27691
191
To understand the reign of Necho II, we need to understand the

global politics of that era. Assyria had been the prevailing
world power, although her dominance was beginning to fade as
the neo-Babylonian empire was beginning to flex its might.
While some kingdoms had rebelled against Assyrian control (as
Hezekiah had done earlier – 2 Kings 18:7), Necho I, king of Sais
in northern Egypt, allied himself with Ashurbanipal, king of
Assyria, who drove the Nubian Pharaohs of the 25th Dynasty
out of Egypt.3 After Necho I died in battle, Assyria recognized
his son, Psammetichus/Psamtik I as the sole ruler of Egypt.4
His son, Wehimbre Necho II succeeded him as Pharaoh, and
inherited a stabilized kingdom (the 26th Dynasty) that was
experiencing a renaissance in art, culture, and writing, which
harkened back to the glory days of Egypt.5 Ruling from Sais,
Necho II maintained his loyalty to the Assyrian kingdom.6 In
addition, he appears to have had grandiose designs, as did the
Pharaohs of old.
The ruins of Sais, Egypt, the royal city of the 26th Dynasty. A
Drawing from the German expedition of 1842-45. Image:
The remains of the ancient city of Sais, near the modern village
of Sa el-Hagar, Egypt. Excavations were recently carried out by
the Egypt Exploration Society and Durham University. You can
learn more about Sais here:
http://community.dur.ac.uk/penelope.wilson/intro.html Photo:
Courtesy of Penny Wilson
192
Herodotus records that Necho began to build a canal to the Red

Sea7, and sent a group of Egyptian and Phoenician sailors to
circumnavigate the continent of Africa.8 He also turned his
thoughts to expansion and led a campaign into Syria. Herodotus
writes that he “stopped work on the canal and engaged in
preparations for war; some of his ships of war were built on the
northern sea, and some in the Arabian Gulf, by the Red Sea
coast: the winches for landing these can still be seen. He used
these ships when needed, and with his land army met and
defeated the Syrians at Magdolus, taking the great Syrian city of
Cadytis after the battle.”9
In this relief, Pharaoh Necho II is seen facing the goddess
Hathor (with a headdress adorned by a sun-disk and cow horns).
The inscription at the top may once have read, “I grant you
every country in submission.” Photo: Walters Art Museum,
Public Domain
Necho & Judah: The Battle of Megdido
In his [King Josiah’s] days Pharaoh Neco king of Egypt went up
to the king of Assyria to the river Euphrates. King Josiah went
to meet him, and Pharaoh Neco killed him at Megiddo, as soon
as he saw him. (2 Kings 23:29)
A lion with the cartouche of Necho II on its shoulder. It once
lay on top of another figure (now missing), perhaps a human
captive. Photo: The Met Museum / Public Domain
Understanding the power struggle at that point in history helps
illuminate what Josiah may have been thinking in rushing into
193
battle with the Egyptians. After Ashurbanipal’s death in 627

BC, Assyria’s power began to wane. Egypt, who was allied
with Assyria, was growing in power and expanding into Syria-
Palestine. At the same time, Babylon was expanding its empire
under King Nabopolassar, and in 612 BC, a combined force of
Babylonians and Medes destroyed Nineveh and killed the
Assyrian king. One military commander escaped to Haran and
the Assyrians accepted Ashuruballit as their new king.10
In 609 BC, the Babylonians marched on Haran, and Necho, king
of Egypt attempted to come to the aid of Assyria. Josiah, king
of Judah attempted to intervene to stop Necho and met him at
Megiddo. Why did Josiah rush to battle? Egyptologist, Donald
Redford, explains: “For a century, moreover, ever since the
overtures of Marduk-baladin II to Hezekiah, Judah had
perceived itself as sharing a community of interest with Babylon
in international politics. Josiah simply saw himself as an ally of
the forces of right in the final destruction of Assyria.”11
The Chronicler describes the battle of Megiddo:
After all this, when Josiah had prepared the temple, Neco king
of Egypt went up to fight at Carchemish on the Euphrates, and
Josiah went out to meet him. But he sent envoys to him, saying,
“What have we to do with each other, king of Judah? I am not
coming against you this day, but against the house with which I
am at war. And God has commanded me to hurry. Cease
opposing God, who is with me, lest he destroy you.”
Nevertheless, Josiah did not turn away from him, but disguised
himself in order to fight with him. He did not listen to the words
194
of Neco from the mouth of God, but came to fight in the plain of
Megiddo. And the archers shot King Josiah. And the king said
to his servants, “Take me away, for I am badly wounded.” So
his servants took him out of the chariot and carried him in his
second chariot and brought him to Jerusalem. And he died and
was buried in the tombs of his fathers. All Judah and Jerusalem
mourned for Josiah. (2 Chronicles 35:20-24)
Egypt continued north to assist the Assyrians against the
Babylonians, who by this time had taken Haran. The Baylonian
Chronicle (BM 21901) for the years 616-609 records:
The Babylonian Chronicle for the years 616-609 BC famous for
its description of the fall of Nineveh. Photo: (c) The British
“Seventeenth year[609 BC]: in the month of Du’uzu,
Ashuruballit, king of Assyria, and a large army of Egypt [the
forces of Necho II] crossed the river [Euphrates] and marched
on to conquer Harran. [His army] entered it, but the garrison
which the king of Akkad [Nabopolassar] had left there killed
[defeated] them and so he encamped against Harran. Till the
month of Ululu he made attacks against the town. Nothing,
however, did he achieve and they returned [to Carchemish].”12
The Egyptians and Assyrians were unsuccessful in taking the
city and Necho returned to Egypt. On the way, he stopped at
Jerusalem to depose Jehoahaz, the son of Josiah whom the
people had made king, in order to install his own choice on the
throne. “And Pharaoh Neco made Eliakim the son of Josiah
king in the place of Josiah his father, and changed his name to
195
Jehoiakim. But he took Jehoahaz away, and he came to Egypt

and died there.” (2Kings 23:34) Thus, Necho established
Egyptian control of Judah, and no doubt, received tribute from
his new vassal state.
Necho & Babylon: The Battle of Carchemish
About Egypt. Concerning the army of Pharaoh Neco, king of
Egypt, which was by the river Euphrates at Carchemish and
which Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon defeated in the fourth
year of Jehoiakim the son of Josiah, king of Judah: “Prepare
buckler and shield, and advance for battle!” (Jeremiah 46:2-3)
One of the Pharaohs from Sais, possibly Necho II. Photo: Jona
Lendering / Livius.org /
CC0 1.0 Universal
In the spring of 605 BC, Nabopolassar’s son, the crown-prince,
Nebuchadnezzar, marched on Carchemish, where the Egyptian
army was wintering. There he soundly defeated Necho’s troops,
the event which the prophet Jeremiah referenced. Babylonian
control of northern Syria spelled the end of Necho’s control in
the region. In 601 BC, the Babylonians tried to invade Egypt,
but Necho was able to repel them and defend his borders. He
spent his latter years sowing anti-Babylonian sentiment in Syria-
Palestine.13
Conclusion
•
196
The Apis Stele of Necho II from Serapeum records the death of

the Apis bull, the earthly representation of the god Ptah, in year
16 of Necho II’s reign. Photo: A History of Egypt, by Flinders
Petrie, pg. 338, Public Domain
Despite his ambitions building campaigns and his military
victories, it appears that Necho II may have been best
remembered for his defeat at the hands of the Babylonians at the
Battle of Carchemish. Grimal remarks, “His reputation with
both contemporaries and subsequent generations was very poor,
despite the fact that he appears to have passed on a certain
degree of prosperity to his successors.”14 Redford summarizes,
“Among the members of the 26th Dynasty, Necho II has
received the worst press. A man of action from the start, and
endowed with an imagination perhaps beyond that of his
contemporaries, Necho had the ill luck to foster the impression
of being a failure: in hindsight his bent to action was perceived
as impetuosity, his imagination unrealistic dreaming.”15 There
is evidence that some of his inscriptions were defaced, although
the fact that there are numerous monuments of Necho II intact in
the delta region, which likely came from Sais, make it unlikely
that there was a systematic erasure of him in Egypt.16
The records left behind by the Babylonians and Egyptians align
with the biblical events attributed to Neco/Necho II.
Understanding the times in which he lived sheds light on his
character and illuminates the Scriptures.
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Sennacherib: An Archaeological Biography
Sennacherib
In our next bioarchaeography, we’ll be exploring the life of

Sennacherib, King of Assyria, using archaeological remains.
Sennacherib is mentioned by name 16 times in Scripture, more

than any other Assyrian ruler. From a biblical perspective, he is
most famous for his invasion of Judah in 701 BC and his siege
against King Hezekiah and Jerusalem (2 Ki 18-19; 2 Ch 32; Is
37).
Sennacherib chariot
In this relief, Sennacherib stands in his rickshaw (a royal chariot
which pulled by two servants) and oversees the construction of
his palace at Nineveh. Photo: Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin /
ancient.eu / CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
When his father, Sargon II, was killed in battle in 705 BC,
Sennacherib inherited the Assyrian throne. Almost
immediately, he marched to Babylon to put down a rebellion led
by Merodach-Baladan. Though Merodach-Baladan escaped,
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Sennacherib retook Babylon. In his annals, as recorded on the

Oriental Institute Prism, Chicago, Sennacherib records, “In my
first campaign, I accomplished the defeat of Merodach-Baladan,
king of Babylonia, together with the army of Elam, his ally in
the plain of Kish. In the midste of the battle he forsook his
camp, and made his escape alone; (so) he saved his life. The
chariots, horses, wagons, mules which he left behind at the onset
of the battle my hands seized. Into his palace, which is in
Babylon, joyfully I entered” (Col. I, Lines 20-28).1 Merodach-
Baladan would continue to be thorn in Sennacherib’s side
throughout his reign and may have even tried to entice Hezekiah
to join his rebellion at one point (Is. 39:1).
Sennacherib, like most ancient kings, boasted of his greatness.

On the Bellino Cylinder, he describes himself in these words:
“Sennacherib, great king, strong king, king of Assyria,

unrivalled king, pious shepherd who reveres the great gods,
guardian of truth who loves justice, renders assistance, goes to
the aid of the weak, (and) strives after good deeds, perfect man,
virile warrior, foremost of all rulers, the bridal that controls the
insubmissive, (and) the one who strikes enemies with
lightning.”2
409736001
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The Bellino Cylinder of Sennacherib. Photo: (c) The British

Sennacherib’s Palace at Nineveh
Sennacherib Brick Nineveh
A brick from Nineveh, inscribed in cuneiform, naming
Sennacherib and the building of his palace. Photo: The British
Sargon II had spent a decade building Khorsabad (ancient Dur
Sharrukin) as his royal city. Upon his death, Sennacherib
abandoned Khorsabad and moved the capital 20 km south to
Ninevah. There he devoted himself to rebuilding the city and to
building his palace. In one inscription Sennacherib declares,
“Thereon (lit. therein) I had them build a palace of ivory,
ebony(?), boxwood (?), mususkannu-wood, cedar, cyprus and
spruce, the “Palace without a Rival.” for my royal abode.”3
In 1847, Austen Henry Layard excavated at Nineveh and

unearthed the “Palace without Rival” – the Southwest Palace of
Sennacherib, located on the citadel mound of Kuyunjik. The
palace itself was 180 by 190 meters, contained at least 80 rooms,
and was lined with many sculptures and almost 3 km of reliefs.4
The remains of Sennacherib’s palace are still visible in Google
satellite images, although, sadly, the site was looted and
destroyed by ISIS in 2016.
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Screenshot (803)
The remains of Sennacherib’s Southwest Palace at Ninevah
(modern-day Mosul, Iraq) are visible in this Google Earth image
from 2003.
It is interesting to note that some of the reliefs discovered in the
palace at Nineveh depict its construction. The workers are seen
in different rows, each in distinct dress, representing different
ethnic groups. The slaves in one row are strikingly similar to
the captives portrayed on the famous Lachish Reliefs (see
below). Some scholars believe these are men from Judah who
were taken to Nineveh and forced to help with the construction
of Sennacherib’s palace.5
The Annals of Sennacherib

Oriental Prism Sennacherib
The Annals of Sennacherib are recorded on the Oriental Institute
Prism. Photo: daderot / Wikimedia Commons / CC0 1.0
Sennacherib recorded his triumphs in his annals, which survive
on three nearly identical clay prisms: the Taylor Prism6, the
Oriental Institute Prism7, and the Jerusalem Prism8. These are
significant artifacts as they record Sennacherib’s campaign into
Judah in 701 BC. King Hezekiah rebelled against Assyrian
control (2 Kings 18:7), which led Sennacherib to invade Judah
in order to restore his hold on the territory to the west. In 2
Kings 18:13 we read, “In the fourteenth year of King Hezekiah,
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Sennacherib king of Assyria came up against all the fortified

cities of Judah and took them.” Scripture further records
Sennacherib’s siege at Lachish (2 Kings 18:17 – see below), the
tribute that Hezekiah paid to him (2 Kings 18:14), and the fact
that the Assyrians were not able to take Jerusalem (2 Kings
19:34-36).
From a historical perspective it is interesting to compare the

biblical account with the Assyrian record of this event. The text
of Sennacherib’s annals records:
“As for Hezekiah, the Jew, who did not submit to my yoke, 46
of his strong cities, as well as the small cities in their
neighborhood, which were without number – by levelling with
battering-rams (?) and by bringing up siege-engines (?), I
besieged and took (those cities). 200,150 people, great and
small, male and female, horses, mules, asses, camels, cattle and
sheep, without number I brought away from them and counted
as spoil. Himself, like a caged bird I shut up in Jerusalem his
royal city….In addition to the 30 talents of gold and 800 talents
of silver (there were), gems, cosmetics (?), jewels (?), large
sandu-stones, couches of ivory, house chairs of ivory, elephant
hide, ivory (lit. elephant’s teeth), ushu-wood, ukarinnu-wood, all
kinds of valuable (heavy) treasures, as well as his daughters, his
harem, his male and female musicians, (which) he had (them)
bring after me to Nineveh, my royal city. To pay tribute and to
accept (lit. do) servitude, he dispatched his messenger(s).”9
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Sennacherib’s claim to take 46 of Hezekiah’s strong cities aligns

with the biblical record of the Assyrian capture of the fortified
cities of Judah. The fact that tribute was paid is also affirmed,
with the amount of gold being the same in both the Assyrian and
Judahite sources. (The difference in the amount of silver paid
may be attributed to a different method of measuring, Assyrian
exaggeration or scribal error). Finally, the fact that Sennacherib
records that he shut Hezekiah up in his royal city like a caged
bird, but does not record the capture of Jerusalem is telling. It’s
essentially a tacit admission of his failure to capture Jerusalem,
which is in accord with the biblical account.10
The Lachish Reliefs

1024px-lachish_relief,_british_museum_4
A portion of the Lachish relief showing the assault on the city
gates with Hebrew soldiers defending from the tower. Photo
Credit: Mike Peel (www.mikepeel.net) / Wikimedia Commons /
CC-BY-SA-4.0
When Sennacherib returned to Nineveh from his campaign into
Canaan, he commissioned a series of reliefs to display his
greatest triumph in Judah; these he hung on the walls in his
southwest palace. Since he could not boast of conquering the
royal city of Jerusalem, he displayed scenes from his successful
siege at Lachish.11
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Amahai Mazar notes, “The relief was most probably made in

Assyria from sketches prepared during the actual war by an
artist viewing the onslaught from Sennacherib’s camp’ the camp
was perhaps located (according to D. Ussishkin) southwest of
the city.”12 The images portray in stunning detail both the battle
and the surrender of the city. In one scene, Sennacherib sits on
his throne overseeing the booty that is paraded before him. A
cuneiform inscription in Akkadian reads, “Sennacherib, king of
the world, king of Assyria, set up a throne and the booty of
Lachish passed before him.”13
354010001
Sennacherib oversees the battle of Lachish. Photo: (c) The
British Museum / CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
Lachish-Assyrian-siege-ramp-cross-section-from-west-
tb022201266-bibleplaces
The siege ramp at Tel Lachish. Photo: Todd Bolen,
Bibleplaces.com
Excavations at Lachish have unearthed evidence of
Sennacherib’s campaign. Part of the Assyrian siege ramp can
still be seen at Tel Lachish today. While the lower part is
missing, the angle of the remaining upper part makes it possible
to reconstruct the possible dimensions. It appears the width of
the bottom of the ramp would have been 50-75 m fanning down
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to a width of 25 m at the top. It is estimated that 13,000-19,000

tons of material would have been required to construct the siege
ramp.14 In addition, hundreds of iron arrowheads, sling stones,
and heavy weight stones that were thrown down from the city
walls at the enemy were discovered in excavations.15
The Death of Sennacherib

1060411001
The Esarhaddon Prism alludes to the murder of Sennacherib by
his sons and the ascension of Esarhaddon to the Assyrian throne.
Photo: (c) The British Museum / CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
Scripture records that Sennacherib was ultimately murdered by
his sons: “And as he was worshiping in the house of Nisroch his
god, Adrammelech and Sharezer, his sons, struck him down
with the sword and escaped into the land of Ararat. And
Esarhaddon his son reigned in his place” (2 Kings 19:37).
An Assyrian inscription of Esserhaddon alludes to his father’s

violent death at the hands of his brothers: “I am my older
brothers’ youngest brother (and) by the command of the gods
Aššur, Sîn, Šamaš, Bēl, and Nabû, Ištar of Nineveh, (and) Ištar
of Arbela, (my) father, who engendered me, elevated me firmly
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in the assembly of my brothers, saying: ‘This is the son who will

succeed me.’16
The inscription goes on to say: Thereafter my brothers went mad

and whatever was wicked against gods and men they did, and
plotted evil: they drew the sword in the midst of Nineveh
godlessly : to exercise the kingship against each other they
rushed like young steers.”17 Essarhadon proceeds to relate
how, when he heard the news of his fathers murder, cried,
“Woe” and rent his princely robe. He then chased the
“usurpers” and records how, “those rebels, the ones engaged in
revolt and rebellion, when they heard of the advance of my
campaign, they deserted the army they relied on and fled to an
unknown land.”18
Summary
Sennecharib’s reign and his campaign into Canaan are well
known from Assyrian sources. At many points, these align with
details in the biblical text and are affirmed by archaeological
remains at various sites.
a.1601746703291692/2059013017565056
Xerxes: An Archaeological Biography
206
Xerxes
The book of Esther begins with the words, “Now in the days of
Ahasuerus, the Ahasuerus who reigned from India to Ethiopia
over 127 provinces, in those days when King Ahasuerus sat on
his royal throne in Susa, the citadel, in the third year of his reign
he gave a feast for all his officials and servants” (Est. 1:1-3).
Who was Ahasuerus? It was none other than the Persian king,
Xerxes the Great. The name Xerxes comes from the Greek. In
Old Persian the king’s name was Khsayarsan, in Akkadian it
was Ahsiarsu, and in Hebrew Ahasuerus.1 A misinterpretation
of the Hebrew led to the misidentification of Ahasuerus as
Artaxerxes in the Septuagint, Josephus, and the Jewish
Midrash.2 The sequence of Persian kings in Ezra 4:5-7,
however, makes it clear that Ahasuerus was the son of Darius
and the predecessor to Artaxerxes: thus, the Xerxes of history
and the and Ahasuerus of the book of Esther are one and the
same.
Xerxes Harem Inscription

The XPf “Harem Inscription” is a cuneiform text which records
in the Babylonian language Xerxes’ accession to the throne. It is
currently housed in the National Museum in Tehran. Photo: Jona
Lendring / Livius.org / CC0 1.0 Universal.
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Xerxes ascended the throne when is father, Darius, died in

November 486 BC. This is described in the “Harem
Inscription,” discovered in the palace of the Persian capital of
Persepolis: “Darius had other sons, but – thus was
Ahuramazda’s desire – my father Darius made me the greatest
after himself. When my father Darius went away from the
throne, by the grace of Ahuramazda I became king on my
father’s throne. When I became king, I did much that was
excellent. What had been built by my father, I protected, and
other I added other buildings. What I built, and what my father
built, all that by the grace of Ahuramazda we built.”3
Xerxes the Great is, ironically, best known for his failed
invasion of Greece. While he may have won the Battle of
Thermopylae, he eventually lost the war, and in 479 BC, he
returned to Persia.
Xerxes and the Book of Esther

Relief_of_Xerxes_at_Doorway_of_his_Palace,_Persepolis,_Iran
A relief of Xerxes from the doorway of his palace at Persepolis.
Photo: Jona Lendering / Livius.org / CC BY-SA 3.0
Many scholars have pointed out that chronology of the book of
Esther fits nicely with Xerxes Greek campaign. The great feast
that he threw in his third year may have been part of his
planning with the nobles of the Kingdom for his invasion of
208
Greece. William Shea notes, “With good reason, then, it has

been suggested that the 180-day “banquet” in Xerxes’ third year
referred to in Esther 1:1-3 was connected with laying plans for
that Greek campaign. The presence of the “army” (MT) or the
“officers of the army” (LXX) in Susa at that time (v. 3) lends
some support to the suggestion. Herodotus, incidentally, devotes
a dozen lengthy paragraphs to Xerxes’ discussion with his
nobles and generals describing the decision to carry out the
campaign against Greece (7. 8-19).”4
The four years between the deposition of Vashti as queen and

the selection of Esther as the new queen coincides with the four
years Xerxes was on his campaign to Greece. Herodotus
records that Xerxes went to Susa upon his return from his failed
invasion of Greece.
Reference
Event
Year of Reign
Year
209
1:3
Xerxes holds his banquets
483 B.C.
NOTE: Xerxes’ Invasion of Greece occurred during this interval

of time
2:16
Esther goes to Xerxes
479 B.C.
210
Ch. 3-10
Intrigues with Haman
12-13
474-473 B.C.
NOTE: Herodotus breaks off his account of Xerxes in his

seventh year, and nothing more is known about his queens,
which is precisely the time in which most of the book of Esther
takes place
Adapted from the ESV Study Bible
The Palace at Susa
The Palace at Susa served as the winter residence of the Persian
kings of the Achaemenid empire. Built by Darius I, it is the
setting for the book of Esther. The remains of the palace,
located in modern-day Iran, are visible from Google Earth.
Excavations at Susa have revealed that the descriptions of
specific places within the palace in the book of Esther – the
Audience Hall/Court of Gardens (Es 1:5), the Outer Courtyard
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(Es 6:4), the Inner Courtyard (Es 5:1a) and the Throne Room
(Es 5:1b) – were accurately described by someone who had an
intimate knowledge of the palace.5 French archaeologist, Jean
Perrot served as the dig director at Susa for over a decade.
Before his death in 2012 he said, “One today rereads with a
renewed interest the book of Esther, whose detailed description
of the interior disposition of the palace of Xerxes is now in
excellent accord with archaeological reality.”6
Xerxes Palace Susa

The ruins of the palace at Susa, the setting for the book of
Esther. Photo: Google Earth
The Reliefs at Persepolis
Persepolis was another of the Persian capital cities. It is located
in the southwestern region of modern-day Iran and is one of the
best-preserved royal cities from the ancient world. Darius I
constructed the fortifications, other central buildings, and began
the Apadana and treasury. Xerxes completed the Apadana and
treasury, and built the gate of all nations, his palace, and the
harem.7 Persepolis contained the immense wealth of the
Persian empire. When Alexander the Great conquered the city
and destroyed it he took away all that was of value to him.
Plutarch records, “They say that as much coined money was
found there as at Susa, and that it took ten thousand pairs of
mules and five thousand camels to carry away the other
furniture and wealth there.”8
212
Palace_of_Xerxes,_Persepolis small
The palace of Xerxes at Persepolis. Photo: Carole Raddato /
Flickr / CC BY-SA 2.0
Arguably the most famous surviving relief from the treasury at
Persepolis depicts a king on a throne with a staff in one hand
and a flower in the other. Behind him stands the crown prince.
Traditionally scholars have identified the king as Darius I and
the crown prince as Xerxes.9
Xerxes treasury reliefs

The Treasury Relief from Perseopolis. Photo: A.Davey /
Wikimedia Commons / CC BY 2.0
The Inscriptions of Xerxes
Xerxes Daiva Inscription
The “Daiva Inscription” (XPh) from Persepolis. Photo: Marco
Prins / Livius.org / CC0 1.0
Xerxes, like many of the ancient kings, described himself in
glowing terms. Most of them are word-for-word adoptions of
inscriptions his father, Darius I. For example, in one inscription
from Persepolis (XPl), Xerxes states, “I am not hot-tempered.
Whatever befalls me in battle, I hold firmly. I am ruling firmly
my own will. The man who is cooperative, according to his
213
cooperation thus I reward him. Who does harm, him according

to the harm I punish.”10 This is a virtual copy of an inscription
from Darius’ tomb.11
The most important inscription from his reign is the Daiva

Inscription, in which Xerxes describes the extent of his empire:
King Xerxes says: By the grace of Ahuramazda these are the

countries of which I was king apart from Persia. I had lordship
over them. They bore me tribute. What was said to them by me,
that they did. My law, that held them: Media, Elam, Arachosia,
Armenia, Drangiana, Parthia, Aria, Bactria, Sogdia, Chorasmia,
Babylonia, Assyria, Sattagydia, Lydia, Egypt, Yaunâ, those who
dwell on this side of the sea and those who dwell across the sea,
men of Maka, Arabia, Gandara, India, Cappadocia, theDahae,
the haoma-drinking Sacae, the Sacae wearing pointed caps,
Thrace, men of Âkaufaciyâ, Libyans, Carians, and the
Nubians.12
A humorous inscription commissioned by Xerxes survives near

Lake Van. The text is recorded in the Persian, Babylonian and
Elamite Languages, and is the only Achaemenid royal
inscription outside of Iran. It reads:
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“I am Xerxes, the great king, the king of kings, king of all kinds
of peoples with all kinds of origins, king of this earth great and
wide, the son of king Darius, the Achaemenid.
King Xerxes says: King Darius, my father, by the grace of

Ahuramazda built much that was good, and he gave orders to
dig this niche out, but because he did not make an inscription, I
ordered this inscription to be made.”13
Basically, Xerxes declares his father made a place for an

inscription but never finished it, so he wrote something to fill
the space.
Xerxes van_xv
The Van citadel inscription (XV) of Xerxes. Photo: Marco Prins
/ Livius.org / CC0 1.0
The Tomb of Xerxes
After his campaign to the west, Xerxes spend the remaining
years of his reign completing the work his father began at the
Persian capital of Persepolis. He was eventually assassinated by
the captain of his bodyguard having reigned as the king of
Persia for 20 years. Xerxes tomb is believed to be the right-
most of the four tombs at Naqsh-I Rustam. Its façade is built
carved from the stone as a recessed cross.
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Tomb_of_Xerxes
The tomb of Xerxes. Photo: Roodiparse / Wikimedia
Summary
Archaeological findings and other historical records provide the
cultural background that illuminates the biblical world in the
Persian era. It is popular today to hear critics claim that the
book of Esther is a fanciful court tale, likely written hundreds of
years after the purported events, and devoid of historical
accuracy. Archaeology, however, has affirmed numerous
details about the life of Xerxes and the stetting of the book of
Esther. Simply put, the Xerxes of Scripture accords well with
the Xerxes of history, and the chronology of Scripture fits with
what is known about his life.
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Agrippa I: An Archaeological Biography
Agrippa I
We’ve learned about two of the Herodian Rulers in our

bioarchaeographies thus far: Herod Agrippa II, who was the
ruler before whom the Apostle Paul made his defense in Acts
25-26, and Herod Antipas, who killed John the Baptist (Mt 6:17)
216
and interviewed Jesus before his crucifixion (Lk 23:9). In this

archaeological biography, we’ll explore the life of Herod
Agrippa I.
Herod Agrippa I was called Agrippa the Great even in his own
day.1 He was the grandson of Herod the Great, and, through his
friendship with the Roman imperial family, was granted the
realms of Philip the Tetrarch and Herod Antipas under Caligula,
and eventually the kingdom of his grandfather by Claudius.2
Thus, he ruled over various realms from AD 37 until his death
in AD 44.
Agrippa in Historical Sources

Agrippa I Claudius Coin
A coin minted by Agrippa I bears laureate head of Tiberius and
the inscription, “King Agrippa the Great, Friend of the
Emperor.” Photo: Courtesy of Fritz Rudolf Künker GmbH &
Co. KG, Osnabrück; Lübke & Wiedemann KG, Leonberg,
http://www.kuenker.com
Agrippa was on intimate terms with Rome, but also devout in
his Judaism, which made him popular with his Jewish subjects.
Josephus records an edict in which Claudius calls Agrippa a
person “very dear” to him.3 He also writes that Agrippa
ingratiated himself to the Jewish people when “he returned the
kindness which the inhabitants of Jerusalem had shewed him.
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For he released them from the tax upon houses, every one of
which paid it before: thinking it a good thing to requite the
tender affection of those that loved him.”4
This desire to please the Jewish people is also seen in his

persecution of the early Christian leaders, as described in the
book of Acts:
“It was about this time that King Herod arrested some who
belonged to the church, intending to persecute them. He had
James, the brother of John, put to death with the sword. When
he saw that this pleased the Jews, he proceeded to seize Peter
also. This happened during the Feast of Unleavened Bread.”
(Acts 12:1-3)
Agrippa was a skilled diplomat who knew how to appease both

the Roman Emperor and the Jewish populace, staying in the
good graces of both.
Agrippa’s Coins
Agrippa_I_prutah
218
A bronze prutah issued by Herod Agrippa I. Photo: Classical

Numismatic Group, Inc. http://www.cngcoins.com / Wikimedia
Within Jewish territories, Agrippa abided by the ban on graven
images and issued a bronze prutah which featured a royal
umbrella on one side, along with the inscription, “King
Agrippa.”5 The reverse sided displayed three ears of barley and
the date.
Agrippa’s other coins, which were circulated outside of the

predominantly Jewish areas in his realm, bore graven images of
either himself or the emperor. The reverse sides included reliefs
of temples and goddesses. One rare coin featured his bust on
one side and an image of his son, Agrippa II riding a horse on
the reverse.
Agrippa’s Building Campaigns

Agrippa was not the builder that his grandfather was; indeed,
none of the Herodian rulers that followed could match Herod the
Great’s impressive construction campaigns. He was, however, a
great builder in his own right, and is perhaps most famous for
two building campaigns in particular.
219
Josephus records that Agrippa initiated significant building

projects in the city of Berytus (modern-day Beruit, Lebanon).
He writes:
“Now as Agrippa was a great builder in many places, he paid a

peculiar regard to the people of Berytus. For he erected a theater
for them, superior to many others of that sort, both in
sumptuousness and elegance: as also an amphitheater, built at
vast expenses: and besides these, he built them baths and
porticos; and spared for no costs in any of his edifices, to render
them both handsome and large.”6
Some ruins from Roman-era Berytus can still be seen in the

center of Beruit today.
Roman_baths_beirut_AKKhalifeh_30
The remains of Roman baths at Berytus (modern-day Beirut.
Photo: A.K.Khalifeh / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0
Josephus also describes a new wall, which he called the Third
Wall, that Agrippa built to protect the northern part of the city as
it grew. Agrippa did not complete this wall, however, as he was
afraid the emperor Claudius would think he was preparing the
city for a rebellion. Josephus writes:
220
It was Agrippa who encompassed the parts added to the old city
with this wall: which had been all naked before. For as the city
grew more populous, it gradually crept beyond its old limits:
and those parts of it that stood northward of the temple, and
joined that hill to the city, made it considerably larger….Since
therefore its inhabitants stood in need of a covering, the father of
the present King, and of the same name with him, Agrippa,
began that wall we spoke of. But he left off building it when he
had only laid the foundations; out of the fear he was in of
Claudius Cæsar: lest he should suspect that so strong a wall was
built in order to make some innovation in public affairs.7
This wall was eventually completed by the Jewish insurgents of

the Great Revolt who realized they needed protection after a
Roman attack burned the undefended northern part of the city.
Agrippa Third Wall

A section of the Third Wall excavated by Sukenik and Mayer.
The location of Agrippa’s Third Wall has been the matter of
debate for many years. Edwin Robinson identified the remains
of an ancient wall north of the Old City as the Third Wall. It
was excavated from 1925-1927 by E.L Sukenik and L.A.
Mayer, who concluded it was indeed Agrippa’s Third Wall.8 It
was excavated again in 1965 by Kathleen Kenyon; while she
never published an excavation report in her lifetime, she
221
nevertheless concluded it was the siege wall (also known as a

circumvallation wall), built by the Roman general, Titus.9 From
1972-1974, the wall was again excavated, this time by Sara Ben-
Arieh and Ehud Netzer. In an article published in the Israel
Exploration Journal they concluded, “We can certainly ascribe
this [wall section] to Josephus’s ‘Third Wall.’”10
More recently, excavations in Jerusalem’s downtown Russian

Compound revealed the remains of a tower jutting out from an
ancient wall. On the western side of the tower, numerous
ancient ballista and sling stones fired from Roman catapults
during the Jewish Revolt were discovered on the ground.
Archaeologists have suggested it is part of Agrippa’s Third
Wall.11
Agrippa’s Death
Agrippa’s death is recorded by the historians Luke and

Josephus. Both accounts appear to have independent sources,
and agree at numerous points, although Josephus’ description is
more detailed.
Luke records the incident as occurring at Caesarea (Acts 12:19)

and says, “On an appointed day Herod put on his royal robes,
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took his seat upon the throne, and delivered an oration to them.
And the people were shouting, ‘The voice of a god, and not of a
man!’ Immediately an angel of the Lord struck him down,
because he did not give God the glory, and he was eaten by
worms and breathed his last.” (Acts 12:21-23).
Israel Aerial View

Caesarea Maritima – The remains of Herod the Great’s seaside
palace can be seen in the middle of the photo jutting out into the
sea. The amphitheater is to the left and the theater is to the right.
Photo: Courtesy of Ferrell Jenkins,
https://ferrelljenkins.blog/2012/11/27/acts-24-photo-
illustrations-caesarea/
Compare Luke’s account with Josephus’:
Now when Agrippa had reigned three years over all Judea, he
came to the city Cesarea; which was formerly called Strato’s
tower. And there he exhibited shews, in honour of Cesar, upon
his being informed that there was a certain festival celebrated to
make vows for his safety. At which festival a great multitude
was gotten together, of the principal persons, and such as were
of dignity through his province. On the second day of which
shews, he put on a garment made wholly of silver, and of a
contexture truly wonderful; and came into the theater early in
the morning. At which time the silver of his garment being
illuminated by the fresh reflexion of the suns rays upon it, shone
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out after a surprizing manner: and was so resplendent as to

spread an horror over those that looked intently upon him. And
presently his flatterers cried out, one from one place, and
another from another; (though not for his good;) that “He was a
God.” And they added, “Be thou merciful to us. For although we
have hitherto reverenced thee only as a man, yet shall we
henceforth own thee as superior to mortal nature.” Upon this the
King did neither rebuke them, nor reject their impious flattery.
…A severe pain also arose in his belly; and began in a most
violent manner. He therefore looked upon his friends, and said,
“I, whom you call a god, am commanded presently to depart this
life: while providence thus reproves the lying words you just
now said to me. And I who was by you called immortal, am
immediately to be hurried away by death. But I am bound to
accept of what providence allots, as it pleases God. For we have
by no means lived ill: but in a splendid and happy manner.”
When he said this, his pain was become violent. Accordingly he
was carried into the palace: and the rumour went abroad every
where that he would certainly die in a little time.…And when he
had been quite worn out by the pain in his belly, for five days,
he departed this life. Being in the fifty fourth year of his age,
and in the seventh year of his reign.12
It is easy to see the points of similarity: Agrippa’s beautiful

robe, the people hailing him as a god, Agrippa accepting their
praise, and suffering an immediate, painful death as a result.
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Because of the details in Josephus’ account, it is possible to

pinpoint the exact location of this account. In Caesarea, Herod
Agrippa almost certainly resided in his grandfather’s luxurious
seaside palace. On either side of it was the amphitheater and the
theater. Josephus says it occurred in the theater, and today many
tourists flock to the remains of the theater. However, clues in
his description lead to the conclusion that this event occurred
within the amphitheater, and it is to this structure Josephus is
referring with the imprecise term of “theater.” Todd Bolen has
given three reasons to believe Agrippa accepted the worship of
people in the amphitheater13:
The Time of Day – Josephus specifically says this occurred,

“early in the morning,” when the sun’s rays reflected off of his
dazzling robe. The Theater is west-facing, however, and the
height of the seating makes it improbable that the sun would
have reflected off of his robes in the morning if he was seated in
the position of honor near the stage. The amphitheater on the
other hand, has fewer rows of seating, and the sun’s rays would
have easily reflected off of the king’s robes if he had been in the
western stands.
Josephus says Agrippa was in the theater on the “second day” of
a “festival” in “honor of Caesar.” Scholars have suggested that
this was either the quinquennial celebration of the founding of
Caesarea on March 5, AD 44, or a celebration of the emperor
Claudius’ birthday on August 1, AD 44. Both were known to
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have included sports as part of the festivities, and, thus, the

amphitheater is the more logical location.
Josephus describes another incident in Caesarea in which Pilate
sat on his tribunal (bema) in the great stadium.14 It is reasonable
to conclude that the bema from which Agrippa addressed the
crowd was still located in the amphitheater a decade later.
The accounts by Josephus and Luke independently corroborate
each other and the various lines of evidence suggest that
Agrippa’s fateful decision to accept the praise of the people as a
god occurred in the amphitheater of Caesarea in AD 44.
Caesarea-S-027
The low seating of the amphitheater would have made it
possible for the sun to shine off of Agrippa’s silver robe in the
early morning light. Photo: Bukvoed / Wikimedia Commons /
GFDL / CC-BY 3.0
CONCLUSION
Like many of the Herodian rulers, King Agrippa I sought to

maintain the support of Rome. Unlike his grandfather, Herod
the Great, who was despised by the Jewish people, Agrippa
enjoyed the good will of his subjects and actively sought to seek
their favor. This is reflected in various ancient historical
sources, be they biblical (Luke) or extra-biblical (Josephus).
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https://biblearchaeologyreport.com/2019/10/04/king-hezekiah-
King Hezekiah: An Archaeological Biography
Screenshot (1274)
Biography: from the Greek bios (life) and graphia (writing) – a

written account of someone’s life as recorded by another person
Archaeology: from the Greek arkhaois (ancient) and logia (to

speak about) – the study of the material culture of ancient
humans.
What if we combined the two? What if we used archaeology as

a means to write about someone’s life. An archaeological
biography, or a bioarchaeography, if you will. (Yes, I know
that’s not a “real” word; it’s a term I coined. We’ll see if it
catches on.)
In this new series, we’ll be exploring biblical people using

archaeological artifacts relating to their lives. We’ll begin with
a bioarchaeography of King Hezekiah.
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Hezekiah reigned as King of Judah from 716 to 687 BC, after

having ruled for approximately 13 years in a co-regency with his
father Ahaz.1 In 2 Chronicles 29:1-2 we read, “Hezekiah began
to reign when he was twenty-five years old, and he reigned
twenty-nine years in Jerusalem. His mother’s name was Abijah
the daughter of Zechariah. And he did what was right in the
eyes of the Lord, according to all that David his father had
done.” He is, perhaps, best known for this religious reforms and
for his stand against the Assyrian invasion of Judah by
Sennacherib in 701 BC.
Hezekiah Bulla
hezekiah-bulla
This bulla (seal impression) of King Hezekiah originally sealed
a document written on a papyrus. The thin chords with which
the document was tied left their mark on the reverse of the bulla.
Photo Credit: Ouria Tadmor / Eilat Mazar. Used with
permission.
Multiple bullae (clay seal impressions) of King Hezekiah have
been found. While most have come via the antiquities market,
in 2015 Dr. Eilat Mazar announced that another Hezekiah bulla
had been discovered while wet-sifting material excavated from
a refuse dump in a Royal Building at the Ophel.2 The bulla is
about one centimeter in diameter bears an ancient Hebrew
inscription:
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“‫”לחזקיהו [בן] אחז מלך יהדה‬
“Belonging to Hezekiah [son of] Ahaz king of Judah”
The seal impression also depicts a two-winged sun and ankh

symbols. Scholars at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem
explained the iconography this way:
“The symbols on the seal impression from the Ophel suggest

that they were made late in his life, when both the Royal
administrative authority and the King’s personal symbols
changed from the winged scarab (dung beetle)—the symbol of
power and rule that had been familiar throughout the Ancient
Near East, to that of the winged sun—a motif that proclaimed
God’s protection, which gave the regime its legitimacy and
power, also widespread throughout the Ancient Near East and
used by the Assyrian Kings.”3
The Hezekiah bulla affirms not only Hezekiah’s historicity, but

his lineage as well, affirming these biblical details about his life.
Evidence of Religious Reforms
229
Hezekiah was instrumental in leading the people of Judah away

from idolatry and back to the worship of Yahweh. In 2 Kings
18:4 we read, “He removed the high places and broke the pillars
and cut down the Asherah. And he broke in pieces the bronze
serpent that Moses had made, for until those days the people of
Israel had made offerings to it (it was called Nehushtan).”
Evidence of Hezekiah’s religious reforms have been discovered

at Arad, Beer-Sheba, Lachish, Tell Motza, and Tell Lahif.4 For
example, the famous four-horned alter at Beer-Sheba was
dismantled during Hezekiah’s reign and three of its four horns
were found in secondary use in a wall, indicating the structure
was no longer considered sacred. At Lachish, a gate-shrine was
unearthed in 2016. Two small horned alters were discovered,
whose horns had been broken off, and a toilet had been placed in
the shrine as a symbolic act of desecration (2 Kings 10:27).5
beersheba_horned-altar_im_fjenkins042213_0127t
The four-horned altar from Beersheba (Beer Sheva). It’s stones
were discovered incorporated into a storehouse wall.
Excavatiosn revealed the abolishment of the cultic site dated to
the 8th century BC, during the reign of King Hezekiah. Photo
Credit: Ferrell Jenkins / https://ferrelljenkins.blog/2013/07/16/
Hezekiah’s Tunnel and Broad Wall
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Perhaps the defining moment in King Hezekiah’s life occurred

when Sennacherib, King of Assyria came to attack Jerusalem.
Hezekiah received word prior to the impending invasion, giving
him enough time to improve the city’s fortifications and build a
tunnel to bring water into the city.
HezekiahsTunnel
The Siloam Tunnel, also known as Hezekiah’s Tunnel, is an
ancient aqueduct that was carved to bring water from the Gihon
Spring into the city of Jerusalem. Photo Credit: Tamar
Hayardeni / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY 3.0
In 2 Chron. 32:2-4, 30 we read:
“When Hezekiah saw that Sennacherib had come and that he

intended to make war on Jerusalem, he consulted with his
officials and military staff about blocking off the water from the
springs outside the city, and they helped him. A large force of
men assembled, and they blocked all the springs and the stream
that flowed through the land. “Why should the kings of Assyria
come and find plenty of water?” they said….It was Hezekiah
who blocked the upper outlet of the Gihon spring and channeled
the water down to the west side of the City of David.”
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2 Kings 20:20 further summarizes Hezekiah’s life: “As for the

other events of Hezekiah’s reign, all his achievements and how
he made the pool and the tunnel by which he brought water into
the city, are they not written in the book of the annals of the
kings of Judah?”
An ancient aqueduct, dating to the time of King Hezekiah, was

discovered by Edwin Robinson in 1838. Several years later an
inscription was discovered in the tunnel which recorded how it
had been built. Written in ancient Paleo-Hebrew and dated to
the 8th century BC, the inscription reads,
And this was the way in which it was cut through: While [the
quarrymen were] still […] axes, each man toward his fellow,
and while there were still three cubits to be cut through, [there
was heard] the voice of a man calling to his fellow, for there was
an overlap in the rock on the right [and on the left]. And when
the tunnel was driven through, the quarrymen hewed [the rock],
each man towards his fellow, axe against axe; and the water
flowed from the spring toward the reservoir for 1,200 cubits,
and the height of the rock above the heads of the quarrymen was
a hundred cubits.6
siloam_inscription_small
232
A replica of the inscription from Hezekiah’s tunnel that

describes the moment when the tunnel was completed. The
original is in the Istanbul Museum. Photo credit: Wikikati /
Within the Jewish Quarter of Jerusalem, archaeologists
unearthed further evidence of Hezekiah’s preparation for war.
The Broad Wall, as it is known today, is a 7m thick defensive
fortification that still stands 3.3 m tall in some places. It was
built by Hezekiah to enclose the Western Hill and it increased
the defensive walls of the city five-fold.7
Hezekiah's_Broad_Wall_(3622125215) (2)
This section of the Broad Wall in Jerusalem was constructed
during the reign of King Hezekiah. Photo Credit: Ian W. Scott /
Flickr / CC BY-SA 2.0
Sennacherib’s Attack
Sennacherib’s invasion of Judah is recorded in 2 Kings 18:13
“In the fourteenth year of King Hezekiah, Sennacherib king of
Assyria came up against all the fortified cities of Judah and took
them.” This was in response to Hezekiah’s rebellion against the
Assyrian king, refusing to serve him as a vassal (2 Kings 18:7).
The Bible isn’t the only ancient text that describes this attack,
however; multiple copies of the Annals of Sennacerib have been
233
unearthed. The Taylor Prism, the Oriental Institute Prism and

the Jerusalem prism are three clay prisms that contain the same
text describing events from the reign of Sennacherib. The
Taylor Prism was discovered in 1830 by Colonol Robert Taylor
while excavating the ancient Assyrian capital of Nineveh. On it,
Sennacherib boasts:
Taylor_Prism-1-resized
The Annals of Sennacherib, King of Assyria (ca. 705–681 BC)
are contained on the Taylor Prism, currently housed in the
British Museum. Photo Credit: dcastor / Wikimedia Commons /
Public Domain
“As for Hezekiah the Judahite who had not submitted to my
yoke, I surrounded 46 of his strong walled towns, and
innumerable small places around them, and conquered them by
means of earth ramps and siege engines, attack by infantrymen,
mining, breaching, and scaling. 200,150 people of all ranks, men
and women, horses, mules, donkeys, camels, cattle and sheep
without number I brought out and counted as spoil. He himself I
shut up in Jerusalem, his royal city, like a bird in a cage. I put
watch-posts around him, and made it impossible for anyone to
go out of his city.”8
Sennacherib also states, “Now the fear of my lordly splendor

overwhelmed that Hezekiah”9 and he confirms that the Judahite
King did indeed pay him tribute (2 Kings 18:14).
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It is interesting to note that Sennacherib does not boast of

destroying Jerusalem, but merely shutting Hezekiah up in his
royal city “like a bird in a cage.” This would be consistent with
the biblical description of God’s rescue of his people and
Sennacherib’s return to Assyria without conquering Jerusalem
(2 Kings 19:35-36).
Summary
The account in the Bible of Hezekiah’s life, his religious
reforms and his stand against Sennacherib, King of Assyria,
align with what is known about him from the archaeological
record. He was one of the greatest kings Judah had ever had.
In Scripture, his life is summarized this way: “He trusted in the
Lord, the God of Israel, so that there was none like him among
all the kings of Judah after him, nor among those who were
before him.” (2 Kings 18:5).
https://biblearchaeologyreport.com/2019/10/17/nebuchadnezzar-
an-archaeological-biography/
Nebuchadnezzar: An Archaeological Biography
Screenshot (1320)
In this series of bioarchaeographies, (from the Greek words

bios/life, arkhaois/ancient and graphia/writing), we use
235
archaeology to explore the life of historical figures mentioned in

the Bible. Our next archaeological biography is about one of the
most powerful kings in antiquity: King Nebuchadnezzar II.
Nebuchadnezzar the King

Nebuchadnezzar Stele
Nebuchadnezzar ruled over Babylon from 605-562 BC,
expanding the empire and transforming the city of Babylon into
the envy of the ancient world. The story of Nebuchadnezzar’s
ascension to the throne is told on one of the clay tablets in the
Babylonian Chronicles. The Babylonian Chronicles record
Babylonian history year-by-year (although not every year is
covered). Unlike the boasting propaganda of a king’s official
inscriptions (see below), these generally record events in the
barest of terms. The scribes who recorded these events seem to
represent an independent source, and appear to have used other
sources.1 One of the tablets in particular, Babylonian Chronicle
5 (also known as the Jerusalem Chronicle), records events in the
early years of Nebuchadnezzar. It tells how Nebuchadnezzar,
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the crown prince, mustered the Babylonian army and marched to

Carchemish in 605 BC, where he defeated the Egyptian Army.
While there, he received word that his father, Nabopolassar, had
died. The tablet reads:
“For twenty-one years Nabopolassar had been king of Babylon,

when on 8 Abu [15 August 605.] he went to his destiny; in the
month of Ululu [September.] Nebuchadnezzar returned to
Babylon and on 1 Ululu [7 September 605.] he sat on the royal
throne in Babylon.” (Obv. 9-11)2
While his father, Nabopolassar, was the first king of the Neo-
Babylonian empire, Nebuchadnezzar’s reign was longer and he
was arguably the greater king.
Nebuchadnezzar the Conqueror

Jerusalem Chronicle
CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
Nebuchadnezzar is mentioned close to 90 times in Scripture and
figures prominently in the books of 2 Kings, 2 Chronicles,
Jeremiah and Daniel. In Jeremiah 4:7 he is called the “destroyer
237
of nations,” an apt description, as history records that he

extended his empire through conquest such that it stretched from
the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea3. At its height, it
included parts of modern-day Kuwait, Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Israel,
Lebanon and Turkey. The Babylonian Chronicle 5/Jerusalem
Chronicle records his yearly campaigns into “Hatti-Land” (the
Babylonian name for Syria-Palestine), where it says
Nebuchadnezzar “marched about unopposed” and “all the kings
of the Hatti-land came before him and he received their heavy
tribute” (Obv. 16-17).4
This Babylonian Chronicle also records Nebuchadnezzar’s

defeat of Jerusalem:
“In the seventh year [598/597], the month of Kislîmu, the king
of Akkad mustered his troops, marched to the Hatti-land, and
besieged the city of Judah and on the second day of the month
of Addarunote[February/March 597.] he seized the city and
captured the king. [Jehoiachin; cf. Jeremiah 52.28-30; 2 Kings
24.8-17.] He appointed there a king of his own choice,
[“Jehoiachin’s uncle Mattaniah became ling of Judah and
changed his name to Zedekiah”: 2 Kings 24.17.] received its
heavy tribute and sent to Babylon.” (Rev. 11-13)5
The Jerusalem Chronicle confirms numerous details from the

Biblical account, as recorded in 2 Kings 24: the siege of
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Jerusalem, the deposition of King Jehoiachin, the appointment

of King Zedekiah, and the heavy tribute (ie. the treasures from
the Temple and palace) that Nebuchadnezzar took.
Nebuchadnezzar the Builder

j-r-casals-babilonia-temples-v01-post02-artstation
A reconstruction of ancient Babylon, with the Etemenaki
(stepped ziggurat) in the center, and the Esagila (Temple of
Marduk) to the right of it. Image Credit: J.R. Casals /
https://www.artstation.com/artwork/25NVv / Used by
permission of the artist
In Daniel 4:30, King Nebuchadnezzar is walking on the roof of
the royal palace of Babylon when he says, “Is not this great
Babylon, which I have built by my mighty power as a royal
residence and for the glory of my majesty?” This biblical
description is consistent with Nebuchadnezzar’s boasts about his
building exploits as recorded in other inscriptions.
Numerous clay foundation cylinders describing

Nebuchadnezzar’s greatness as a builder have been discovered.
Ancient Mesopotamian kings would commission clay cylinders
to be inscribed in cuneiform script describing and dedicating
their construction and then bury them in the foundations of
structures they were building or repairing. On one clay
foundation cylinder, Nebuchadnezzar describes the construction
239
of the outer city wall of Babylon, stating, “I built a strong wall

that cannot be shaken with bitumen and baked bricks… I laid its
foundation on the breast of the netherworld, and I built its top as
high as a mountain.”6 In 2014, another Nebuchadnezzar
cylinder sold for $605,000 at Doyle New York. In its
inscription, Nebuchadnezzar describes how he rebuilt a temple
named E-barra: “I erected E-barra as it was of yore and
completed it. I caused it to shine like the bright day.”7
Screenshot (1324)
Some of the many foundation cylinders in which
Nebuchadnezzar details his extensive building program. Photo
credit of individual cylinders: Wikimedia Commons / Public
Domain
One of the most famous Nebuchadnezzar inscriptions is called
the East India House Inscription, so named because it was
presented as a gift to the East India House museum. It describes
Nebuchadnezzar’s achievements in building the great temples of
Esagila and Ezida, as well as the city walls and royal palaces in
Babylon. In it he boasts:
‘I am Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, the exalted prince, the

favourite of the god Marduk, the beloved of the god Nabu, the
arbiter, the possessor of wisdom, who reverences their lordship,
the untiring governor who is constantly anxious for the
maintenance of the shrines of Babylonia and Borsippa…By thy
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command, merciful Marduk, may the temple I have built endure

for all time and may I be satisfied with its splendor”8
Nebuchadnezzar East India House

The East India House Inscription is a foundation tablet that
further describes Nebuchadnezzar’s extensive building. Photo
Credit: The British Museum / CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
Perhaps the most famous structure built by Nebuchadnezzar is
the famous Ishtar Gate, one of the main gates into the city. The
striking blue bricks, the images of dragons and aurochs (bulls),
and the sheer size of the gate have awed the modern-world ever
since it was discovered. The dedication inscription reads:
“Therefore, I [Nebuchadnezzar] pulled down these gates and

laid bare their foundations at the water-table with asphalt and
bricks and had them made of bricks with blue stone on which
wonderful bulls and dragons were depicted. I covered their
roofs by laying majestic cedars length-wise over them. I hung
doors of cedar adorned with bronze ta all the gate openings. I
placed wild bulls and ferocious dragons in the gateways and
thus adorned them with luxurious splendor so hat people might
gaze on them in wonder.”9
241
Nebuchadnezzar_IshtarGateInscription_Pergamon_Museum_Be
rlin_2007086
This building Inscription was once part of the famous Ishtar
Gate. Photo credit: Griffindor / Wikimedia Commons / Public
Domain
Nebuchadnezzar Brick1
A clay building brick stamped with Nebuchadnezzar’s names
and titles. Photo Credit: The British Museum / CC BY-NC-SA
4.0
Scholars estimate Nebuchadnezzar used as many as 15 million
bricks rebuilding the walls, the temples and the palaces of
Babylon. Many of these bricks were stamped with an
inscription stating Nebuchadnezzar was caring for the temples
of the supreme god Marduk (Esagila) and his son Nabu (Ezida).
They read: “Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, who cares for
Esagila and Ezida, eldest son of Nabopolassar, king of
Babylon.”10
The many building materials and dedications from Babylon

identify Nebuchadnezzar as the chief architect who built the city
with his mighty power, just as he boasted in the book of Daniel.
Summary
242
Unfortunately, most of what we know about Nebuchadnezzar

comes only from the early part of his reign. According to
Hoerth and McRay, “Little is known about the last years of
Nebuchadnezzar, but his affliction with boanthropy (a form of
illness in which a man believes himself to be an ox; Daniel
chapter 4) can be placed within that obscure period.” Still,
many archaeological finds from the ancient Babylonian empire
affirm the biblical description of Nebuchadnezzar as king,
conqueror and builder.
https://biblearchaeologyreport.com/2019/11/15/sergius-paulus-
an-archaeological-biography/
Sergius Paulus: An Archaeological Biography

Sergius Paulus Blog
In our series of bioarchaeographies, we’ve been using

archaeology to tell the life story of biblical figures. So far
we’ve studied King Hezekiah, Pontius Pilate, Nebuchadnezzar,
Gallio, and Tiglath-Pileser III. With each of these biblical
characters, we’ve seen direct archaeological evidence that
affirms their historicity as well as specific details in Scripture.
Sometimes in archaeology, however, a possible reference to a
certain person is found, rather than a clear, unequivocal
reference. This necessitates a “connect-the-dots” type of
243
approach, as archaeologists seek to interpret the inscriptions that

are discovered. Such is the case with the subject of this
archaeological biography: Sergius Paulus.
Paul and Barnabas met the proconsul, Sergius Paulus, during a

missionary trip to Cyprus. In Act 13:6-7, we read, “When they
had gone through the whole island as far as Paphos, they came
upon a certain magician, a Jewish false prophet named Bar-
Jesus. He was with the proconsul, Sergius Paulus, a man of
intelligence, who summoned Barnabas and Saul and sought to
hear the word of God.” Sergius Paulus eventually put his faith
in Jesus Christ (Acts 13:12) and, after leaving Cyprus, Paul and
Barnabas made their way to Pisidian Antioch (Acts 13:14).
Proconsuls were important men in the Roman Empire during the

first century. Is there evidence of a prominent man named
Sergius Paulus around this time (AD 45-50) who we might
identify as the proconsul of Cyprus? Indeed, there is: multiple
inscriptions naming a certain “Sergius Paulus” indicate that such
a man was an official in the Roman empire in the middle of the
first century.
Roman Names
To begin, we need to understand Roman names. Typically,
Roman men had three names: a praenomen (informal “first
244
name”), nomen (gens or clan name), and cognomen (small

family name).1 Gaius Julias Caesar is a good example. With
Sergius Paulus, only his nomen and cognomen are given in Acts
13, not his praenomen/first name. Still, as we shall see, a
number of inscriptions bear this name, and even a first initial.
Inscriptions
Sergius Paulus Soloi Inscription
A squeeze of the Soloi Inscription, discovered on Cyprus and
dating to 54 AD, mentions a “proconsul Paulus.” Photo: T. B.
Mitford / The Annual of the British School at Athens /
https://www.jstor.org/stable/30096725?
seq=2#metadata_info_tab_contents
In 1877 a Greek inscription was discovered at Soloi, on the
northern coast of Cyprus, which mentions a proconsul named
Paulus. This inscription (IGR III, 930), which has been dated to
the middle of the first century, is currently housed in the Cyprus
museum and reads:
“Apollonius to his father…consecrated this enclosure and

monument according to his family’s wishes…having filled the
offices of clerk of the market, prefect, town-clerk, high priest,
and having been in charge as manager of the records office.
Erected on the 25th of the month Demarchexusius in the
thirteenth year [of the reign of Claudius – 54 AD]. He also
245
altered the senate by means of assessors during the time of

proconsul Paulus.”2
Note that, while the inscription dates to 54 AD, it references an

event earlier than this, during the time of the proconsul Paulus.
This inscription establishes that someone in the Pauli family was
proconsul on the island of Cyprus around the time the Bible
describes Sergius Paulus in such a role. D. G. Hogarth
personally inspected the inscription in 1888 and wrote, “The
great interest of this inscription lies in the possible allusion to
the Sergius Paulus of Acts xiii. There can be no good reason for
doubting an identification, which would unquestionably have
been proposed and hardly disputed had Sergius Paulus been
known from any other source than the New Testament.”3
photo - CIL 6.31545 (2)

On this inscription (CIL 6.41545), dating to the mid-40’s, L.
Sergius Paulus is named as one of the commissioners of the
banks and beds of the Tiber river. Photo: Center for
Epigraphical and Palaeographical Studies, The Ohio State
University
Another inscription on a boundary stone from Rome names L.
Sergius Paullus as one of the curators of the Tiber River (Note:
Paullus is the Latin spelling; Paulus is the Greek spelling) . It
has been dated to 47 AD. Due to the very limited number of
246
first names commonly used among men in Rome, it is probable

that L. stands for Lucius. The inscription (CIL 6.31545) reads:
“Paullus Fabius Persicus
Gaius Eggius Marullus
Lucius Sergius Paullus
Gaius Obellius Rufus
Lucius Scribonius Libo (?)
The commissioners of the banks and beds of the Tiber, by the

authority of Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus
[the emperor Claudius], leader of the Senate (?), marked the
boundaries [of the Tiber floodplain] by placing boundary stones
on the bank from the Trigarium to the Pons Agrippae.”4
Thus, a man named Lucius Sergius Paulus held a position as a

Roman official overseeing the Tiber River in the middle of the
247
first century. As commissioner of the banks and beds of the

Tiber, he would have been “responsible for managing the flow
of the river to prevent the disastrous flooding that sometimes
occurred in the city.”5 New Testament scholar, Ben
Witherington III, concludes: “The fact that the Latin inscription,
datable to the 40’s, like the text of Acts 13, mentions a
prominent Sergius Paulus as a public figure suggests a
connection between the two since clearly Paul’s visit to Cyprus
must also be dated to the reign of Claudius in the later 40’s.
This would provide one more piece of evidence, though indirect,
that Luke is dealing with historical data and situations, not just
creating a narrative with historical verisimilitude.”6 It is quite
possible that Lucius Sergius Paulus served as commissioner of
the Tiber River either before or after becoming the proconsul of
Cyprus. While some have suggested that Sergius Paulus was
demoted from his role as procurator of Cyprus after he put his
faith in Christ, the dating of the inscriptions is not precise
enough to pinpoint the order in which he served in each role.
sergius paulus inscription

This stone, bearing the name Sergius Paulus, was discovered
near Pisidian Antioch, the site of the family estate. Photo Credit:
HolyLandPhotos.org
Two more Sergius Paulus inscriptions have been discovered
near Pisidian Antioch. The most famous is currently housed at
the Yalvac Museum. On it, the whole family name Paulii and
part of the name Sergii are clearly visible.7 Though
248
fragmentary, it has been reconstructed to read, “L. Sergius

Paulus.” Unfortunately, no title or position is given for this
individual. Another inscription was copied by Sir William
Ramsay and J.G.C. Anderson near Pisidian Antioch in 1912. It
reads, “To L(ucius) Sergius Paullus, the younger, son of Lucius,
one of the four commissioners in charge of the Roman streets,
tribune of the soldiers of the sixth legion styled Ferrata,
quaestor…”8 Ramsay identifies this L. Sergius Paullus (the
younger) as the son of L. Sergius Paullus who was the proconsul
of Cyprus. He also discovered another inscription referring to a
lady named Sergia Paula, whom he identifies as the daughter of
L. Sergius Paullus, the proconsul of Cyprus. It should be noted
that Ramsay bases his identification on his speculation of the
dates of the inscriptions and the possible ages of each
individual, and should be viewed as just that – a hypothesis.
Sergius Paulus Younger Inscription

Sir William Ramsay copied this inscription near Pisidian
Antioch in 1912. It refers to an L. Sergius Paulus the younger,
son of L. Sergius Paulus. Photo: William Ramsay in The
Bearing of Recent Discovery on the Trustworthiness of the New
Testament
Still, the number of inscriptions referring to the Sergius Paulus
family around Pisidian Antioch have led some scholars to
suggest that the family estate was nearby, which raises an
interesting possibility given that the Apostle Paul and Barnabas
made their way to this city immediately after they left Cyprus.
249
Dr. Titus Kennedy summarizes, “ It is possible, though

unconfirmed and only a hypothesis based on circumstantial
evidence, that the reason Paul and Barnabus traveled to Antioch
after Cyprus is because Sergius Paulus had family ties there. If
so, the L. Sergius Paulus mentioned on the stone inscription
from Antioch may further illuminate the life of the proconsul
Sergius Paulus who held positions on Cyprus and in Rome.”9
Some speculate that Sergius Paulus adopted Saul into the Paulus
family through the common Roman practice of adult adoption
known as adrogation. This, they propose, explains why Saul is
henceforth known as Paul immediately after this account in the
book of Acts, and how he may have gone to Antioch to be
introduced to the family. It’s an interesting hypothesis.
One final inscription from Kytharia, Cyprus has been suggested

as relating to the proconsul Sergius Paulus. It bears the name
“Quintus Ser[gius]” and, while the name of the emperor is lost,
it can be restored as either Tiberius (14–37 AD), Caligula (37–
41 AD), or Claudius (41–54 AD).10 If it is Claudius, it would
be further evidence of the Sergius clan on Cyprus at the time the
Bible describes; if it is Tiberius or Caligula, it would be too
early to make a connection. Furthermore, given the fragmentary
nature of the inscription, it is not possible to conclusively state
what the nomen and cognomen should be. While some have
suggested Quintus Sergius Paulus, this is tentative at best.
Quintus Sergius Paulus Inscription

250
This inscription is part of an decree reguarding sacrifices at a

temple. The fragment also contains the name, Quintus Ser[gius].
If it refers to the Sergius clan, then it may be more evidence of
the Sergius Paulus family on Cyprus in the early-to-mid first
century. Photo: The Metropolitan Museum of Art / Public
Domain
Literary References
In his work, Natural History, Pliny the Elder lists a number of
authors whom he used as sources for some of his material.
Among these is Sergius Paulus, who appears to have also been
an author on Natural History in his own right, although his work
has been lost. Interestingly, in his second and 18th book, Pliny
writes about Cyprus, and makes note of its magicians. Bill
Cooper suggests, “To be quoted and relied upon by Pliny as an
authority, your scholarly credentials had to be second to none,
and Sergius Paulus was clearly highly esteemed as an author on
Natural History for Pliny to rely on his work as he did. Against
this background, Luke’s statement concerning Sergius Paulus –
that he was a “prudent man” [a man of intelligence – ESV]
(Acts 13:7) – takes on added meaning.”11
Summary
Based on the inscriptional evidence, many scholars have
concluded that there was indeed a prominent Roman official
named Sergius Paulus in the middle of the first century. It
appears that his full name was Lucius Sergius Paulus, and that,
251
in addition to serving in various roles in the Roman empire, he

was also a respected author. Ben Witherington III concludes:
“In sum, the inscriptional evidence clearly places Sergii Pauli on
the island of Cyprus and the Latin inscription about Lucius of
that family may point us to the man in question. Given what we
know about the Roman career patterns of the time it is quite
feasible that a curator of the Tiber might have before or after his
curatorship served as proconsul on Cyprus.”12 By connecting
the dots, it is reasonable to interpret the evidence as suggesting
that Lucius Sergius Paulus was likely the proconsul of Cyprus
whom Paul met and led to faith in Christ Jesus.
https://biblearchaeologyreport.com/2020/08/07/king-uzziah-an-
archaeological-biography/?
fbclid=IwAR3yS_HeKcTC0GeJ216xAIGFIRUmdi_jGjZVn4H
P69bbmphpLVTAEvqu4fY
King Uzziah: An Archaeological Biography

Uzziah
“How the mighty have fallen.” This epithet adequately sums up

the life of King Uzziah, the subject of our next bioarchaeograpy.
He was one of the greatest kings of Judah, reigning for 52 years,
from ca. 792-740 BC.1 Scripture records how Uzziah (also
known as Azariah in 1 Kings 15:1-7) became king after his
father’s death:
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And all the people of Judah took Uzziah, who was sixteen years
old, and made him king instead of his father Amaziah. He built
Eloth and restored it to Judah, after the king slept with his
fathers. Uzziah was sixteen years old when he began to reign,
and he reigned fifty-two years in Jerusalem. His mother’s name
was Jecoliah of Jerusalem. And he did what was right in the
eyes of the LORD, according to all that his father Amaziah had
done. He set himself to seek God in the days of Zechariah, who
instructed him in the fear of God, and as long as he sought the
LORD, God made him prosper. (2 Chr 26:1-5).
However, after Zechariah’s death, Uzziah became proud and

broke God’s laws by trying to usurp the role of priests and offer
incense to the Lord. In punishment, he was struck with leprosy
and lived as a leper in a separate house until the day of his death
(2 Chr 26:21).
The Historicity of Uzziah

Uzziah’s historicity has been affirmed by several archaeological
artifacts. Two seals which once belonged to officials in his
court mention him by name. One reads, “belonging to Abiyau,
servant of Uzziah.”2 It is made of agate, depicts a kneeling
Egyptian figure, and was likely used in a ring.3 The second seal
is made of red limestone and reads, “Belonging to Sebnayau,
servant of Uzziah.”4 It depicts a man holding a scepter in his
253
left hand with this right hand raised. Based on the shapes of the
letters and the styles of the seals, both date to the time of King
Uzziah. While they were obtained on the antiquities market,
they are considered authentic, as were both purchased in the
mid-1800’s, at a time when forgers could not have known about
the epigraphical features of 8th century BC seals.5
Furthermore, both use the Hebrew term, ‘ebed for “servant,”
which means the seal’s owner was the servant of a king.6
Seal of Shebnayahu servant of Uzziah king of Judah, with

Assyrian figure, 1st half 8th c BC, tb0927195041
The seal of Sebnayau, “servant of Uzziah.” Photo: Todd Bolen,
BiblePlaces.com
A fragmentary inscription from the Assyrian king, Tiglath-
Pileser III mentions “Azariah of Judah” (Uzziah’s other name)
several times. In one part, Tiglath-Pileser writes: “19 districts of
Hamath, together with the cities of their environs, on the shore
of the sea of the setting sun, who had gone over to Azariah in
revolt and contempt [of Assyria].”7 While this event is not
known in Scripture, it would be consistent with Uzziah’s
influence as he expanded his control in the region (see below).
Some scholars have suggested that this might not be Azariah,
king of Judah, but rather another influential ruler named Azariah
of another region named Judah. However, this seems unlikely.
Israel Museum
254
King Uzziah’s reburial plaque. Photo: Ferrell Jenkins,

https://ferrelljenkins.blog/2014/01/30/visualizing-isaiah-6-king-
uzziah/
In 1931, a burial plaque came to light; it was rediscovered by
E.L Sukenik, professor of archaeology at Hebrew University in
Jerusalem, while he was looking at items in the Russian
Orthodox monastery on the Mount of Olives. The marble slab
bore an Aramaic inscription which read, “Here were brought the
bones of Uzziah, king of Judah. Do not open.” 8 The inscription
does not date to the time of Uzziah, but to sometime between the
Hasmonean and early Roman periods (ca 150 BC- 50AD).9 It
appears to be a marker indicating that the bones of the Judahite
king had been moved to a new burial location, likely because the
city had expanded. Gordon Franz notes: “Josephus records that
Herod the Great erected a monument over the tomb of David
after he tried to steal some of the gold and silver from the tomb.
This was probably the time when Uzziah’s bones were moved
and the inscription was written.”10
The Expansion of Uzziah

While Uzziah is perhaps best-known for the earthquake that
occurred while he was reigning (see below), he was known to be
a prolific builder. Scripture records that he, “…built towers in
Jerusalem at the Corner Gate and at the Valley Gate and at the
Angle, and fortified them. And he built towers in the wilderness
and cut out many cisterns, for he had large herds, both in the
Shephelah and in the plain, and he had farmers and vinedressers
255
in the hills and in the fertile lands, for he loved the soil” (2 Chr
26:9-10).
Gibeah Ruins
Iron Age ruins at Gibeah, as photographed in 1964. Photo:
LifeintheHolyLands.com
Archaeological evidence of building activity around the time of
Uzziah has been unearthed throughout Judah. An 8th-century
BC fortress was discovered at Ain el-Qudeirat (identified as
Kadesh Barnea) with eight rectangular towers and a significant
cistern inside the citadel.11 Towers and cisterns from this
period have also been found at Gibeah and Beersheba.12
Pesach Bar-Adon surveyed and excavated a series of 8th-
century BC sites in the Judean wilderness, including Qumran,
and found that they resembled forts. This would be consistent
with Uzziah’s building of towers and cisterns in the wilderness,
and may have been a strategic attempt to build a string of
fortified settlements could defend the eastern border of the
kingdom and control access to the trade routes.13 The round,
Iron-Age cistern at Qumran can still be seen today. Further,
Lachish (Level III) and Beth Shemesh (Level II) appear to have
been constructed by Uzziah and display sophisticated urban
planning.14
Qumran Cisterns
256
The round cistern at Qumran in the middle of this photo dates to

the Iron Age. Some scholars believe it was built during the reign
of Uzziah, as described in 2 Chron. 26:10 – “And he built
towers in the wilderness and cut out many cisterns…” Photo:
Courtesy of www.HolyLandPhotos.org
Remains of First-Temple era artifacts and architecture are rare in
Jerusalem, as it has been both destroyed and built over
numerous times. Eilat Mazar has suggested that a First-Temple
era structure, known as the “Extra Tower” in Jerusalem was one
of Uzziah’s building projects.15 There is debate around this
identification, however, as Leen Ritmeyer has pointed out that
this structure was likely built during the reign of Hezekiah.16
Uzziah Kingdom
The Expanding kingdom of Judah during Uzziah’s reign. Image:
GiantBibleMaps.com / CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
Scripture also records Uzziah’s expansion by conquest: “He
went out and made war against the Philistines and broke through
the wall of Gath and the wall of Jabneh and the wall of Ashdod,
and he built cities in the territory of Ashdod and elsewhere
among the Philistines” (2 Chr 26:6). Archaeological evidence
for Uzziah’s conquests is open to interpretation, given the
incomplete and fragmentary nature of the data. Jabneh (Tel
Yavneh) has not been sufficiently excavated to gain an
understanding of the site in the 8th century BC.17 At Ashdod,
there are two 8th-century BC destruction levels beneath an
257
Assyrian structure at the base of the tell, the earliest of which

may be evidence of Uzziah’s conquest.18 At Tell es-Safi (Gath)
evidence linked to Uzziah’s conquest has not been definitively
discovered. However, there is an 8th-century BC Judahite
occupation level in Area F at the site19, which may be indirect
evidence of Uzziah’s control of Gath.
aerial-foto-looking-sw-2009-with-excavation-areas Gath
An Aerial photo of Tell es-Safi (Gath) with Area F labeled.
Photo: Courtesy of The Tell es-Safi/Gath Archaeological Project
/ https://gath.wordpress.com/2009/07/31/the-2009-season-is-
over/
The Earthquake of Uzziah
The Bible records that there was as significant earthquake in
Judah in the days of King Uzziah (Amos 1:1, Zech. 14:1).
Archaeological evidence for a massive earthquake in the 8th
century BC is visible at numerous sites throughout the Levant,
including Hazor, Deir ‘Alla, Gezer, Lachish, Gath, Tell
Judeideh, and ‘En Haseva. An article in the journal
Tectonophysics also details paleoseismic evidence for this
earthquake. The researchers used carbon-14 to date the organic
matter in the deformed layers. Their analysis documented 11
earthquakes in Israel during the Bronze and Iron ages, including
two in the 8th century BC.20 The larger of the two 8th-century
BC earthquakes was likely the one that is remembered from the
258
days of Uzziah. Some scholars calculate that this earthquake

had a magnitude of 7.8-8.2.21
brick-wall-destroyed-in-earthquake Uzziah
This photo, from Tell es-Safi (Gath) shows a collapsed wall, in
which the bricks moved laterally about 2 meters off of the
foundation and then toppled. Based on the stratigraphic context,
this can be dated to the mid-8th century BC, and was likely the
result of the earthquake that occurred in the days of Uzziah.
Photo: Courtesy of The Tell es-Safi/Gath Archaeological
Project, https://gath.wordpress.com/2010/07/28/view-of-
philistine-temple-and-amos-earthquake/
Conclusion
King Uzziah’s life has been affirmed and illuminated through
archaeological findings over the course of more than 100 years.
However, it is the ending of his life that is probably most
instructive for those of us living more than 2700 years later.
Despite his long reign and perceived greatness, his pride led to
his downfall and he lived as a leprous outcast until the day of his
death. His life illustrates the proverb, “Pride goes before
destruction, and a haughty spirit before a fall” (Prov. 16:18).
259
Title Photo: Epitaph of King Uzziah of Judah, Jerusalem, 1st

century BCE-1st century CE, Limestone,
https://www.imj.org.il/en/collections/353190 Photo The Israel
Museum, Jerusalem
https://biblearchaeologyreport.com/2021/10/08/king-hoshea-an-
archaeological-biography/
King Hoshea: An Archaeological Biography
Hoshea was the final ruler of the northern Kingdom of Israel,

reigning from ca. 732-723 BC1 until the fall of Samaria2. The
biblical record of Hoshea’s reign is as follows:
In the twelfth year of Ahaz king of Judah, Hoshea the son of

Elah began to reign in Samaria over Israel, and he reigned nine
years. And he did what was evil in the sight of the LORD, yet
not as the kings of Israel who were before him. Against him
came up Shalmaneser king of Assyria. And Hoshea became his
vassal and paid him tribute. But the king of Assyria found
treachery in Hoshea, for he had sent messengers to So, king of
Egypt, and offered no tribute to the king of Assyria, as he had
done year by year. Therefore the king of Assyria shut him up
260
and bound him in prison. Then the king of Assyria invaded all
the land and came to Samaria, and for three years he besieged it.
In the ninth year of Hoshea, the king of Assyria captured
Samaria, and he carried the Israelites away to Assyria and
placed them in Halah, and on the Habor, the river of Gozan, and
in the cities of the Medes. (2 Kings 17:1-6)
Despite reigning for less than a decade, there is considerable

archaeological evidence supporting the biblical description of
the tumultuous times in which he ruled.
Seal of Hoshea’s Servant Abdi
The seal of “Abdi, servant of Hoshea.” Photo: Shlomo

Mousaieff Collections, London
An ancient seal, bearing the paleo-Hebrew inscription,
“Belonging to Abdi, servant of Hoshea” was purchased at a
Sotheby’s auction in 1993 for $80,000. The translucent brown
carnelian (or orange chalcedony) scaraboid seal also includes
the image of a man wearing a long kilt and a short wig holding a
papyrus scepter. At the bottom is an Egyptian winged sun disk,
an image that is common on prominent Hebrew seals, such as
that of King Hezekiah. In ancient seals, the servant’s title, ’ebed,
indicates that the master was a king,3 such as on the famous
Mediddo seal belonging to “Shema servant of Jeroboam.” Only
261
one Hebrew king was named Hoshea: the final ruler of the
northern Kingdom of Israel. Moreover, epigrapher André
Lemaire notes, “The paleo-Hebrew writing on this seal fits very
well with other dated inscriptions from the last third of the
eighth century B.C.E.”4 Even though the seal was purchased on
the antiquities market, most experts support its authenticity.5 If
it is indeed authentic, it provides extra-biblical evidence for the
historicity of King Hoshea.
Hoshea and Tiglath-Pileser III

King Hoshea is also attested in the royal inscriptions of the
Assyrian king, Tiglath-Pileser III. Summary Inscription No. 4
was discovered on a large pavement stone by Austen Henry
Layard during excavations at Calah. He made paper squeezes of
the inscription, which were subsequently lost; thankfully, the
inscription had already been copied by George Smith. Summary
Inscription No. 4 reads:
Summary Inscription No. 4 records the deeds of the Assyrian

king, Tiglath-Pileser III. Photo:
https://thinkingtobelieve.com/2011/08/11/biblical-archaeology-
13-tiglath-pileser-iii-inscriptions/
262
“The land of Bit-Humria [literally Omri-Land, that is Israel]…

all of its people […to] Assyria I carried off. Pekah, their king,
[I/they ki]lled…and Hoshea [as king] I appointed over them.”6
This affirms the biblical description of Hoshea usurping the

throne when Tiglath-Pileser III attacked Israel. In 2 Kings
15:29-30 we read, “In the days of Pekah king of Israel, Tiglath-
pileser king of Assyria came and captured Ijon, Abel-beth-
maacah, Janoah, Kedesh, Hazor, Gilead, and Galilee, all the land
of Naphtali, and he carried the people captive to Assyria. Then
Hoshea the son of Elah made a conspiracy against Pekah the son
of Remaliah and struck him down and put him to death and
reigned in his place, in the twentieth year of Jotham the son of
Uzziah.” The Assyrian text illuminates the biblical text by
indicating Hoshea had sworn allegiance to Assyria in exchange
for help securing the throne. Hoshea is also mentioned in
Summary Statement No. 9, where Tiglath-Pileser again takes
credit for appointing the Israelite king on the throne as his
vassal.7 It appears that Hoshea remained a faithful Assyrian
vassal throughout Tiglath-Pileser’s reign.
Hoshea and Shalmaneser V

According to the biblical text, Hoshea initially paid tribute to the
new Assyrian king, Shalmaneser V (2 Ki 17:3). Soon, however,
he revolted and turned to So, king of Egypt (possibly Pharaoh
Osorkon IV) for support (2 Ki 17:4). Hoshea’s actions brought
263
swift retribution as Shalmaneser marched to Israel, laid siege to

Samaria for three years, eventually taking the Israelite king as
prisoner and “deporting the Israelites to Assyria” (2 Ki 17:5-6
NIV). Thus, the biblical record attributes the fall of Samaria to
Shalmaneser V. This is supported by the Babylonian Chronicle
ABC 1 (BM 92502) which records, “On the twenty-fifth of the
month Tebêtu, Šalmaneser in Assyria and Akkad ascended the
throne. He ravaged Samaria.”8 The Eponym Chronicle for
Shalmaneser’s reign is, unfortunately badly damaged and
incomplete. It does seem to indicate that, in the years 725, 724,
and 723 BC, he was engaged in a campaign somewhere, but the
enemy’s name/location is missing. These three years may
coincide with the three years the Bible records Shalmaneser was
laying siege to Samaria, and numerous scholars have proposed
that “Samaria” is the missing location.9 Shalmaneser reigned
for only five years before he died and Sargon II ascended the
throne.
The Babylonian Chronicle BM 92502 records events that

occurred during the reigns of Nabû-Nasir to Šamaš-šuma-ukin.
It includes a reference to Shalmaneser ravaging Samaria. Photo:
Hoshea and Sargon II?
264
A relief of Sargon II (right) and dignitary from the wall of his

palace at Dur Sharrukin in Assyria (now Khorsabad in Iraq).
Photo Jastrow / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain
The circumstances surrounding Sargon’s ascension are
somewhat obscure. It appears that he was an usurper who led a
coup d’etat to sieze the throne. In his inscriptions he repeatedly
claimed that he had conquered Israel. In the Great
Summary/Display Inscription (Prunkinschrift) from his palace at
Khorsabad, Sargon boasts, “I besieged and conquered Samaria. I
took as booty 27,290 people who lived there…I set my governor
over them, and I imposed upon them the (same) tribute as the
previous king (Shalmaneser V).”10
The so-called Nimrud Prism from Calah contains Sargon’s boast

that he deported the Israelites and resettled Samaria with people
from other lands he conquered. Photo: The British Museum /
CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
Similarly on a cuneiform cylinder from Nimrud (Calah), Sargon
declares that he deported Israelites to Assyria and “resettled
Samaria more (densely than before (and) brought there people
from the lands of my conquest. I appointed my eunuch over
them as governor and counted them as Assyrians.”11
265
Some scholars have pointed out that Sargon’s claims to

capturing Samaria all come from late in his reign (years 15 and
16). Edwin Thiele noted, “If it was indeed a fact that Sargon had
captured the city of Samaria at the beginning of his reign, then
the question may well be asked why it took him so long to
remember this fact.”12 Others, have pointed out that Sargon was
busy in Assyria making his claim to the throne secure in the first
year of his reign, and could not have been campaigning in
Israel.13
So who actually conquered Samaria? One possibility is that the

conquest of Israel was begun under Shalmaneser, and finished
under Sargon. Thus, Shalmaneser is named as the Assyrian king
who invaded the land and imprisoned Hoshea (2 Ki 17:3-4),
while Sargon is the “king of Assyria” who captured Assyria and
carried off the Israelites (2 Ki 17:6). A more probably
explanation is that Shalmaneser conquered Israel, but died
shortly afterward and Sargon, writing later in his reign, took
credit for the conquest. Kenneth Kitchen explains:
“…following Shalmaneser’s very brief reign, which ended

before any account of his last year could be monumentalized,
Sargon II replaced him in a coup d’etat, and subsequently
claimed the capture of Samaria for himself, much later in his
reign. This was certainly a propaganda exercise, to cover the gap
in military successes that would otherwise disfigure the accounts
of his reign. The mere three months of his “accession year” were
266
not adequate to run a campaign, nor the season suitable; and

internal strife occupied the first year of his reign. So the later
annalists had to cover this over by attributing Shalmaneser’s
capture of Samaria to Sargon.”14
What happened to King Hoshea? Unfortunately, nothing is

conclusively known of Hoshea’s death, although it seems
reasonable to conclude he perished in exile.
Conclusion
While the Assyrian data regarding the fall of Samaria is
confusing and contradictory, there are inscriptions which align
with the biblical account of Hoshea’s reign and the last days of
the kingdom of Israel. That he was a real king who was an
Assyrian vassal, but rebelled, leading to the fall of the Israelite
kingdom is historically beyond doubt.
It is worth noting that the writer/compiler of the book of Kings

ends the account of Israel’s history with a warning, recording
that the fall of Samaria was God’s judgement against the
peoeple’s sins: “And this occurred because the people of Israel
had sinned against the LORD their God, who had brought them
up out of the land of Egypt from under the hand of Pharaoh king
of Egypt, and had feared other gods and walked in the customs
of the nations whom the LORD drove out before the people of
267
Israel, and in the customs that the kings of Israel had practiced.”
(2 Ki 17:7-8).
https://biblearchaeologyreport.com/2022/02/04/hophra-an-
https://biblearchaeologyreport.com/2022/03/18/tirhakah-an-
https://biblearchaeologyreport.com/2022/05/05/so-an-
268

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Biografías Arqueológicas

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BIOGRAFÍA

Paraná, Entre Ríos

EL TOP TEN DE LOS HALLAZGOS ARQUEOLÓGICOS

TOP TEN DEL 2019.................................................14

9) El Génesis tenía razón en cuanto a los edomitas...15

TOP TEN DEL 2018.................................................20

3) ¿Firma del profeta Isaías en impresión de sello?...25

TOP TEN DEL 2017.................................................28

LA SALA DEL TEMPLO.........................................................36

LA PRIMERA PRUEBA DEL CRISTIANISMO PRIMITIVO

UNA DIMINUTA PIEZA DE ARCILLA Y EL REY BÍBLICO

¿DEBATE RABÍNICO RESUELTO? UN ESTUDIO TOMA

LOS SELLOS Y LA RECONSTRUCCIÓN.............................78

EL SELLO DEL MAYORDOMO............................................84

LA PRIMERA MENCIÓN DE LOS HEBREOS.....................88

The Historicity of Uzziah

revolt and contempt [of Assyria].”7 While this event is not

The Expansion of Uzziah

Yavneh) has not been sufficiently excavated to gain an

days of Uzziah. Some scholars calculate that this earthquake

Nebuchadnezzar, Cyrus, Shishak, King David, Ahaz, Hezekiah,

enhancements which Ahab made to the capital of Samaria was

in 1861 at Kurkh, near the Tigris river in Turkey. In the

rimani (841). Thus Jehu was already reigning over Israel

clear that he followed the expansion and building policies of his

Joash/Jehoash (2 Kings 12:1, 19). King Jehoash of Israel is

with Adad-Narari III’s expedition westward in 796 BC.3 It

Adad-Nirari seems to have subdued and laid a heavy tribute on

his reign. Assyrian’s defeat of Aram weakened Israel’s northern

confederation of 17 city-states led by “Bar-Hadad, son of

Sometime later, Amaziah sent a challenge to the king of Israel to

Israel met at the Battle of Beth Shemesh. The biblical account

Judah. Despite its southerly location, it has been identified as an

The portrait of a seated king, reconstructed from plaster remains

shed light on the geo-political in the 8th century that provides

Omri was originally the commander of the army of the north at a

people of Israel supported Tibni the son of Ginath. With his

besieged was Stratum VIIb, which showed evidence of having

The remains of Omri’s palace, expanded by his son, Ahab, are

south-facing scarp c. 150 m. long. The actual palace building

biblical writers, counted for very little if an individual had

HASTA ACA AJUSTADO

Since he governed Galilee during the years of Jesus’ ministry,

Herod Antipas and John the Baptist

But when Herod’s birthday came, the daughter of Herodias

Antipas’ divorce and remarriage ultimately led to a disastrous

According to numismatist, Arthur L. Friedberg, “His coins were

monumental inscriptions found at Cos and Delos, respectively…

The Building Projects of Herod Antipas

The historical and archaeological evidence suggests that Herod

It has been noted by various scholars, that during the divided

Ahaz was twenty years old when he began to reign, and he

Ahaz began to rule in a co-regency with his father, Jotham, in

Lachish Toilet IAA

Bulla and Seal

An eighth-century seal, that was purchased on the antiquities

the Babylon Collection of Yale University.

Ushna Seal servant of Ahaz

So Ahaz sent messengers to Tiglath-pileser king of Assyria,