Universidad Complutense de Madrid: Facultad de Psicología Departamento de Psicología Clínica y de Salud
Universidad Complutense de Madrid: Facultad de Psicología Departamento de Psicología Clínica y de Salud
Universidad Complutense de Madrid: Facultad de Psicología Departamento de Psicología Clínica y de Salud
FACULTAD DE PSICOLOGÍA
Departamento de Psicología Clínica y de Salud
TESIS DOCTORAL
PRESENTADA POR
María Serrano Villar
Directoras
Isabel Calonge Romano
Esther Calzada
Rosario Martínez Arias
Madrid, 2018
FACULTAD DE PSICOLOGÍA
Madrid, 2016
UNIVERSIDAD COMPLUTENSE DE MADRID
FACULTAD DE PSICOLOGÍA
Madrid, 2016
DIRECTORES DE TESIS
Esther Calzada
2
Funcionamiento psicológico y contexto sociocultural de niños latinos de
segunda generación
Esta Memoria ha sido presentada para optar al grado de Doctor en Psicología por la
Universidad Complutense de Madrid por la licenciada:
Directores de Tesis:
3
Dedicatoria
A Xavier y Víctor
4
Agradecimientos
Una fuente de inspiración en mi carrera académica y profesional han sido sin duda
mis padres por lo que considero oportuno dedicarles unas líneas en este apartado. A ellos
les quiero agradecer entre otras cosas, la escucha, paciencia y orientación en decisiones
personales, académicas y laborales que han hecho de mí la persona que soy a día de hoy.
Han sabido transmitir a sus hijos el valor de implicarse con dedicación y entusiasmo en
sus proyectos, lo que ha contribuido a que esta tesis se puede presentar a día de hoy.
5
Índice
ÍNDICE
ÍNDICE DE ABREVIATURAS…………………………………………………9
PUBLICACIONES INCLUIDAS EN LA MEMORIA………………………..10
RESUMEN……………………………………………………………………..12
SUMMARY……………………………………………………………....…….15
PRESENTACIÓN Y ORGANIZACIÓN DE LA MEMORIA…………………17
PROYECTO DE INVESTIGACIÓN LINCS: “LATINOS IN CONTEXT”…..19
INTRODUCCIÓN………………………………………………………….......22
Inmigración latina en NYC…..…………………………………………..22
¿Latino o hispano?.................................................................................22
Censo norteamericano ……………………………………….………..23
Situación demográfica latina a nivel nacional………………………...25
Situación demográfica latina en la ciudad de NY…………………….25
Los dominicanos en NY……………………………………………....26
Los mexicanos en NY………………………………………...………27
Proceso de aculturación……………………………………………….…28
Biculturalidad…………………………………………………………29
Separación…………………………………………………………….29
Asimilación…………………………………………………………...29
Marginación…………………………………………………………..30
Situación emocional y conductual de menores de origen latino en
EE.UU………………………………………………………………….....31
Juventud Latina en EE.UU…………………………………………...31
Niños de origen latino en edad preescolar y escolar en EE.UU...…....32
Discriminación…………………………………………....…...……..33
Socialización étnica……………………………………………….….34
Apoyo social percibido como factor de protección en la salud mental de
padres e hijos…………………………………………………….……….34
Apoyo social familiar: familismo…………………………………….35
Apoyo social extra-familiar: red social de amigos y comunidad….....36
Parentalidad: impacto sobre la salud mental de los niños latinos…....37
Estilo parental: cálido versus coercitivo………………….…………..37
Involucración de los padres en las actividades escolares…………….39
6
Índice
7
Índice
8
ABREVIATURAS
9
Publicaciones incluidas en la Memoria
Comunicación oral:
Posters:
10
Publicaciones incluidas en la Memoria
5. The 2014 New York University’s Child Study Center Poster Conference:
Serrano-Villar, M., Huang, K.-Y., Calzada, E. “Parenting styles, cultural
context and internalizing problems in MA and DA children”. 15 de agosto
2014. New York (EE.UU.)
9. The 2013 New York University’s Child Study Center Poster Conference:
Serrano-Villar, M., & Calzada, E. “Ethnic identity among children of Latino
immigrants”. 14 de agosto 2013 en New York (EE.UU.)
11
Resumen
RESUMEN
12
Resumen
con los objetivos previamente mencionados, se utilizaron los datos obtenidos de un total
de 674 familias de origen dominicano y mexicano. Se obtuvieron por un lado medidas
sobre la identidad étnica y el funcionamiento socioemocional y conductual de niños de
entre 4 y 5 años de edad. Por otro lado, se contó también con medidas facilitadas por las
madres sobre el apoyo social percibido (por la familia y por otros padres de la comunidad
escolar), su estilo parental (positivo versus coercitivo) y su nivel de involucración en las
actividades escolares de sus hijos.
Como parte del primer estudio, se elaboró una breve escala para tener una medida
de la identidad étnica de los niños basándose en el estudio de Bernal, Knight, Garza,
Ocampo, and Cota (1990). Se plantearon dos objetivos principales: por un lado, se quiso
comprobar si el desarrollo de la identidad étnica ya había comenzado a tener lugar en
niños de tan corta edad. Además, también se analizó si la identidad étnica constituía un
factor protector en el funcionamiento socioemocional y conductual de los niños.
También, se decidió poner a prueba si el género de los niños o su país de origen
constituían factores moderadores en dicha asociación. Los resultados obtenidos
utilizando análisis de regresión lineal revelaron un incipiente sentido de identidad étnica
ya en la primera infancia y mostraron el efecto protector que algunos de los componentes
de la misma ejercieron sobre el funcionamiento socioemocional y conductual de los niños
tanto en el ámbito familiar como en el escolar. Este efecto protector se dio de manera
indistinta tanto en niños como en niñas e independientemente de su nacionalidad.
13
Resumen
14
Resumen
SUMMARY
In the United States, the Latino population present the highest rate of growth
(Stepler & Brown, 2016) and it is believed that one third of the population will be of
Latino origin by 2050 (US Census Bureau, 2008). Despite this estimation, a recent meta-
analytic review of more than 1000 scientific studies showed that less than 3 % of the
studies focused on the situation of Latino children (Rodriguez & Morrobel, 2004). Latino
population seems to be in contact with several risk factors including living in
circumstances of economic adversity and in segregated neighborhoods with high rates of
violence and criminality (Burr, Mutchler, & Gerst-Emerson, 2013). At the same time,
Latino children present the highest rate of school dropout among all minority groups in
the U.S. and their parents show low involvement and participation with schools (Leidy et
al., 2012). This socio-economic adversity situation seems to increase family stress, which
may have an impact on parenting style and children mental development (Brooks-Gunn,
Duncan, & Maritato, 1997).
These familial and social characteristics represent a risk environment for the
mental and physical health of the children. Thus, it would be important to identify
protective factors that help children face the difficulties of growing up in a high
socioeconomic adversity context and being part of a minority group. For this reason, in
this dissertation we aimed to describe the situation of Dominican and Mexican-origin
families in New York City and to analyze the protective effect that some family (e.g.,
parenting and social support) and individual factors (ethnic identity) may have on the
mental health of young children.
The measures used for the elaboration of the manuscripts presented in this
dissertation were obtained from the research project called “LINCS, Latinos in Context”,
from New York University. The principal investigator is Esther Calzada, PhD, and all
participants and/or their parents or legal guardians gave their written informed consent to
collaborate in this study. The research project was approved by the ethics committee of
New York University. In order to reach the objectives previously mentioned, we used
data from 674 Dominican and Mexican-origin families. First, we obtained ethnic identity
measures as well as socioemotional and behavioral measures of 4-5 years old children.
Then, we also obtained measures from mothers on perceived social support (from family
15
Resumen
and from school networks), parenting style (positive versus coercive) and their school-
based-involvement practices.
In the first study we elaborated a brief scale to have an ethnic identity measure for
children. We based our work on the gold standard social identity measure of Bernal,
Knight, Garza, Ocampo, and Cota (1990). We had two principal aims: first, we wanted
to check if ethnic identity had already emerged in very young children. Second, we
wanted to analyze if ethnic identity could be considered as a protective factor on children
socioemotional and behavioral functioning. We also explored moderation by child
gender and country of origin. We carried out linear regression analysis and results
showed the emergency of ethnic identity in young children and the protective effect that
some ethnic identity components had on the socioemotional and behavioral functioning
of the children in both home and school context.
In the second study, we had two principal aims: in one hand, we wanted to
describe the source and level of perceived social support experienced by mothers of
Mexican and Dominican origin. In other hand, we wanted to analyze the potential
protective effect that social support may have on children functioning, indirectly through
parenting style and school-based parent involvement. We tested the hypothesis using
SEM modeling. Both Mexican and Dominican-origin immigrants reported high level of
family support and moderate level of school-community support. Moreover, family
support was protective on children’s functioning, indirectly through parenting. Although
support from the school-community was associated with less use or coercive practices
from Latino parents, this association did not reach statistical significance. Contrarily to
some empirical studies that proposed no association between the use of coercive practices
and the development of Latino children, our results suggest that parental coercive
practices are associated with worse children´s functioning.
16
Presentación y organización de la Memoria
17
Presentación y organización de la Memoria
apoyo social percibido por los padres inmigrantes en la salud mental de los pequeños a
través de ciertas características propias de la parentalidad (estilo parental e involucración
en actividades escolares). En dicha presentación de los artículos, se indicarán los
objetivos, la metodología aplicada y las conclusiones principales de cada estudio. A
continuación, se realizará una discusión integradora de ambos artículos seguida de una
conclusión final sobre los hallazgos encontrados en ambos artículos. Para finalizar, se
detallarán las principales limitaciones de las investigaciones y se propondrán las futuras
líneas de investigación.
18
Proyecto de investigación LINCs
1
Correspondencia entre cursos norteamericanos y españoles: Pre-K (1º y 2º de infantil), K (3º infantil) y
1st grade (1º de primaria).
19
Proyecto de investigación LINCs
20
Proyecto de investigación LINCs
Asimismo, una parte importante de la colaboración tuvo que ver con el trabajo
desempeñado conduciendo grupos de padres en las escuelas públicas que fueron objeto
de reclutamiento de niños y familias en el presente proyecto. Sin duda, esta experiencia
resultó también determinante en la elección de la temática de su segundo estudio. Los
grupos estaban estructurados de acuerdo a distintos temas (consultar Anexo 1), pero todos
ellos enfocados a facilitar a los padres información sobre cuestiones relacionadas con la
crianza y el desarrollo de los niños. El contacto directo con la muestra participante en el
presente proyecto de investigación permitió que se diera un acercamiento concreto y real
a la población objeto de estudio, lo que facilitó conocer de cerca los recursos y carencias
de estos padres y las dificultades a las que se enfrentaban en su proceso adaptativo a una
nueva cultura. También por este motivo, el objetivo del segundo artículo fue el de
ahondar más en el estudio de algunas características familiares que parecían ser
importantes a la hora de garantizar el mejor ambiente familiar posible para el desarrollo
de unos niños que crecen en un contexto social de riesgo: el estilo parental, el
involucramiento de los padres en actividades escolares y el apoyo social. A continuación,
se abordará una revisión teórica de los aspectos más importantes a considerar a la hora de
afrontar el análisis y estudio de esta población.
21
Introducción
3. INTRODUCCIÓN
En Estados Unidos, los términos “latino” e “hispano” están ante todo asociados a
los países de Centro-América, Caribe y América del Sur. En efecto, hace 40 años en los
censos americanos se comenzó a utilizar los términos “latino” e “hispano” de manera
intercambiable para referirse a “una persona de cultura o de origen cubano, mexicano,
portorriqueño, suramericano o centroamericano o de otra cultura u origen hispano sin
tener en cuenta la raza” (US Census Bureau, 2010). Sin embargo, aún hoy una mayoría
de los inmigrantes de origen latino/hispano siguen prefiriendo identificarse de acuerdo a
su país de origen y solo una cuarta parte de ellos dice preferir utilizar una identidad pan-
étnica. Asimismo, la mayoría se muestra indiferente respecto a la preferencia del término
latino o hispano, encontrándose diferencias regionales de acuerdo a dicha preferencia en
aquellos que sí expresaron su predilección por uno u otro término (Taylor, Lopez, Hamar
Martínez, & Velasco, 2012). Algunos autores plantean que el término “latino” resulta
menos restrictivo que “hispano” ya que incluye también a hablantes provenientes del
latín, como el portugués y el francés, lenguas también habladas en algunos países
latinoamericanos (Escobar y Potowski, 2015). También, hay que considerar que el
término “Hispanic” ha sido en parte desvirtuado y transformado por “spic”, que
22
Introducción
constituye una manera peyorativa de referirse a la población latina (Nostrand, 1973). Por
estos motivos, a lo largo de la presente Memoria, se utilizará el término “latino” en
referencia a este grupo.
Nota: Formulario censal del año 2010. Credit: U.S. Census Bureau
Sin embargo, a pesar de estos intentos por parte del censo para diferenciar las
categorías raciales y étnicas, esta clasificación parece haber resultado confusa para la
23
Introducción
población de origen latino ya que, en el informe realizado en el año 2015, el 67% de los
latinos consideraba latino/hispano tanto su etnicidad como su grupo racial. Por este
motivo, para el informe censal de 2020, se planea suprimir los términos de “raza” y
“etnia” y únicamente se incluirá una única pregunta en la que el individuo deberá incluirse
como miembro de una categoría, incluyendo el término “hispano/latino” en el listado de
categorías raciales previamente mencionadas (Patteen, 2015).
En 2006, Portes analizó las posibles causas de la aparición de esta etiqueta étnica
en los censos. En primer lugar, hay una característica común clave en todos los grupos
hispanos, que es el uso de una misma lengua2 y el compartir una misma religión. En
segundo lugar, el Estado y los medios de comunicación han contribuido de manera
importante a la construcción de esta realidad sociológica como una manera de agrupar a
los hispanohablantes. En la primera oleada de inmigrantes recién llegados estos mensajes
han penetrado en menor medida ya que la primera generación de inmigrantes que se
establece en un país suele mantener un estrecho contacto con su familia y cultura de
origen. Sin embargo, en la segunda generación, el peso de esta categorización ha ejercido
una mayor influencia ya que hoy en día muchos de ellos reflejan una confusión entre
etnicidad y raza en los censos americanos. Este hecho revela hasta qué punto los hijos de
2
Nótese que se utiliza el término “hispano” y no “latino” en este caso ya que se hace referencia al grupo
de hispanohablantes en el continente americano, lo que excluirá a países como Brasil, Guyana Francesa y
Haití (Fernández, 2013).
24
Introducción
25
Introducción
es de 30 años de edad, por lo que les resulta dificultoso el aprendizaje de un nuevo idioma
(Ramos et al., 2011).
Según informes nacionales, los latinos con dominio de inglés y con mayor poder
adquisitivo tienden a instalarse en barrios donde hay un mayor porcentaje de
norteamericanos (Alba, Logan, & Stults., 2000; South, Crowder, & Chavez, 2005) frente
a inmigrantes con menor poder adquisitivo que tienden a establecerse en enclaves étnicos
con una menor posibilidad de contacto con miembros del país de acogida (Yoshikawa,
2011). Sin embargo, la medida en la que residir en un barrio u otro afecta al proceso de
aculturación resulta aún poco claro dado los resultados dispares que la literatura científica
ofrece a día de hoy.
3
Hay que considerar que los puertorriqueños, a pesar de ser considerados como pertenecientes al grupo
étnico latino, son considerados en los censos en EE.UU. como norteamericanos debido a un acuerdo
político alcanzado entre ambos países (Murphey, Guzman & Torres, 2014).
26
Introducción
inglés ya que en NY un 68% de los dominicanos refieren un nivel de dominio alto. Casi
un tercio de los dominicanos residentes en NY vive bajo el umbral de la pobreza a pesar
de que el 60% de ellos cuenta con un empleo (Grieco, 2004).
27
Introducción
para expresarse en esta lengua y un 14% dice no hablarla en absoluto. También este es
el grupo que presenta una menor tasa de matriculación escolar (37%) que llega a caer al
15% en el caso de aquellos nacidos fuera de EE.UU. Sin embargo, si consideramos
únicamente los menores mexicano-americanos (en adelante MA), la tasa de matriculación
aumenta hasta el 67%, siendo la más alta de todos los grupos latinos. Casi la mitad de
los jóvenes de origen mexicano carece del graduado escolar pero resulta ser el grupo
latino que trabaja en mayor proporción (64%) (Treschan & Mehrotra, 2013).
3.2.Proceso de aculturación
culturas (Berry, 1990, 1991; Berry, Kim, Power, Young, & Bujaki, 1989). A
continuación, describiremos brevemente en que consiste cada estrategia.
3.2.1. Biculturalidad
3.2.2. Separación
3.2.3. Asimilación
29
Introducción
2006). Algunos autores hallaron que altos niveles de asimilación en población latina
tienden a asociarse con una identidad étnica pobremente desarrollada y con la percepción
de cierta censura social y presión hacia la conformidad por parte de otros latinos
(Schwartz & Zamboanga, 2008).
3.2.4. Marginación
31
Introducción
La mayor parte de estos estudios fueron realizados con jóvenes y adolescentes casi
exclusivamente de origen mexicano, por lo que algunos autores reclaman la necesidad de
diferenciar a los latinos por su país de origen a la hora de establecer conclusiones sobre
su comportamiento y generalizar los resultados al resto de los grupos de esta misma
etnicidad ya que la literatura señala que ciertos grupos (mexicano-americanos,
dominicano-americanos y puertorriqueños) parecen presentar unas conductas de mucho
mayor riesgo frente a otros (Bettes, Dusenbury, Kerner, James-Ortiz, & Botvin, 1990).
Teniendo en cuenta las dificultades en las que estos niños crecen (inmigración,
dificultad idiomática, estrés parental…), éstos parecen encontrarse en situación de
especial riesgo físico y mental, mayor incluso que el de otras minorías o niños de similar
estatus socioeconómico (Eaton et al., 2011; Flores et al., 2002; Flores et al., 2005).
Concretamente, estudios previos relacionan la presencia de alteraciones emocionales y
conductuales ya en niños de entre 2-3 años de edad de origen latino con factores familiares
y sociales como vivir en situación de pobreza, escaso apoyo familiar y bajo nivel de
aculturación familiar (Weiss et al., 1999). Hay que tener en cuenta además que los
primeros años de escolarización constituyen un período crítico para el funcionamiento
conductual infantil, y ciertos estudios muestran cómo los problemas conductuales
presentados hasta los 7-8 años de edad tienden a estabilizarse (Shaw, Gilliom, Ingoldsby,
& Nagin, 2003) y asociarse años más tarde con la presentación de conducta antisocial en
el ámbito comunitario y escolar (McGee, Silva, & Williams, 1984; Nagin & Tremblay,
1999).
32
Introducción
3.3.3. Discriminación
Algunos autores sugieren que, a mayor diversidad étnica situacional, mayor índice
de discriminación y peor salud mental en menores latinos. Esto podría ser debido a que
crecer en un contexto de mayor homogeneidad étnica podría favorecer el apoyo social
entre los miembros de la misma comunidad y disminuir la exposición a experiencias
discriminatorias (Stuber et al., 2003). En esta misma línea, Pérez y colaboradores (2008)
encontraron que latinos con mayor nivel de aculturación y mayor nivel sociocultural
referían mayores índices de discriminación que los menos aculturados. Este hecho podría
verse explicado por lo siguiente: los miembros más aculturados y de mayor nivel
socioeconómico suelen ser aquellos que llevan un mayor tiempo residiendo en EE.UU. y
son los que más frecuentemente se instalan en barrios heterogéneos (Alba et al., 2000;
South et al., 2005) por lo que el contacto con los miembros de la cultura mayoritaria es
33
Introducción
más frecuente y estrecho. Este hecho, podría alimentar de alguna manera la expectativa
de ser tratados de manera igualitaria por los miembros de la mayoría, lo que les hace más
vulnerables a resentirse en mayor medida por las experiencias discriminatorias en
comparación con los latinos menos aculturados que anticipan y consideran las
experiencias discriminatorias como parte indeseable pero inevitable del proceso
adaptativo migratorio (Pérez et al., 2008).
3.4. Apoyo social percibido como factor de protección en la salud mental de padres
e hijos
34
Introducción
2010; Sarason, Sarason, & Pierce, 1990). De todos estos elementos, parece que es el
apoyo social percibido el que ha demostrado tener un mayor impacto en el bienestar físico
y emocional de los padres (Ceballo & McLoyd, 2002; Gee & Rhodes, 2007; Green,
Furrer, & McAllister, 2007; Mulvaney-Day, Alegría, & Sribney, 2007; Rodriguez et al.,
2007; Sarason et al., 1990; Zambrana, Silva-Palacios, & Powell, 1992).
35
Introducción
340) y ha sido validado por diferentes estudios con población latina de distinta
nacionalidad (Campos, Ullman, Aguilera, & Dunkel Schetter, 2014; Schwartz, 2007;
Weine et al., 2006).
Sin embargo, Campos et al. (2014) cuestionaron dicha asociación entre familismo
y salud mental puntualizando que el efecto protector del familismo podría no darse de
manera directa. Según estos autores, la relación entre ambos constructos se daría a través
de la percepción de recibir apoyo social que el familismo proporcionaría a los sujetos,
siendo el apoyo social específicamente el que ejerce ese efecto protector directo sobre la
salud mental. Además, otros autores advierten incluso sobre las posibles consecuencias
negativas que tendría priorizar sistemáticamente a la familia frente a las necesidades
individuales ya que podría estar relacionado con un peor funcionamiento emocional,
conductual y académico de los niños (Calzada et al., 2012; Updegraff, McHale,
Whiteman, Thayer, & Crouter, 2006) e incluso incrementar el riesgo de presentar
alteraciones de salud mental en casos de alta conflictividad familiar (Hernández, Ramírez
García, & Flynn, 2010).
36
Introducción
además sugieren un efecto aún mayor de esta fuente de apoyo en la salud mental de
jóvenes inmigrantes latinos en comparación con el apoyo recibido por parte de la familia
(Rodriguez et al., 2003). Asimismo, algunos autores subrayan la importancia que el
apoyo recibido por otros padres de la comunidad escolar tiene a la hora de facilitar la
involucración de los padres latinos en las actividades educativas de sus hijos (Klugman,
Lee, & Nelson, 2012).
Además, algunos estudios consideran que el tener una red de amigos es un índice
añadido de integración social y adaptación a la nueva cultura (Cohen & Wills, 1985),
especialmente cuando esta red no se restringe únicamente a miembros de la misma
etnicidad (Britton, 2014). El hecho de experimentar la vivencia de ser queridos y
aceptados por miembros de la sociedad de acogida podría promover el sentido de
pertenencia en la cultura mayoritaria (LaFromboise et al., 1993). Sin embargo, esta
búsqueda de relación fuera de la familia podría verse dificultada por la importancia que
la cultura latina otorga a la familia (Updegraff et al., 2006).
37
Introducción
único ambiente conocido por los niños siendo el marco de referencia desde el que
interpretan el mundo. De esta manera, cuando un menor crece en el seno de una familia
con un ambiente coercitivo y poco afectivo, el impacto en el niño será mucho mayor al
no poder verse compensado dicho impacto por el contacto con otro ambiente que
compense o mitigue la vivencia familiar. Estas experiencias tempranas vividas en el seno
familiar marcarán la influencia que otros ambientes ejerzan posteriormente sobre los
menores (Weiss et al., 1999). Por este motivo, será de suma importancia detectar y
abordar los déficits y las dificultades parentales tan pronto como aparezcan.
Sin embargo, según apuntan algunos autores, también los padres latinos parecen
hacer un uso mayor de técnicas disciplinarias coercitivas en comparación con otros
grupos (Fracasso, Busch-Rossnagel, & Fisher, 1994; Knight, Virdin, & Roosa, 1994)
aunque encontramos una vez más cierta inconsistencia en la literatura (Slade & Wissow,
2004). En esta población, el uso de este tipo de estrategias como el castigo físico ha sido
38
Introducción
descrito dentro de las prácticas educativas comunes que utilizan los padres a lo largo de
la crianza de sus hijos, en consonancia con valores culturales propios como el respeto
(Calzada et al., 2012; Calzada & Eyberg, 2002).
A diferencia del efecto universal positivo que el estilo parental cálido ejerce sobre
el desarrollo de los niños, el uso de prácticas coercitivas como técnicas disciplinarias
muestra un efecto específico sobre el funcionamiento emocional y conductual de los niños
en función del grupo étnico/cultural al que éstos pertenecen (p.ej., Lansford et al., 2005).
Así, algunos estudios con población latina en EE.UU. revelan que el estilo parental
coercitivo puede no presentar ningún efecto o un efecto muy tenue sobre el
funcionamiento cognitivo, emocional y conductual de los niños (Berlin et al., 2009;
Berzenski & Yates, 2013; Calzada & Eyberg, 2002; Hill, Bush, & Roosa, 2003; Ispa et
al., 2004; Izzo et al., 2000; Leidy et al., 2012; Roosa, Tein, Groppenbacher, Michaels, &
Dumka, 1993; Slade & Wissow, 2004). Algunos autores van incluso más allá y
relacionan el uso de prácticas coercitivas en niños pequeños latinos con un mejor
desarrollo cognitivo (Berlin et al., 2009).
40
Introducción
Vivir en situación de pobreza y con altos niveles de estrés está relacionado con
manifestar un estilo parental normativo/coercitivo, usar en mayor medida el castigo físico
como técnica disciplinaria y mostrar una menor calidez y apoyo hacia los hijos (McLoyd,
1990). La literatura indica que en familias que viven en una situación socioeconómica
desfavorecedora, disponer de una red de apoyo social es un factor clave relacionado con
la disminución de estrés, lo que amortigua el impacto negativo que tiene el vivir en estas
circunstancias sobre la salud mental y física de padres e hijos (Prelow et al., 2010).
Estudios realizados con familias con limitados recursos económicos comparan familias
con distinta red de apoyo social y concluyen que tener una amplia red de apoyo social
está relacionado con manifestar un estilo maternal cálido, presentar una mayor
involucración en las actividades escolares de los hijos, proporcionar un ambiente más
estimulante para la crianza de los hijos y experimentar una mayor satisfacción con la
parentalidad en comparación familias con bajo nivel de apoyo social (Burchinal et al.,
1996; Ghazarian & Roche, 2010; Prelow et al., 2010).
Otros estudios han ido más allá y han identificado qué tipo de apoyo social está
relacionado con manifestar un estilo parental más normativo o cálido. Así, encontramos
un estudio que relaciona la percepción de apoyo social emocional con manifestar un estilo
parental positivo mientras que el apoyo instrumental estaría más relacionado con un
menor uso del castigo físico (Ceballo & McLoyd, 2002). En esta misma línea, otros
autores señalan que el apoyo social recibido por miembros externos a la red familiar
podría aumentar la exposición a prácticas de crianza de otras familias y aumentar así la
presión a ajustarse a la normatividad social (McConnel, Breitkreuz, & Savage, 2010).
Esto podría tener importantes implicaciones si consideramos la población inmigrante
latina, ya que algunos valores y prácticas relacionadas con la parentalidad (p.ej., uso del
castigo físico como técnica disciplinaria), difieren de las encontradas en la cultura
mayoritaria.
Otro estudio realizado con participantes de origen mexicano señala que la relación
entre la percepción de apoyo social de los padres y su estilo parental podría estar
parcialmente explicada por el incremento del sentimiento de eficacia parental que
tendrían los padres al obtener más apoyo en la crianza de los hijos (Izzo et al., 2000). Una
vez más, encontramos une escasez de trabajos empíricos que aborden el estudio de la
41
Introducción
relación de estos factores en familias de origen latino, razón por la cual se decidió abordar
el estudio de esta relación en la presente investigación.
Hay una escasez de trabajos empíricos que aborden cómo comienza a darse en el
niño la toma de conciencia sobre su propia etnicidad y cómo se desarrollan en él los
sentimientos asociados a este hecho. La mayoría de los estudios que abordan esta
temática se centran en el estudio de la identidad étnica durante la adolescencia, por lo que
aún hoy no acaba de entenderse bien en qué momento surge este conocimiento y las
implicaciones que tiene en esos primeros momentos (Phinney, 1992; Umaña-Taylor,
Diversi, & Fine, 2002).
42
Introducción
proceso que implica cierta capacidad de simbolización y abstracción por parte del niño,
resulta difícil su medición y el posible estudio de la asociación que este constructo
presenta con otros factores. Sin embargo, a pesar de la dificultad metodológica para
ahondar en el estudio del desarrollo identitario en niños pequeños, hay postulados teóricos
que nos ofrecen un marco desde el que apoyarnos para embarcarnos en este mismo. A
continuación, nos centraremos en algunos de ellos.
43
Introducción
físicos mucho más ambiguos y sutiles, lo que podría retardar el inicio de la emergencia
del desarrollo de este proceso identitario (Serrano-Villar & Calzada, 2016).
44
Introducción
principalmente protectores únicamente para niños. Por ejemplo, en 2012, Kulis et al.,
encontraron que la identidad étnica funcionaba como factor protector para el consumo de
sustancias adictivas únicamente para adolescentes varones de origen mexicano, no
encontrando dicho efecto protector en las mujeres.
Algunos autores han sugerido que estas diferencias obedecen a las expectativas de
rol de género de la cultura latina. Así, los valores culturales tradicionales latinos esperan
que las niñas permanezcan más tiempo en el hogar realizando tareas domésticas y
cuidando a miembros de la familia siendo las principales responsables de transmitir los
valores culturales latinos de generación en generación (Valentine & Mosley, 2000). Para
preparar a sus hijas para ejercer dicho rol, los padres tienden a ejercer un mayor control
en ellas de tal manera que son expuestas en mayor medida a las prácticas culturales
propias de su cultura de origen y tienen una menor oportunidad de tener contacto con
miembros de la cultura mayoritaria. Este menor contacto podrá también influir sobre el
efecto protector que ejerce la identidad étnica sobre el funcionamiento emocional y
conductual de las niñas, ya que habrá una menor oportunidad de requerir dicho efecto
protector (Kulis et al., 2012; Phinney, 1990; Williams, Alvarez, & Hauck, 2002).
Dada la falta de estudios empíricos que hayan detenido a analizar cómo es este
proceso en la temprana infancia y los efectos protectores que por otro lado este factor ha
demostrado tener en el desarrollo evolutivo de niños y adolescentes, el presente estudio
busca aportar a la literatura científica datos que ayuden a esclarecer cómo es la
emergencia de este proceso en niños pequeños de origen mexicano y dominicano.
Para ello, se decidió desarrollar una breve escala basándonos en el trabajo que
hizo el grupo de Bernal, Knight, Ocampo y colaboradores en la década de los 90 (Bernal
et al., 1990; Knight, et al., 1993; Ocampo, Bernal, & Knight, 1993; Ocampo, Knight, &
Bernal, 1997). Ellos se centraron en dos grupos de niños mexicano-americanos (el
primero de niños de entre 4-5 años de edad y el segundo, de entre 6-10 años) y
45
Introducción
46
Objetivos del estudio
47
Publicaciones incluidas en la Memoria
A continuación, se encontrarán los dos artículos publicados dentro del marco del
proyecto de investigación “LINCs: Latinos en contexto”. La primera publicación está
centrada en el desarrollo de la identidad étnica y su posible efecto protector sobre el
funcionamiento socioemocional y conductual de los niños MA y DA. La segunda
publicación, está centrada en el estudio del apoyo social como factor de protección en el
funcionamiento de estos mismos niños a través del efecto que dicho apoyo social
potencialmente provoca sobre la parentalidad.
48
Publicaciones incluidas en la Memoria
Asimismo, las hipótesis relacionadas con dichos objetivos fueron las siguientes:
de acuerdo al primer objetivo se esperaba encontrar un emergente sentido de identidad
étnica (entendida y medida de acuerdo a cuatro componentes: identificación, constancia,
conocimiento y preferencias) en ambos grupos de niños. En relación al segundo objetivo,
la hipótesis fue que la identidad étnica tendría un efecto protector sobre el funcionamiento
de los niños tanto en casa como en el colegio. Asimismo, se exploró el posible efecto
moderador del género y del grupo étnico de los niños. De acuerdo a los estudios
realizados con población adolescente, se esperaba encontrar una mayor asociación para
niños que para niñas, pero no se esperaba encontrar diferencias según la etnicidad de los
niños/as.
49
Publicaciones incluidas en la Memoria
5.1.3. Metodología
- El reclutamiento tuvo lugar entre 2010-2013 en 24 colegios públicos de la ciudad de
NY con población de origen dominicano y mexicano. Los criterios de selección de
los colegios fueron los siguientes: primero, tenían que contar con los cursos de Pre-
K and K; segundo, al menos una quinta parte de los escolares de cada colegio tenían
que tener un origen mexicano o dominicano y, tercero, tenían que aceptar la
colaboración con el equipo investigador. Los niños fueron seleccionados de manera
equilibrada y aleatoria en función de la composición étnica de los niños que atendían
los centros escolares. De esta manera, en la muestra final del estudio se incluyeron
de manera equilibrada niños de colegios con una proporción variable (baja, media y
alta) de escolares mexicanos o dominicanos. En 2010 comenzó el reclutamiento de
la primera cohorte con un total de 168 niños de 15 colegios distintos. En 2011 se
comenzó el reclutamiento de la segunda cohorte formada por 249 estudiantes de 24
colegios diferentes. Finalmente, en 2012 se procedió al reclutamiento de la tercera
cohorte, constituida por 300 niños de los 24 colegios. Finalmente, incluimos en
nuestro estudio aquellos niños que tuvieron todas las medidas completadas y cuyas
familias aceptaron participar en el estudio. Un total de 674 niños conformaron la
muestra final participante en nuestro estudio (375 de origen mexicano y 299 de origen
dominicano). Los niños tenían entre 3-5 años de edad, y estaban distribuidos de
manera equilibrada por género y curso escolar en ambos grupos étnicos.
- Las medidas obtenidas en este estudio se recogieron utilizando distintos informantes:
las madres completaron un cuestionario sobre datos demográficos y medidas sobre
el funcionamiento socioemocional y conductual de los niños en el hogar (BASC-P).
Los niños realizaron una entrevista relacionada sobre su identidad étnica (ECEII) y
también completaron una medida sobre su CI (WNV). Los profesores completaron
medidas sobre el funcionamiento socioemocional y conductual de los niños en la
escuela (BASC-T).
- Para analizar los datos obtenidos y cumplir con los objetivos propuestos, se utilizó el
software SPSS.20. Los análisis fueron en todo momento supervisados por la Dra.
Esther Calzada y la Dra. Ken-Yen Huang, profesora asociada de metodología en
NYU y colaboradora también en el proyecto de investigación LINCs.
- Para describir la situación familiar y social de estos niños, se obtuvieron las
principales medidas de tendencia central para las variables cuantitativas (edad de la
madre y el niño, tiempo de residencia en EE.UU., funcionamiento adaptativo y
50
Publicaciones incluidas en la Memoria
4
Ver Estudio 1, Anexo 1, para tener más información sobre cómo se ha medido este constructo
previamente en otros estudios.
51
Publicaciones incluidas en la Memoria
Descripción muestral
- A pesar de que casi tres cuartas partes de los participantes de nuestro estudio (70%)
vivían bajo el umbral de la pobreza, los perfiles demográficos de ambos grupos
resultaron ser marcadamente distintos (ver Estudio 1, Tabla 1). En comparación con
las madres dominicanas, las madres mexicanas eran más jóvenes, con menor nivel
de estudios y de recursos económicos y mayor tasa de desempleo. Además, un mayor
porcentaje de las madres mexicanas convivían con su pareja y hablaban español en
el hogar.
- De acuerdo al primer objetivo (ver Estudio 1, Tabla 2), la mayor parte de los niños
del estudio (75%) fueron capaces de identificar su procedencia étnica, más de la
mitad de ellos (57%) mostraron cierta comprensión sobre la constancia de la misma,
casi una cuarta parte (22%) expresaron conocimiento relacionado con su etnicidad,
y el 27% mostraron preferencia étnica. Los hallazgos fueron consistentes con teorías
evolutivas que indican que es más probable la emergencia de estos componentes a
medida que el niño va creciendo ya que encontramos diferencias estadísticamente
significativas en función del curso escolar y, por tanto, de la edad (a mayor curso
escolar, mayor porcentaje de niños con una emergente identidad étnica).
52
Publicaciones incluidas en la Memoria
- El segundo objetivo del estudio era el de estudiar la asociación entre los componentes
de la identidad étnica y el funcionamiento socioemocional y conductual en el ámbito
familiar y escolar. Para lograr este segundo objetivo se realizaron análisis de
regresión múltiple controlando el posible efecto de las variables previamente
mencionadas: vivir en situación de pobreza, nivel educativo y estado civil materno.
Respecto al funcionamiento en el ámbito familiar, los componentes de constancia
étnica ( = 3,04, t(7,535) = 2.89, p <.05) y conocimiento étnico ( = 2,58 t(7,535) =
1.90, p < .05) resultaron estar asociados con un mejor funcionamiento adaptativo en
el ámbito familiar. En el ámbito escolar, estos mismos componentes resultaron estar
relacionados con un mejor funcionamiento emocional (internalizante) y conductual
(externalizante). Ni el género ni la etnicidad tuvieron efecto moderador alguno en
ninguno de los casos.
Conclusión final
53
Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 42 (2016) 21–30
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: This study examined ethnic identity development and its association with child functioning among 4–5 year old
Received 29 December 2014 Latino children. Six hundred seventy-four Mexican and Dominican American children participated in an ethnic
Received in revised form 2 November 2015 identity interview, and teachers and mothers reported on children's externalizing, internalizing and adaptive
Accepted 6 November 2015
behavior functioning. Results are consistent with social identity developmental theory in suggesting that ethnic
Available online 24 November 2015
identity is emerging at this young age. Moreover, various components of ethnic identity were associated with
Keywords:
better adaptive behavior and fewer externalizing and internalizing problems, particularly as reported by
Latino children teachers. Findings were robust across child gender and ethnicity (i.e., country of origin). During early childhood,
Ethnic identity ethnic identity may be an important protective factor that can promote the behavioral functioning of Latino
Early childhood children.
Behavioral © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Protective factors
Research on the ethnic identity of minority youth has proliferated smoking, drinking and using illicit drugs, at earlier ages and more often
over the past two decades, in tandem with a growing interest in identi- compared with other groups of adolescents (Eaton et al., 2008). More-
fying sources of resilience among children and adolescents at risk for over, Latina girls have the highest rate of teenage pregnancy of any eth-
negative developmental outcomes (Kuperminc, Wilkins, Jurkovic, & nic group, with more than half of Latinas bearing a child before the age
Perilla, 2013; Reyes, Elias, Parker, & Rosenblatt, 2013). For Latino of 20 (Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund, 2009),
youth, mounting evidence suggests that ethnic identity, or one's sense while Latino boys enter the juvenile justice system at disproportionately
of belonging and commitment to one's ethnic group (Phinney, 2003), high rates (Sickmund & Snyder, 1999). These disquieting statistics are
may indeed be protective (Umaña-Taylor & Updegraff, 2007). To date, based on pan-ethnic (predominately Mexican-origin) samples without
this research is guided by the view of ethnic identity formation as a consideration of specific ethnicity, but a small literature suggests that,
developmental task of adolescence, when issues of identity and self- consistent with adult studies (e.g., Alegría et al., 2007), some subgroups
concept become highly salient and individual socialization experiences (Mexican Americans, Dominican Americans and Puerto Ricans in partic-
within the family and larger community lead to the acceptance or rejec- ular) fare worse than others (Bettes, Dusenbury, Kerner, James-Ortiz, &
tion of one's ethnicity or nationality (Phinney, 2003). Less attention has Botvin, 1990). Such variations in developmental trajectories are thought
been given to the formation and potential protective effects of ethnic to reflect the tremendous heterogeneity of the Latino population.
identity during early childhood, when developmental trajectories Though united by a shared pan-ethnic categorization, the more than
begin to take shape. The overarching aim of the present study was to 50 million Latinos in the US come from different ethnic (e.g., Mexican,
examine ethnic identity and its association with child functioning Dominican, Colombian) and racial (i.e., white, black, indigenous)
among young Latino children at high risk for later mental health and groups. Nonetheless, Latino heterogeneity is understudied, in part
academic problems. because although race and ethnicity are theoretically distinct (race
refers to the physical, biological and genetic make-up of a group,
while ethnicity refers to social grouping based on shared language,
Latino youth in the US values, customs, etc.), they are often used interchangeably in the litera-
ture. This may reflect the confound between race and ethnicity that
According to a number of national surveys, Latinos initiate and exists in certain groups (e.g., African Americans are racially black,
engage in risky behaviors, such as carrying a weapon, getting into fights,
Chinese Americans are racially Asian), but such overlap is less clear in
the Latino population. For example, Latinos from Mexico, who represent
the largest group in the US, are primarily mestizo (mixed white and
⁎ Corresponding author at: Research Fellow, Child Study Center, New York University indigenous race) but may be of white or indigenous race, and Latinos
School of Medicine, One Park Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Serrano-Villar).
from the Dominican Republic, the 5th largest group in the US, are
1
Maria Serrano-Villar, Child Study Center, New York School of Medicine. primarily mulatto (mixed white and black race) but may be of white
2
Esther J. Calzada is now at the University of Texas at Austin School of Social Work. or black race. Importantly, though, Latinos may not identify with either
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2015.11.002
0193-3973/© 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
22 M. Serrano-Villar, E.J. Calzada / Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 42 (2016) 21–30
a racial categorization or the pan-ethnic label of “Latino or Hispanic,” 2011; Clark & Clark, 1974; Doyle & Aboud, 1995; García Coll et al.,
but instead tend to define themselves according to their country of 1996; Katz, 2003; Katz & Kofkin, 1997; Martin & Ruble, 2010; Rhee &
origin/specific ethnicity (García Coll & Marks, 2009; Ruble et al., Ruble, 1997; Ruble et al., 2004; Rutland, Cameron, Bennett, & Ferrell,
2004). Thus in the present study of social identity, we define ethnicity 2005; Serbin & Sprafkin, 1986). Though identity based on ethnicity
according to country of origin without consideration of race, and we may emerge later because its social markers are more ambiguous,
focus on ethnic rather than racial identity because the former is believed very limited empirical data regarding when and how children show
to be more salient to Latinos (Quintana, 2007; Smith, 1991). an understanding of their ethnic identities currently exists. The present
study draws on the social identity developmental literature, along with
Ethnic identity in Latino adolescents the seminal work of Bernal, Knight, Garza, Ocampo, and Cota (1990), to
address this gap.
The importance of ethnic identity to youth development is sug- The work of Bernal, Knight, Ocampo, et al. (Bernal et al., 1990; Knight,
gested by social psychology, which conceptualizes an individual's view Bernal, Garza, Cota, & Ocampo, 1993; Ocampo, Bernal, & Knight, 1993;
of his or her ethnic group membership as a key aspect of self-concept Ocampo, Knight, & Bernal, 1997) with Mexican American children de-
(Tajfel & Turner, 1986). In line with social identity theories, ethnic iden- scribed five components of early (i.e., pre-adolescent) ethnic identity
tity has been consistently linked to higher self-esteem in adolescents that “reflect a set of self-ideas about one's ethnic group membership”
(Bracey, Bamaca, & Umaña-Taylor, 2004; Umaña-Taylor & Updegraff, (Bernal et al., 1990, p. 4). This model closely parallels the social identity
2007). This literature with pan-Latino samples also shows associations developmental model in suggesting that once ethnicity is integrated
between ethnic identity and other developmental outcomes, including into a child's sense of self, as signaled by the emergence of ethnic self-
less substance use (Kulis, Marsiglia, Kopak, Olmsted, & Crossman, identification and constancy, it guides information-processing, leading
2012), better mental health (Umaña-Taylor, 2004; Umaña-Taylor & to the development of ethnic-specific knowledge, behaviors and feelings/
Updegraff, 2007) and better academic functioning (Fuligni, Witkow, & preferences (Ocampo et al., 1993). Though not described as stages, the
Garcia, 2005; Schwartz, Zamboanga, & Hernandez Jarvis, 2007; five ethnic identity components were found to emerge at different ages
Umaña-Taylor & Updegraff, 2007), which in some cases appear to be in what the researchers considered a developmental sequencing. From
mediated partially by self-esteem (Umaña-Taylor & Updegraff, 2007). the preschool (4–5 year old) to school-aged (6–10 year old) years, self-
Insomuch as girls and boys experience ethnicity differently (Hughes identification shifted from an “empty” label (i.e., that is parroted) to a
et al., 2006), ethnic identity and its association with youth outcomes are “meaningful” one (i.e., that reflects understanding of why an individual
expected to be moderated by child gender. For example, some evidence is MA), and the other components shifted from simple imitation of
suggests that boys may be slower in developing their ethnic identities what family members were doing to more complex, individualized
than girls (Umaña-Taylor, Gonzales-Backen, & Guimond, 2009). In addi- knowledge, behaviors and feelings/preferences. Despite the more so-
tion, past studies have found unique predictors for the ethnic identity phisticated understanding of ethnicity shown by older children, about
formation of boys relative to girls (Bracey, Bamaca, & Umaña-Taylor, half of preschoolers were found to self-identify, 37% understood ethnic
2004; Umaña-Taylor & Guimond, 2012) and unique protective effects constancy and 11% showed ethnic knowledge.
(e.g., against substance use) for boys that did not generalize to girls Bernal et al.'s model of early ethnic identity (1990; 1993) was
(Kulis et al., 2012). Beyond the greater social maturity shown by girls groundbreaking in extending social identity theories to ethnic identity
(Umaña-Taylor et al., 2009), these gender differences are thought to development and thus highlighting the feasibility and importance of
reflect the expectation that the transmission of culture (e.g., traditions, studying ethnic identity in children. To date, though, it has not been
values) across generations is the responsibility of women, and that in subsequently tested, leaving open the question of whether their original
preparing girls for this role, parents tend to socialize girls more than findings are replicable and generalizable to: 1) other samples of
boys to cultural practices (Hughes et al., 2006; Kulis et al., 2012; Mexican American children and specifically, those being reared in
Umaña-Taylor & Guimond, 2012; Updegraff, McHale, Whiteman, more diverse communities where the salience of ethnicity as a social
Thayer, & Crouter, 2006). construct may be higher (Berry, 2004; García Coll & Marks, 2009); and
2) Latino children from other ethnic groups (i.e., countries of origin).
Ethnic identity in early childhood To address this question, in the present study we examined the compo-
nents of ethnic identity proposed by Bernal et al. with Mexican
Little is known about the development of ethnic identity among American (MA) and Dominican American (DA) children in New York
boys and girls in early childhood. According to cognitive developmental City (NYC). As noted above, MAs are the largest Latino group in the
theories, children actively construe their world based on social cues and US, and though they have not historically resided in the Northeast,
within the constraints of their cognitive abilities. During early childhood MAs are poised to become the largest subgroup in NYC by 2021
(i.e., 3–7 years old), children are able to engage in symbolic thought and (Bergad, 2011). The Dominican population has long represented one
are learning to classify objects and people according to prominent of the largest subgroups in NYC, where 1 in 5 Latinos is DA. As a well-
characteristics (Bialystok, 1992). The social identity developmental lit- established group in the area, DAs are more likely to live in ethnic
erature indicates that beginning around age 2, children become aware enclaves, to have citizenship status and to speak English, whereas MAs
of social categories such as gender, race and ethnicity (Kohlberg, in NYC are more likely to be living in diverse (non-Mexican) communi-
1966), marking the beginning of their own social identity development. ties, to be undocumented and to have limited English skills (Yoshikawa,
Over the early childhood years, social identity then unfolds in three 2011). These social and historical characteristics define a unique context
developmental stages of self-identification, stability (i.e., unchanging for children, allowing us to address the extent to which past findings are
over time) and consistency (i.e., unchanging across situations) that col- generalizable to two distinct Latino samples.
lectively signal the achievement of constancy. Knowledge and preferences
specific to one's identity are viewed as components of the multidimen- The present study
sional construct of social identity that emerge once children understand
their grouping and its permanence (Ruble et al., 2004). This model has Ethnic identity in Latino adolescents has garnered attention for its pro-
been tested in a number of gender and racial identity studies and tective effects on academic, mental health and substance use outcomes
show that children between 2 and 7 years old are able to accurately (e.g., Umaña-Taylor & Updegraff, 2007). Developmental scientists argue
label gender and race; show a basic understanding that these character- that adolescent outcomes are a function of “early ecological and child fac-
istics are immutable; identify group-specific behaviors; and show tors [that] set in motion a chain of events that unfold, grow and magnify
gender- and racial-based preferences (Aboud & Amato, 2001; Byrd, over time into serious problem behavior in adolescence” (Malone &
M. Serrano-Villar, E.J. Calzada / Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 42 (2016) 21–30 23
Lansford, 2010, p. 5). From this perspective, the study of early childhood, Method
as a critical juncture in development, allows for the identification of risk
and protective factors that are expected to have long-term impact. Early Participants
childhood may mark an especially important developmental period for
children from immigrant families, as they are confronted with the sa- Participants were drawn from a longitudinal study to examine
lience and meaning of their social identities during the transition to school the early childhood development of Mexican American (MA) and
where they first come into regular contact with mainstream culture Dominican American (DA) children. Mothers who self-identified as
(García Coll & Marks, 2009). Surprisingly, though, no studies have been MA or DA and had a child in pre-kindergarten (pre-k) or kindergarten
conducted on the ethnic identity of young Latino children since the in one of 24 public elementary schools in NYC that served as recruit-
pioneering research of Bernal and colleagues more than two decades ment sites were eligible to participate. This study included three cohorts
ago (1990, 1993). The need for early childhood studies is further recruited yearly between 2010 and 2013. The sample consisted of 674
underscored by demographic data showing that among DAs and MAs, (n = 375 MA; n = 299 DA) families, representing 74% percent of
29% and 36% respectively are under the age of 17, and approximately 1 eligible participants (i.e., 86% of MA and 63% of DA participants who
in 10 is under the age of 5 (Brown & Patten, 2013a,2013b). were approached accepted to participate in the study). Children were
To address this notable gap in the literature, the present study aimed on average 58 months (SD = 6.92) and were evenly distributed across
to: 1) describe ethnic identity in young MA and DA children, and 2) ex- gender (48% boys) and grade (48% in pre-k). Ninety-two percent of chil-
plore its association with child functioning at home and school, the two dren were born in the US, whereas 92% of mothers were foreign-born,
settings in which young children spend most of their time but that may with an average length of residence in the US of 11 years. Seventy per-
be culturally incongruent (García Coll & Marks, 2009). For our first aim, cent of families were living in poverty, according to the federal poverty
we hypothesized that young MA and DA children would show an guidelines.
emerging ethnic identity, conceptualized as self-identification, constan- Demographic characteristics, shown in Table 1, differed between
cy, knowledge and preferences. We examined all components of ethnic ethnic groups. Compared to DA mothers, MA mothers were younger,
identity, even those that may be expected to emerge at older ages, for more likely to be poor, less likely to have graduated from high school,
several reasons: 1) the only evidence regarding expected ages comes and less likely to be working for pay. MA children were more likely to
from the original studies by Bernal et al. (1990), Knight et al. (1993) live in a two-parent home and in a Spanish-speaking home environ-
and has never been replicated, 2) a number of past studies on gender ment. Across groups, virtually all (99% MA; 95% DA) children from
and racial identity have found young children to be capable of under- two-parent homes had a Latino father. There were no child gender
standing social identity at earlier ages than initially proposed differences in demographic characteristics.
(e.g., Ruble et al., 2004; Rutland et al., 2005) and, 3) a given ethnic iden-
tity component may be associated with child functioning, even if it is
not universally observed in the population. For our second aim (to ex- Measures
amine ethnic identity in relation to child functioning), we hypothesized
that ethnic identity would be protective for children, and we explored Demographic characteristics
moderation by child gender and ethnicity. Based on adolescent studies, Mothers provided information about their family's demographic
we expected more positive associations for boys than for girls (Kulis characteristics including age (mother and child), country of birth
et al., 2012), but in the absence of past studies on ethnic group differ- (mother and child), educational and occupational status, marital status,
ences, we made no specific hypotheses regarding moderation by household income, length of residence in the US, and language used in
ethnicity. the home.
Table 1
Sample characteristics by child gender and ethnicity.
Child's age (months) 58.78 (6.91) 58.95 (6.95) 58.61 (6.87) 0.64 58.67 (6.98) 58.91 (7.90) −0.43
Mother's age 31.93 (6.35) 32.01 (6.35) 31.86 (6.37) 0.28 31.00 (5.77) 33.11 (6.85) −4.28⁎⁎⁎
Years in US (mother)a 11.74 (6.22) 11.34 (6.07) 12.11 (6.35) −1.48 11.23 (4.83) 12.54 (6.82) −2.22⁎
Adaptive behavior (home) 49.14 (9.65) 48.15 (9.85) 50.04 (9.39) −2.52⁎⁎ 46.83 (9.33) 52.04 (9.27) −7.16⁎⁎⁎
Externalizing problems (home) 48.17 (9.61) 48.94 (10.32) 47.47 (8.86) 1.96⁎ 47.41 (8.75) 49.14 (10.43) −2.26⁎
Internalizing problems (home) 52.65 (10.73) 52.60 (10.99) 52.69 (10.50) −0.11 52.28 (10.66) 53.11 (10.82) −0.98
Adaptive behavior (school) 45.95 (9.35) 44.76 (8.87) 47.10 (9.65) −3.12⁎⁎ 45.01 (9.11) 47.15 (9.52) −2.82⁎⁎
Externalizing problems (school) 46.96 (8.15) 48.14 (9.21) 45.84 (6.82) 3.52⁎⁎⁎ 45.75 (7.35) 48.52 (8.85) −4.17⁎⁎⁎
Internalizing problems (school) 46.49 (8.44) 46.73 (8.52) 46.27 (8.37) 0.67 45.69 (7.81) 47.56 (9.11) −2.72⁎⁎
% % % χ2 % % χ2
Note. Child functioning based on the Behavior Assessment System for Children-2 Parent and Teacher Rating Scale. All values represent T scores. HS = high school. For foreign-born
mothers (n = 576; 92%).
⁎ p b .05.
⁎⁎ p b .01.
⁎⁎⁎ p b .001.
24 M. Serrano-Villar, E.J. Calzada / Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 42 (2016) 21–30
3
We originally used six forced-choice questions to assess ethnic constancy, as described
Procedures
in the appendix. The scale was revised, however, because of low internal consistency be- Recruitment took place in 24 New York City public schools that had
tween items. The revised, final scale was based on Bernal et al. (1990). pre-k and kindergarten classrooms serving MA or DA children. Families
M. Serrano-Villar, E.J. Calzada / Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 42 (2016) 21–30 25
were recruited at the beginning of the school year, when bilingual employed without concern for bias from the clustered nature of the
research staff were present at school events and daily drop-off and sampling design. The design effects for our teacher rated variables
pick-up to inform parents of the study. Parents who enrolled (74% were all less than 2.0, suggesting that traditional regression techniques
of eligible participants) were asked to consent to a parent interview, could be used.
child assessments and teacher ratings of family and child function-
ing. Parents participated in an in-person interview in their language Results
of choice (i.e., Spanish or English; 92% chose to be interviewed in
Spanish). Interviews lasted approximately 90 min and included Ethnic identity development during early childhood
measures of parenting, cultural values, acculturative status, and
child functioning. Child testing was conducted at the school, in the Descriptive results are presented in Table 2. The majority of the
child's dominant language (as reported by the mother; 49% were sample (75%) was able to self-identify; about half of the children
tested in Spanish) and included measures of intelligence, language, showed understanding of ethnic constancy; about 20% showed ethnic
school readiness, and ethnic identity. Teachers of study children knowledge; and 27% expressed ethnic preference. Consistent with
were asked to complete an assessment packet that included mea- developmental theory, most components of ethnic identity were more
sures of child functioning; 94% of teachers agreed to participate. likely to be seen in kindergarten, relative to pre-k, children. Relative to
Only measures of child functioning were included in the present DA children, significantly more MA children showed understanding of
study. For more details of the larger study, please refer to Calzada, ethnic constancy and expressed an ethnic preference.
Huang, Anicama, Fernandez, and Brotman (2012). There were no sig- After examining descriptive statistics for the measure, we examined
nificant differences on any study variables between children with correlations between the ethnic identity scales and IQ scores to rule out
and without teacher data. As an incentive to participate, teachers the possibility that ethnic identity scores were confounded with
were offered help in the classroom (e.g., preparing materials for children's intelligence. No significant associations were found with
bulletin boards or classroom activities) by research staff. Children ethnic self-identification, constancy, knowledge, or preference (rs = .00
received a book and stickers, and mothers were paid $35, for their to .05).
participation. All data used in the present study came from the first
timepoint (i.e., in the fall of pre-k or kindergarten) in this longitudi-
nal study. Ethnic identity and child functioning
Tables 3 and 4 show the main and moderated effects of ethnic iden-
Analytic approach tity on child functioning at home and school, respectively. In examining
To describe the ethnic identity of children, we examined descriptive child functioning at home (Table 3), we found two significant main
statistics using t-test and chi-square analyses. We examined each ethnic effects in which ethnic constancy and knowledge were associated
identity component (self-identification, constancy, knowledge and with better adaptive behavior; neither gender nor ethnicity moderated
preference) separately by grade, gender and ethnicity. To study the these effects. No main or moderated effects were found for externalizing
association between ethnic identity and child functioning, we first or internalizing behavior at home. In examining child functioning at
examined the main effects of ethnic identity on each child functioning school (Table 4), ethnic constancy and knowledge each had a signifi-
outcome using linear regression models. The models controlled for cant, positive main effect on adaptive behavior. In addition, ethnic con-
three demographic factors that were associated with our outcomes stancy was significantly and negatively related to both externalizing
and/or predictors: family living in poverty, mother's education level and internalizing behavior. No moderated effects were found for child
and single parent home. To understand whether associations differed functioning at school.
by child gender and ethnicity, we then added moderator (gender or eth-
nicity) and moderator-by-ethnic identity variables to the regression Discussion
models.
Because some of our child functioning outcome measures were The study of ethnic identity among Latino and other ethnic minority
based on teacher ratings, and some teachers rated multiple children, youth holds great promise for identifying and building sources of resil-
we investigated clustering effects. In our study sample, the average ience in populations highly vulnerable to mental health and academic
number of students rated by each teacher was 1.79 (SD = 1.18). We problems. While the protective effects of ethnic identity have been
calculated design effects [1 + (average group size − 1) × intraclass well established in adolescent samples, however, little is known about
correlation coefficient] and followed guidelines suggested by Muthén how ethnic identity forms during the early stages of development and
and Satorra (1995) to determine whether traditional statistical whether it influences early developmental pathways. The present
techniques (that assume observations to be independent) could be study with pre-k and kindergarten Latino children addresses this gap
Table 2
Ethnic identity by grade, gender and ethnicity.
% % % χ2 % % χ2 % % χ2
Self-identification 74.6 66.8 81.6 18.19⁎⁎⁎ 75 74.3⁎ 0.03 75.9 73.1 0.61
Constancy 56.8 46.8 65.4 21.45⁎⁎⁎ 56 57.5 0.13 63.4 52.7 5.56⁎⁎
Knowledge 21.8 12.7 30.2 29.44⁎⁎⁎ 19.1 24.3 2.55 23.5 19.7 1.43
Preference 26.6 25.3 27.8 0.51 28.2 25.1 0.79 34.2 17.5 22.88⁎⁎⁎
Note.
⁎ p b .05.
⁎⁎ p b .01.
⁎⁎⁎ p b .001.
26 M. Serrano-Villar, E.J. Calzada / Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 42 (2016) 21–30
especially those relevant to children's socialization experiences group differences in ethnic identity. Ethnic constancy and preference
(Bernal et al., 1990; Umaña-Taylor & Fine, 2001). For example, dra- was higher among MA children. To the extent that the components
matic shifts in migration patterns over the past two decades have re- of ethnic identity are shaped by social context (Berry, 2004), ethnic
sulted in rapidly growing settlement communities in states that have group differences may be expected. For example, preferences
not traditionally been home to Latino populations (Ennis, Ríos- among young children may be determined by the ethnicity of family
Vargas, & Albert, 2011). These communities vary along a number of friends, and as a less acculturated group, MA families in our sample
characteristics that may shape children's emerging ethnic identity, in- may have had a more ethnically homogeneous social network. In
cluding the ethnicity of neighbors, the extent to which the home lan- contrast, DA children in the present study had mothers who were
guage is spoken by community members, and the availability of foods more acculturated, more likely to speak English, more educated,
and other products from the family's country of origin. Past studies sug- more likely to be working outside the home, and less poor than in
gest that the salience of ethnicity differs according to the community MA families. As a result, DA mothers were likely to have more con-
context, in that ethnic identity is higher among adolescents who are tact with mainstream culture, thereby advancing their young
the numerical minority relative to those who are the majority within children's acculturation and a US American, rather than a
their communities (Umaña-Taylor & Shin, 2007). Indeed, in the present Dominican identity.
study, ethnic identity was higher among MA children who are part of a
new immigrant population in NYC, relative to DA children who are part
of a well-established, multi-generational and enclaved immigrant pop- Limitations and future directions
ulation in the city.
Within the home, the messages children receive regarding Findings from the present study should be interpreted with
their ethnicity inform their understanding of ethnic-specific beliefs, consideration for several limitations. First, additional studies on
traditions and behaviors and give rise to ethnic pride. A rich litera- early ethnic identity are needed to more firmly establish the age
ture underscores the importance of parenting, and ethnic/racial and developmental sequencing of each component. Scholars have
socialization in particular (Hughes et al., 2006), in the identity for- speculated that the age at which children demonstrate the various
mation of youth, but these associations have not been examined in components of social identity (e.g., constancy) may vary depend-
families of young Latino children. Given the present study findings ing on the measure; for example, studies on gender identity have
on the potentially protective role of ethnic identity, future studies found that children are more likely to show understanding of
on its predictors would have clear implications for promoting suc- constancy when asked forced-choice questions (as in the present
cessful development beginning in early childhood in the Latino study; Ruble et al., 2007). Also, it is important to note the relative-
population. ly limited variance in child functioning that was explained by eth-
nic identity, and although small effects early in development have
Ethnic identity as a protective factor the potential to significantly alter developmental trajectories
(Malone & Lansford, 2010), our findings suggest that it is but one
In our early childhood sample, ethnic constancy and knowledge of numerous individual and ecological factors that shape children's
were associated with better adaptive behavior at home and school, development. In addition, given our use of cross-sectional data,
and fewer externalizing and internalizing problems at school. In school, causality cannot be inferred and it is not known whether ethnic
ethnic identity may have been especially protective as children encoun- identity has a meaningful long-term effect on early childhood de-
tered values, traditions and expectations that were unfamiliar and velopment. Longitudinal data that includes school-aged children
incongruent with those from their home environments. That is, children is needed to examine ethnic identity over time and what may
who felt more secure in their understanding of their ethnicity and be dynamic patterns of influence on child well-being. Finally,
especially in its permanence may have been more self-confident and as noted above, the present study was limited in focus, and did
less susceptible to the potential stress of negotiating cultural differences not examine predictive (e.g., ethnic socialization) or mediating
between home and school (García Coll & Marks, 2009). The mechanisms (e.g., self-esteem) variables that would more broadly inform de-
through which ethnic identity influences child functioning were not velopmental models of resilience.
tested in the present study, but past studies with adolescents suggest Nonetheless, our research provides support in favor of the
that a strong identity is associated with better self-esteem (Brody relevance and importance of ethnic identity in the early childhood
et al., 2006; Romero & Roberts, 2003), which in turn bolsters positive development of Latino children, and contributes to the literature
mental health outcomes. Understanding the process by which ethnic on measurement of ethnic identity before adolescence. Our study de-
identity promotes positive outcomes is an important goal of future re- sign allowed for a test of differences within the heterogeneous Latino
search with young children (Neblett, Rivas-Drake, & Umaña-Taylor, population and findings were robust across two large subgroups.
2012). Findings were also robust across gender, suggesting that gender
Importantly, the associations between ethnic identity and child differences in ethnic identity emerge later, as a result of socialization
functioning were robust across gender and ethnic groups, suggesting over time. Perhaps most importantly, the present study contributes
that subgroup differences observed in adolescence (at least in terms to the literature on youth resilience by showing the potential advan-
of child gender; ethnic group differences have not been tested) de- tages of promoting the development of ethnic identity in young,
velop over time as children are socialized along gender lines. For ex- Latino children as a means of mitigating the risks associated with
ample, socialization of boys often centers around preparing for living as a minority population in the US.
discrimination (Hughes et al., 2006), and although studies with
African American children show that preparation for discrimination
begins in early childhood (Coard, Wallace, Stevenson, & Brotman, Acknowledgement
2004), it may be that in newly immigrated Latino families, these
gender-specific messages are more infrequent until mothers become This research was supported in part by an R01 (R01 HD066122-01)
more aware of societal prejudices or until children are older and/or to the second author and by an Alicia Koplowitz Foundation grant to
have interactions with mainstream society that prompt such the first author. The authors wish to acknowledge the contribution of
discussions. Keng-Yen Huang, Ph.D. and to thank the collaborating school sites,
While the associations between ethnic identity and functioning the participant families, and the research staff who made this work
were similar across groups, we did find evidence of mean-level possible.
28
Appendix A
Model and measurement of ethnic identity development in early childhood
Component Definition Age range at which Gold-standard measurea Early Childhood Ethnic Identity Interview
component emerges
Self-identification A child's ability to accurately label Gender self-identification Gender self-identification Forced choice question:
his/her social (gender, racial, 2–3 years Forced choice question: Are you a (MA/DA) (boy/girl) or a Chinese (boy/girl)?
ethnic) identity Ethnic self-identification Are you a boy or a girl?
7–10 years Ethnic self-identification
References Knight, G. P., Bernal, M. E., Garza, C. A., Cota, M. K., & Ocampo, K. A. (1993). Family
socialization and the ethnic identity of Mexican-American children. Journal of Cross-
Aboud, F. E. (1977). Interest in ethnic information: A cross-cultural developmental study. Cultural Psychology, 24(1), 99–114. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022022193241007.
Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du Kohlberg, L. (1966). A cognitive-developmental analysis of children's sex-role concepts
comportement, 9(2), 134–146. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0081615. and attitudes. In E. E. Maccoby (Ed.), The development of sex digerences. Stanford:
Aboud, F. E., & Amato, M. (2001). Developmental and socialization influences on Stanford University Press.
intergroup bias. In R. Brown, & S. Gaertner (Eds.), Blackwell handbook in social Kulis, S. S., Marsiglia, F. F., Kopak, A. M., Olmsted, M. E., & Crossman, A. (2012). Ethnic
psychology: Intergroup processes, Vol. 4, Oxford: Blackwell. identity and substance use among Mexican-heritage preadolescents: Moderator
Akiba, D., Szalacha, L. A., & García Coll, C. T. (2004). Multiplicity of ethnic identification effects of gender and time in the United States. The Journal of Early Adolescence,
during middle childhood: Conceptual and methodological considerations. New 32(2), 165–199. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0272431610384484.
Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2004(104), 45–60. http://dx.doi. Kuperminc, G. P., Wilkins, N. J., Jurkovic, G. J., & Perilla, J. L. (2013). Filial responsibility,
org/10.1002/cd.103. perceived fairness, and psychological functioning of Latino youth from immigrant
Alegría, M., Mulvaney-Day, N., Torres, M., Polo, A., Cao, Z., & Canino, G. (2007). Prevalence families. Journal of Family Psychology, 27(2), 173–182. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/
of psychiatric disorders across Latino subgroups in the United States. American a0031880.
Journal of Public Health, 97(1), 68–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2006.087205. Listening to Latinas: Barriers to High School Graduation (2009). Washington, D.C.: Na-
Bergad, L. (2011). The Latino population of New York City, 2009. Latino Data Project, tional Women’s Law Center & Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational
Report, 43. Fund Retrieved from http://www.nwlc.org/our-resources/reports_toolkits/listening-
Bernal, M., Knight, G., Garza, C., Ocampo, K., & Cota, M. (1990). The development of ethnic to-latinas.
identity in Mexican-American children. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 12, Malone, P. S., & Lansford, J. E. (2010). A dynamic cascade model of the development of
3–24 (Retrieved from http://hjb.sagepub.com/content/12/1/3.short). substance-use onset. John Wiley & Sons.
Berry, J. W. (2004). Fundamental psychological processes in intercultural relations. In D. Martin, C., & Ruble, D. (2010). Patterns of gender development. Annual Review of
Landis, & J. Bennett (Eds.), Handbook of intercultural research (pp. 166–184) (3rd Psychology, 61, 353–381. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100511.
ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Patterns.
Bettes, B. A., Dusenbury, L., Kerner, J., James-Ortiz, S., & Botvin, G. J. (1990). Ethnicity and Muthén, B. O., & Satorra, A. (1995). Complex sample data in structural equation modeling.
psychosocial factors in alcohol and tobacco use in adolescence. Child Development, Sociological Methodology, 25, 267–316. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/271070 (Retrieved
61(2), 557–565 (Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2344790). from http://www.jstor.org/stable/271070).
Bialystok, E. (1992). The emergence of symbolic thought: Introduction. Cognitive Neblett, E. W., Rivas-Drake, D., & Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2012). The promise of racial and
Development, 7(3), 269–272. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0885-2014(92)90015-J. ethnic protective factors in promoting ethnic minority youth development. Child
Bracey, J., Bamaca, M., & Umaña-Taylor, A. (2004). Examining ethnic identity and self- Development Perspectives, 6(3), 295–303. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.
esteem among biracial and monoracial adolescents. Journal of Youth and 2012.00239.x.
Adolescence, 33(2), 123–132 (Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/article/10. Ocampo, K. A., Bernal, M. E., & Knight, G. P. (1993). Gender race and ethnicity: The
1023/B:JOYO.0000013424.93635.68). sequencing of social constancies. In M. E. Bernal, & G. P. Knight (Eds.), Ethnic identity:
Brewis, A. A., & Piñeda, D. (2001). Population variation in children's behavioral formation and transmission among Hispanic and other minorities (pp. 11–30). Albany:
symptomalogy. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 114(1), 54–60. State University New York Press.
Brody, G. H., Chen, Y. F., Murry, V. M., Ge, X., Simons, R. L., Gibbons, F. X., et al. (2006). Ocampo, K., Knight, G., & Bernal, M. (1997). The development of cognitive abilities and so-
Perceived discrimination and the adjustment of African American youths: a five- cial identities in children: The case of ethnic identity. International Journal of Behavioral
year longitudinal analysis with contextual moderation effects. Child Development, Development, 21(3), 479–500. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/016502597384758.
77(5), 1170–1189. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00927.x. Phinney, J. (2003). Ethnic identity and acculturation. In K. Chun, P. Organista, & G. Marin
Brown, A., & Patten, E. (2013, June 19a). Hispanics of Dominican origin in the United (Eds.), Acculturation: Advances in theory, measurement, and applied research
States, 2011. Pew Hispanic Center: Research Report (Retrieved from http://www. (pp. 63–81). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
pewhispanic.org/2013/06/19/hispanics-of-dominican-origin-in-the-united-states- Quintana, S. M. (1998). Children's developmental understanding of ethnicity and race.
2011). Applied and Preventive Psychology, 7(1), 27–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0962-
Brown, A., & Patten, E. (2013, June 19b). Hispanics of Mexican origin in the United States, 1849(98)80020-6.
2011. Pew Hispanic Center: Research Report (Retrieved from http://www. Quintana, S. M. (2007). Racial and ethnic identity: Developmental perspectives and
pewhispanic.org/2013/06/19/hispanics-of-mexican-origin-in-the-united-states- research. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3), 259–270. http://dx.doi.org/10.
2011). 1037/0022-0167.54.3.259.
Byrd, C. M. (2011). The measurement of racial/ethnic identity in children: A critical Reyes, J. A., Elias, M. J., Parker, S. J., & Rosenblatt, J. L. (2013). Promoting educational equity
review. Journal of Black Psychology, 38(1), 3–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ in disadvantaged youth: The role of resilience and social-emotional learning. In G.
0095798410397544. Sam, & B. Robert (Eds.), Handbook of Resilience in Children (pp. 349–370). Boston,
Calzada, E. J., Huang, K. -Y., Anicama, C., Fernandez, Y., & Brotman, L. M. (2012). Test of a MA: Springer US. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3661-4.
cultural framework of parenting with Latino families of young children. Cultural Reynolds, C. R., & Kamphaus, R. W. (2004). BASC-2 behavior assessment system for children
Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 18(3), 285–296. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ manual (2nd Ed ). Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service, Inc.
a0028694. Rhee, E., & Ruble, D. N. (1997). Development of gender and racial constancy. Poster session
Clark, K. B., & Clark, M. P. (1974). Racial identification and preference in Negro children. In presented at the biannual meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development,
T. M. Newcomb, & E. L. Hartley (Eds.), Readings in Social Psychology. New York: Holt. Washington, DC.
Coard, S., Wallace, S., Stevenson, H., & Brotman, L. (2004). Towards culturally relevant Romero, J., & Roberts, E. (2003). The impact of multiple dimensions of ethnic identity on
preventive interventions: The consideration of racial socialization in parent training discrimination and adolescents' self-esteem. Journal of Applied Social Psychology,
with African American families. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 13(3), 277–293 33(11), 2288–2305.
(Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/B:JCFS.0000022035.07171. Ruble, D. N., Alvarez, J., Bachman, M., Cameron, J., Fuligni, A., & García Coll, C. (2004). The
f8). development of a sense of “we”: The emergence and implications of children' s
Doyle, A. B., & Aboud, F. E. (1995). A longitudinal study of white children's racial prejudice collective identity. In M. Bennet, & F. Sani (Eds.), The development of the social self
as a social-cognitive development. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly (1982-), 209–228. (pp. 29–76).
Eaton, D. K., Kann, L., Kinchen, S., Shanklin, S., Ross, J., Hawkins, J., ... Wechsler, H. (2008). Ruble, D. N., Taylor, L. J., Cyphers, L., Greulich, F. K., Lurye, L. E., & Shrout, P. E. (2007). The
Youth risk behavior surveillance–United States, 2007. Morbidity and mortality weekly role of gender constancy in early gender development. Child Development, 78(4),
report. Surveillance summaries (Washington, DC: 2002), 57(4), 1–131. 1121–1136. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01056.x.
Ennis, S. R., Ríos-Vargas, M., & Albert, N. G. (2011, May). The Hispanic Population: 2010. Rutland, A., Cameron, L., Bennett, L., & Ferrell, J. (2005). Interracial contact and racial
C2010BR-04 Washington, D.C.: U.S. Census Bureau (http://www.census.gov/prod/ constancy: A multi-site study of racial intergroup bias in 3–5 year old Anglo-British
cen2010/briefs/c2010br-04.pdf). children. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 26(6), 699–713. http://dx.doi.
Fuligni, A. J., Witkow, M., & Garcia, C. (2005). Ethnic identity and the academic adjustment org/10.1016/j.appdev.2005.08.005.
of adolescents from Mexican, Chinese, and European backgrounds. Developmental Schwartz, S. J., Zamboanga, B. L., & Hernandez Jarvis, L. (2007). Ethnic identity and
Psychology, 41(5), 799–811. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.41.5.799. acculturation in Hispanic early adolescents: Mediated relationships to academic
García Coll, C., Crnic, K., Lamberty, G., Wasik, B., Jenkins, R., Garcia, H., et al. (1996). An grades, prosocial behaviors, and externalizing symptoms. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic
integrative model for the study of developmental competencies in minority children. Minority Psychology, 13(4), 364–373. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.13.4.364.
Child Development, 67(5), 1891–1914 (Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley. Serbin, L. A., & Sprafkin, C. (1986). The salience of gender and the process of sex-typing in
com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01834.x/abstract). three- to seven-year old children. Child Development, 57, 1188–1199.
García Coll, C. T., & Marks, A. K. (2009). Immigrant stories: Ethnicity and academics in Sickmund, M., & Snyder, H. N. (1999). Juvenile offenders and victims: 1999 national report.
middle childhood. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
Hughes, D., Rodriguez, J., Smith, E. P., Johnson, D. J., Stevenson, H. C., & Spicer, P. (2006). Smith, E. J. (1991). Ethnic identity development : Toward the development of a theory
Parents' ethnic-racial socialization practices: A review of research and directions for within the context of majority / minority status. Journal of Counseling & Development,
future study. Developmental Psychology, 42(5), 747–770. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ 70(October), 181–188.
0012-1649.42.5.747. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S.
Katz, P. A. (2003). Racists or tolerant multiculturalists? How do they begin? The American Worchel, & W. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 7–24). Chicago:
Psychologist, 58(11), 897–909. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.58.11.897. Nelson-Hall.
Katz, P., & Kofkin, J. (1997). Race, gender, and young children. In S. Luthar, J. Burack, D. Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2004). Ethnic identity and self-esteem: Examining the role of social
Cicchetti, & J. Weisz (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Perspectives on context. Journal of Adolescence, 27(2), 139–146. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
adjustment, risk, and disorder (pp. 51–74). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. adolescence.2003.11.006.
30 M. Serrano-Villar, E.J. Calzada / Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 42 (2016) 21–30
Umaña-Taylor, A. J., & Fine, M. A. (2001). Methodological implications of grouping Latino Umaña-Taylor, A. J., & Updegraff, K. A. (2007). Latino adolescents' mental health:
adolescents into one collective ethnic group. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, Exploring the interrelations among discrimination, ethnic identity, cultural orienta-
23(4), 347–362. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0739986301234001. tion, self-esteem, and depressive symptoms. Journal of Adolescence, 30(4), 549–567.
Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Gonzales-Backen, M. A., & Guimond, A. B. (2009). Latino adolescents' http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2006.08.002.
ethnic identity: Is there a developmental progression and does growth in ethnic iden- Updegraff, K. A., McHale, S. M., Whiteman, S. D., Thayer, S. M., & Crouter, A. C. (2006). The
tity predict growth in self-esteem? Child Development, 80(2), 391–405. http://dx.doi. nature and correlates of Mexican-American adolescents' time with parents and peers.
org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01267.x. Child Development, 77(5), 1470–1486. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.
Umaña-Taylor, A. J., & Guimond, A. B. (2012). A longitudinal examination of parenting 00948.x.
behaviors and perceived discrimination predicting Latino adolescents' ethnic identity. Wechsler, D. (2006). Wechsler nonverbal scale of ability: WNV. PsychCorp.
Developmental Psychology, 46(3), 636–650. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0019376. Yoshikawa, H. (2011). Immigrants raising citizens: Undocumented parents and their
Umaña-Taylor, A. J., & Shin, N. (2007). An examination of ethnic identity and self-esteem children. Russell Sage Foundation.
with diverse populations: Exploring variation by ethnicity and geography. Cultural
Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 13(2), 178–186. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/
1099-9809.13.2.178.
Publicaciones incluidas en la Memoria
54
Publicaciones incluidas en la Memoria
Los objetivos del presente estudio fueron por tanto los siguientes: el primer
objetivo fue describir el tipo (emocional e instrumental) y la fuente (familiares y otros
padres de la comunidad escolar) de apoyo social percibido por los padres. Teniendo en
cuenta el diferente perfil sociodemográfico que ambos grupos presentan en la ciudad de
NY, se esperaba encontrar mayor nivel de apoyo emocional e instrumental en la
comunidad dominicana. Los dominicanos llevan más años establecidos en la ciudad
neoyorquina, suelen establecerse juntos en enclaves étnicos por lo que sus niveles de
aculturación, apoyo y recursos económicos son mayores que los de los mexicanos. El
segundo objetivo fue diseñar y poner a prueba un modelo en el que el apoyo social
percibido por los padres funcionaría indirectamente como un factor protector en el
desarrollo emocional y conductual de los niños. El efecto indirecto tendría lugar mediante
el impacto que el apoyo social ejercería sobre el estilo parental y el nivel de involucración
escolar, lo que a su vez impactaría en el funcionamiento emocional y conductual de los
niños en casa y en el colegio (ver Estudio 2, Figura 1).
De acuerdo a este objetivo, se formuló la hipótesis de que recibir apoyo social por
parte de la red escolar estaría relacionado con una mayor involucración en las actividades
escolares de los hijos, un estilo parental más positivo y menos coercitivo. Sin embargo,
55
Publicaciones incluidas en la Memoria
5.2.3. Metodología
- El reclutamiento tuvo lugar entre 2010-2013 en 24 colegios públicos de la ciudad de
Nueva York con población de origen dominicano y mexicano siguiendo el mismo
proceso que el detallado previamente en el Estudio 1. En la presente investigación
se incluyeron únicamente los datos de las familias que tenían todos los datos
cumplimentados y sin contar con ningún valor perdido (N = 610 familias; 344 de
origen mexicano y 266 de origen dominicano).
- Los informantes de las medidas recogidas en nuestro estudio fueron los siguientes:
las madres completaron un cuestionario sobre datos demográficos, apoyo social
percibido (MSPSS), estilo parental (PPI, PSD) y medidas sobre el funcionamiento
socioemocional y conductual de los niños en el hogar (BASC-P). Los profesores
informaron sobre el involucramiento de los padres en las actividades escolares de sus
hijos (INVOLVE-T) y sobre su funcionamiento socioemocional y conductual en la
escuela (BASC-T).
- Para describir la situación demográfica y social de las familias de origen mexicano y
dominicano se tomaron medidas descriptivas separadamente para ambos grupos a fin
de conocer las diferencias encontradas entre los mismos. En función del nivel de
medida de cada variable se utilizaron las pruebas de t de Student y Chi cuadrado
(Estudio 2, Tabla 1). Las características demográficas de la muestra son muy
56
Publicaciones incluidas en la Memoria
5
En el Estudio 2 se excluyeron de los análisis los casos que tuvieran algún valor perdido por
requerimiento del modelo estadístico utilizado. Por ese motivo, la muestra pasa a ser de 674 del Estudio
1 a 610 familias en el Estudio 2.
57
Publicaciones incluidas en la Memoria
- Para describir la fuente y el tipo de apoyo social percibido por los padres se realizaron
los análisis descriptivos presentados en la Tabla 2 del presente estudio (Estudio 2).
Las madres de origen dominicano presentaron unos niveles significativamente más
altos de apoyo familiar frente a las mexicanas, pero estas diferencias no se
encontraron en relación al apoyo social recibido por padres de la red escolar.
- En cuanto a su estilo parental, las madres de origen dominicano refirieron mostrar un
estilo más positivo y menos coercitivo en comparación con las madres mexicanas.
No se observaron sin embargo diferencias en ambos grupos en relación al nivel de
involucración en actividades escolares.
- Para los niños de origen mexicano se encontró que el apoyo social familiar estaba
relacionado con mantener un estilo parental más positivo, que a su vez estaba
relacionado con mayores niveles de conducta adaptativa en los niños en el hogar
(SIE) = .10, p < .001. Está asociación entre apoyo social de los padres y
funcionamiento de los niños no llegó a ser estadísticamente significativa a través del
estilo parental coercitivo pero sí se encontró una clara significación entre manifestar
un estilo coercitivo y un peor funcionamiento emocional y conductual en los niños
tanto en el ámbito familiar como escolar. La involucración de los padres en las
actividades escolares no se encontró relacionado ni con el funcionamiento de los
niños ni con el apoyo social percibido por los padres.
- De la misma manera, para los niños de origen dominicano se encontró también que
el apoyo familiar estaba asociado con un estilo parental positivo, lo que a su vez
estaba relacionado con un mejor funcionamiento emocional y conductual en el
58
Publicaciones incluidas en la Memoria
ámbito familiar (SIE = .08, p =.02). También se detectó que recibir apoyo social de
la red escolar estaba asociado con un menor uso de técnicas coercitivas, estando el
uso de estas últimas relacionadas a su vez con un peor funcionamiento emocional y
conductual de los niños, aunque esta asociación no llego a ser estadísticamente
significativa. No se observó relación entre apoyo social e involucración de los padres
en actividades escolares, pero éste último si pareció asociarse a mayores niveles de
conducta adaptativa en el ámbito escolar, pero a menores niveles en el ámbito
familiar.
Conclusión final
59
Child Psychiatry Hum Dev
DOI 10.1007/s10578-016-0685-9
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
13
2 Child Psychiatry Hum Dev
Social Support and Child Development normative among middle class families [35], barriers related
to language and documentation status, along with a lack of
The benefits of social support appear to extend beyond familiarity with the US school system, may make it unlikely
maternal well-being to children. Several studies have found for Latina mothers to create or join networks at the school
direct associations between mothers’ social support and the level. In addition, the strong ties between extended family
emotional and behavioral functioning of their children [14, members dictated by familismo may interfere with the for-
53, 64, 69]. For example, children of mothers with limited mation of non-kin networks. That is, Latinos may hesitate
social support appear to be at higher risk for social with- to form networks with non-family members either because
drawal, depression and hyperactivity [10, 80]. Moreover, their needs can be met within the family support system or
the adverse effects of social isolation seem long-lasting. because of a reluctance to form attachments with non-fam-
Studies have documented lower cognitive abilities and more ily members [16]. Still, no study to date has simultaneously
conduct problems in children of mothers who received lim- examined support received by Latina mothers from family
ited social support during pregnancy [1, 68]. These effects and parent-to-parent networks in schools. To address this
are believed to be mediated by parenting practices [18, 40, gap, an aim of the present study was to describe the level of
58] in that mothers who experience support are expected perceived emotional and instrumental support Latina moth-
to be more engaged and responsive in their parenting, and ers receive from the school community, relative to levels of
these positive parenting practices would promote better support received from family networks, both of which are
child development. The present study examines this model expected to be linked to parenting.
of social support and child development (see Fig. 1), in
which Latino mothers with high levels of perceived emo- Parenting in Latino Populations
tional and instrumental social support are more effective in
their parenting, with positive effects for the mental health Research across cultures confirms the universal importance
functioning of their children [5]. In examining these hypo- of parenting for children’s optimal development such as
thetical links with Latina mothers, we consider the ways in better self-esteem and lower aggression [42]. In the Latino
which experiences of social support are shaped by cultural population, research suggests that parenting is characterized
norms and values. by high levels of warmth [11, 12, 21] but also a greater reli-
ance on harsh parenting compared with non-Latino white
Familial and Extra-Familial Social Networks parents [24, 43]. The effects of these harsh parenting prac-
tices may be culture-specific. Specifically, it appears that
In the Latino population, reliance on the family unit arises while positive parenting practices that reflect responsive-
from the cultural value of familismo, specified as familial ness, acceptance and warmth contribute to healthy child
interconnectedness, belief that family comes before the outcomes across cultures [42], the effects of parental disci-
individual, belief in family reciprocity, and belief in familial pline on child development may vary across cultures (e.g.,
honor [48]. Latinos engage in high levels of behaviors that [45]). Consistent with the cross-cultural literature, studies
reflect these beliefs, including the formation of large family with Latino families in the US show promoting effects of
networks with whom they share housing, daily living activi- positive parenting, but mixed effects of harsh parenting, on
ties and childrearing [4, 13, 32, 74, 83]. Given the strength children’s internalizing and externalizing behavioral func-
of the interpersonal ties and mutual exchange between fam- tioning [12, 34, 39, 40, 46, 65]. That is, some studies have
ily members, familismo generally leads to high levels of found an attenuated or null association between harsh par-
support [15, 20, 61, 63, 76]. enting and child behavior problems, aggression and cogni-
Support outside of the family context may be less com- tive development in Latino families [6, 7, 52, 67]). These
mon among immigrant Latino populations. For Latina findings have been interpreted according to the cultural
mothers of young students, the school community offers normativeness hypothesis, which argues that when physical
unique access to a naturally occurring network of parents. discipline practices (e.g., spanking) are perceived as norma-
But while the formation of social networks in schools is tive, they serve as less robust predictors of child functioning
13
Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 3
[45]. Among Latinos, the use of physical punishment in help to close the cultural gap between Latina mothers and
childrearing has been described as consistent with cultural the school community, reducing barriers to school-based
values such as respeto (i.e., respect) and as common prac- involvement practices. We considered this hypothesized
tice [12, 13]. link between school-based social support and school-based
parent involvement in the present study.
The Link Between Social Support and Parenting
The Latino Population in the US
A number of studies have linked mothers’ social support to
parenting but more research is needed to understand how As an immigrant and ethnic minority group in the US,
multiple domains of social support relate to parenting prac- Latinos face a number of considerable challenges that may
tices. On the one hand, social support in general has been undermine parental well-being and healthy child develop-
found to diminish the use of harsh discipline practices and ment [17]. Nearly one in five Latinos in the US lives in
to increase the use of positive parenting practices of respon- poverty, and rates are even higher among children [72].
siveness, acceptance and warmth in parents of all back- Experiences of discrimination and acculturative stress can
grounds, including low-income and Latina mothers [18, further disadvantage Latino families. While all Latino eth-
40]. On the other hand, to the extent that social networks nic groups experience considerable social and economic
influence parenting practices by giving advice [46], it is pos- disadvantages, there are important differences between
sible that associations vary based on the source of support. groups. In New York City (NYC; where the present study
For example, support from family may reinforce the use of took place), the Dominican-origin population is well-estab-
parenting practices that are congruent with Latino culture lished, having served as a source of migration to the city for
(e.g., physical punishment), whereas support from a parent multiple generations. Recent Dominican immigrants typi-
network in a U.S., public school may reinforce the use of cally settle into ethnic enclaves, facilitating the acculturative
practices (e.g., non-physical punishment such as time out) process and granting access to large and multigenerational
that are not necessarily rooted in Latino culture [40, 50]. In family networks within the Dominican community [82]. In
other words, to the extent that networks in schools include contrast, the Mexican-origin population is relatively new to
non-immigrant parents (whether Latino or not), exposure to NYC, and there are fewer ethnic enclaves available to new
parenting norms, parenting advice and “policing” of parent- immigrants, potentially exacerbating the sense of isolation
ing practices may be driven by more mainstream norms and experienced by newcomers. Demographically, the Mexican
beliefs, such as disapproval of spanking [50]. Thus, in the community in NYC has lower levels of acculturation (i.e.,
present study, we considered how support from family ver- English language competence, US cultural knowledge),
sus school networks may be uniquely associated with posi- formal education and employment as well as higher levels
tive parenting practices as well as harsh parenting practices. of poverty [82]. These distinct social and demographic pro-
School-based social networks may also facilitate con- files—which are likely to have implications for the social
nections between mothers and the school itself, making support each group receives—underscore the critical need
it more likely for mothers to get involved in their child’s for studying parenting and child development with attention
schooling. Parent involvement in education [51, 73, 77], or to ethnic subgroup differences.
the resources that parents dedicate to their child’s learning
experience [30], has been consistently linked to children’s The Present Study
behavioral, socioemotional and academic functioning [22,
37, 70]. However, while Latino parents appear to be highly As reviewed above, social support, as experienced by moth-
invested in their children’s education [19, 71], they do not ers, is associated with better child developmental outcomes,
often attend school events, volunteer in the classroom or making the study of social support of great potential util-
communicate directly with school staff [47]. Barriers such ity in understanding protective processes in Latino families,
as low parental education, conflicting work schedules, and who often experience considerable risk related to poverty
different home languages help explain these lower levels and other social stressors (e.g., discrimination) [46]. With
of school-based involvement [49]. Additionally, school- this overarching goal, the present study focused on the emo-
based parent involvement, which depends in large part on tional and instrumental social support perceived by Latina
the collaborative relationship between parents and school mothers and its role in early childhood developmental func-
staff, is lower when there is a cultural gap between school tioning. Our first aim was to describe the level and source
staff and parents [38, 41]. When parents perceive a cultural (family, school) of emotional and instrumental social sup-
mismatch, particularly racism, within the school setting [51, port experienced by mothers from two Latino subgroups
73, 77], they are less likely to participate in school-based (Mexican, Dominican). Given the ecological context of
activities. Support from other parents within the school may each group, such as the rich enclaves Dominican American
13
4 Child Psychiatry Hum Dev
(DA) mothers in NYC are likely to live in and the higher Table 1 Sample characteristics by ethnic group
levels of acculturation expected for DAs, we expected social Mexican Dominican t
support levels from both types of networks to be higher for American American
DA mothers relative to Mexican American (MA) mothers.
M (SD) M (SD)
Our second aim was to test a path model of social support
and child outcomes in MA and DA families of young (i.e., Child’s age (months) 58.67 (6.98) 58.91 (7.90) −0.43
4–5 year old) children. We focused on child functioning Mother’s age (years) 31.00 (5.77) 33.11 (6.85) −4.28***
outcomes at home and school because these are the two set- Years in US (mother) 11.23 (4.83) 12.54 (6.82) −2.22*
tings where young children spend most of their time, and
% % χ2
we focused on adaptive behavior and problem behavior
outcomes to provide a balanced depiction of early child- Child gender (male) 47.7 48.5 0.03
hood functioning that acknowledges children’s strengths Family living in poverty 83.8 54 65.15***
and deficits. In our model, we examined how social support Single-parent home 12.7 38.6 59.90***
from family and school networks was associated with child Mother’s education <high 43.5 7.4 59.90***
school
outcomes indirectly, through parenting practices and parent
Mother works for pay 29 65.4 87.31***
involvement in education. We hypothesized that social sup-
port from school networks would be associated with greater Spanish only spoken in the 86.5 50.2 104.56***
home
school-based parent involvement practices, more positive
n = 344; 56 % for Mexican-Americans and n = 266; 44 % for Domin-
parenting and less harsh discipline. We made no directional ican-Americans
hypothesis about the association between support from *p < .05
family networks and parenting because while the literature **p < .01
shows less frequent use of harsh discipline among mothers
***p < .001
who receive support, family members within Latino culture
may reinforce the culturally-sanctioned use of harsh disci-
pline. Also because of the culturally-sanctioned use of harsh to be working for pay. MA children were more likely to
discipline [45], we made no hypothesis about its associa- live in a two-parent home and in a Spanish-speaking home
tion with child functioning. We did however expect positive environment.
parenting and parent involvement to be associated with bet-
ter child functioning (i.e., more adaptive and less problem Measures
behavior).
Demographic Characteristics
13
Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 5
to me”) and instrumental (e.g., “There are parents at this also suggest that its factors are cross-culturally robust [8]. In
school who are around when I am in need”) support and an the present study, we used the Total Behavior Problem com-
alpha of 0.87 for MA and 0.88 for DA mothers. Items were posite scale, which includes externalizing and internalizing
rated on a seven-point scale and averaged to obtain a family symptoms, and the Adaptive Behavior composite scale of
support and a school network support score. child functioning at home (based on the PRS) and at school
(based on the TRS). BASC-2 scales have a mean of 50 and
Parenting Practices a standard deviation of ten. Scores above 65 are considered
clinically significant. The scales showed adequate internal
To assess harsh parenting, we drew from the Parenting consistency with both ethnic group samples in the present
Practices Interview (PPI; Webster-Stratton, [78]) and the study (0.83–0.95).
Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSD) [62].
Fourteen items that measured the use of physical punish- Procedure
ment (e.g., spanking) and harsh verbal punishment (e.g.,
yelling, criticizing, threatening) were included. Across both Recruitment took place in 24 New York City public
measures, items were rated on a five-point scale, with higher schools that had pre-k and kindergarten classrooms serv-
scores reflecting more harsh discipline. The alpha coeffi- ing MA or DA children. Families were recruited at the
cient for the scale was 0.75 for both MA and DA mothers. beginning of the school year, when bilingual research staff
To assess positive parenting, we again drew from the were present at school events and daily drop-off and pick-
PPI and the PSD. Twenty-five items that measured positive up to inform parents of the study. Parents who enrolled
maternal behaviors including warmth (e.g., “I give comfort (79 % of eligible participants) were asked to consent to a
and understanding when my child is upset”) and the use of parent interview, teacher ratings of family and child func-
positive reinforcement (e.g., “I compliment my child when tioning and child assessments (not considered in the pres-
he behaves well”) were included. Across both measures, ent study). Parents participated in an in-person interview
items were rated on a five-point scale, with higher scores in their language of choice (i.e., Spanish or English), and
reflecting more positive parenting. The alpha coefficients majority (88 %) were interviewed in Spanish. Interviews
were 0.84–0.85 for MA and DA mothers, respectively. lasted approximately 90 min and included measures of
The Involve-T [79] was used as a measure of mothers’ parenting and child functioning. Mothers were paid $35,
parent involvement. Teachers rated mothers’ school-based for their participation.
involvement activities such as frequency of contact with Teachers of study children were asked to complete an
the school, including informal conversations on the child’s assessment packet that included measures of child function-
schooling (e.g., “Has this child’s parent stopped by to talk to ing. As an incentive to participate, teachers were offered
you in the past 2 months?”) and attendance at school meet- help in the classroom (e.g., preparing materials for bulle-
ings and events (e.g., “H ow often has this child’s parent tin boards or classroom activities) by research staff. The
been to school meetings in the past 2 months?”). These ten vast majority (92 %) of teachers agreed to participate, and
items were rated on a five-point scale and averaged to obtain there were no significant differences on any study variables
a total score, with higher levels suggesting more involve- between children with and without teacher data. All data
ment. The alpha coefficients were 0.7–0.86 for MA and DA used in the present study came from the first time point (i.e.,
mothers, respectively. in the fall of pre-k or kindergarten) in this longitudinal study.
The Behavior Assessment System for Children-2 (BASC-2) Before conducting analyses, we examined cluster-
[60] is a widely–used standardized measure of childhood ing effects because 63 % of the teachers (126 out of 199
externalizing problems (e.g., aggression, hyperactivity), teachers) provided ratings on multiple students [the aver-
internalizing problems (e.g., anxiety, depression, somati- age number of students rated by each teacher was 2.80
zation), and adaptive behaviors (e.g., adaptability, social (SD = 2.27)]. We calculated design effects [1 + (average
skills, functional communication). The BASC-2 has both a group size − 1) × intraclass correlation coefficient] and fol-
parent report form (PRS) and a teacher report form (TRS) lowed guidelines suggested by Muthén and Satorra [56] to
and is available in Spanish as well as English. The Span- determine whether traditional statistical techniques could
ish form demonstrated adequate psychometric properties be employed without concern for bias from the clustered
with the subsample of 311 Latino children and adolescents nature of the sampling design. In our sample, the design
(including 82 preschoolers) who participated in the stan- effects for teacher rated variables were all <2.0, suggesting
dardization study of the BASC-2. Past studies of the BASC that traditional statistical techniques could be used. Next,
13
6 Child Psychiatry Hum Dev
we confirmed that all endogenous variables in the model maternal education was negatively associated with percep-
were normally distributed. tions of support from the school community.
To test the conceptual model (Fig. 1), we conducted struc-
tural equation modeling (SEM) using MPLUS 6 [55]. To Model Testing
judge the closeness of fit for the hypothesized model, three
indices were used as recommend by Muthen and Muthen: As per the analytic plan, we first tested a nonrestricted model
chi square (χ² > 0.05), root mean square error of approxi- using multigroup SEM analyses. The overall χ² statistics
mation (RMSEA <0.05), and comparative fit index (CFI showed a good fit of the nonrestricted model, χ² (16) = 26.19,
>0.95). We tested the conceptual model using maximum p = .05, RMSEA = 0.05 and CFI = 0.98. We then tested the
likelihood estimation method (ML). To examine media- model that constrained all parameter estimates (or path val-
tion paths, we examined indirect effects using MPLUS. To ues) to be equal across groups, but that allowed free estimate
consider ethnic group differences (MA and DA), we first for means, variances, and covariances. The model yielded a
conducted multigroup SEM analyses to determine whether reasonable fit, χ² (45) = 88.15, p < .001, RMSEA = 0.06 and
there were statistically significant subgroup differences in CFI = 0.93, but still led to a significant decrement in model
model fit. In multigroup SEM, the first step is to test the fit (χ²∆ (29) = 61.96, p < .001). This suggested that the paths
nonrestricted model in the two groups by allowing all path may be different for MAs and DAs, so we conducted SEM
values, means, variances, and covariances to be freely esti- analyses separately for the MA and DA groups.
mated. If there is evidence of fit, the next step is to exam- Using SEM analyses separately for each group, we found
ine a less restricted model by constraining path estimates a fit of the hypothetical model for both MAs and DAs [MA:
to be equal in all groups, but allowing means, variances, χ² (8) = 6.52, p = .56, RMSEA = 0.00 and CFI = 1.00 and
and covariances to be free. More constraints (i.e., on means, DA: χ² (8) = 19.81, p = .01, RMSEA = 0.07 and CFI = 0.97].
variances, and covariances) can be imposed in subsequent Figure 2a (for MA) and 2b (for DA) present the standardized
steps if the restricted model does not cause a significant path coefficients for the significant paths and the R² values
decrement in model fit. If there is insufficient evidence of for the mediating and dependent variables (i.e., parenting
fit in the least restricted multigroup SEM model (in which and child functioning). For MAs, one significant media-
path values, means, variances, and covariances are all freely tional path was found. Specifically, familial support was
estimated), then the SEM model is tested separately for each associated with more positive parenting, which was then
group (i.e., MA and DA). In all analyses, we adjusted for associated with higher levels of adaptive behavior in chil-
potential confounders, including family poverty, marital sta- dren (parent report). The standardized indirect effect (SIE)
tus and maternal educational status. was 0.10, p < .001, indicating that one full standard devia-
tion increase in familial support via its effect on positive
parenting would result in 0.10 standard deviation increase in
Results parent-rated adaptive behaviors. No path linking social sup-
port and child functioning via harsh parenting was found,
Preliminary Analyses though we did find harsh parenting was associated with less
adaptive behavior and more problem behavior as rated by
Table 2 presents the means, standard deviations, and correla- mothers and teachers. No path linking social support and
tions for the study variables for each ethnic group. All moth- child functioning via school-based parent involvement prac-
ers reported high levels of family support (M = 5.64–6.08 on tices was found either, and school-based parent involvement
a scale of 1–7) relative to school support (M = 3.55–3.68). practices was not related to child functioning.
In addition, relative to MA mothers, DA mothers reported For DAs, we found that familial support was associated
higher levels of family support, but the groups did not differ with more positive parenting, which was associated with
in perceived level of support from the school community. higher levels of child adaptive behaviors as rated by moth-
DA mothers reported the use of more positive parenting ers (SIE = 0.08, p = .02). We also found that receiving less
practices, less harsh discipline and more parent involvement support from the school network was associated with more
practices; there were no group differences in school-based use of harsh parenting, which was related to more problem
parent involvement practices as rated by teachers. MA chil- behaviors and less adaptive behavior among children as
dren were rated by mothers and by teachers as lower in reported by mothers, but this indirect effect did not reach
adaptive behavior than DA children, and DA children were significance. No link between social support and school-
rated by teachers as showing more problem behaviors. based parent involvement practices was found, but parent
Table 3 shows the correlations between demographic involvement was related to higher levels of adaptive behav-
variables and social support by ethnic group. There was only ior as reported by teachers and lower levels of adaptive
one significant association, seen only among MA mothers; behavior as reported by mothers.
13
Child Psychiatry Hum Dev
Table 2 Descriptive statistics and correlations among study variables by ethnic group
MA DA 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
M (SD) M (SD)
Social support
1. Familial supporta 5.64 (1.20)*** 6.08 (0.98) 1 0.31** 0.02 0.27** −0.11* −0.09 −0.02 −0.03 0.19**
2. School support 3.68 (1.71) 3.55 (1.55) 0.18** 1 0.06 0.07 −0.09 −0.04 0.04 −0.08 0.09
Parenting
3. Parent involvement 2.29 (0.52) 2.37 (0.67) 0.02 0.10 1 −0.03 0.02 0.05 0.09 −0.02 0.03
4. Positive parenting 3.82 (0.51)*** 4.04 (0.47) 0.18** 0.12 0.09 1 0.03 −0.05 0.07 0.10 0.39**
5. Harsh parenting 1.80 (0.43)* 1.72 (0.44) −0.08 −0.12 0.04 −0.08 1 0.20** −0.12* 0.41** −0.24**
Child outcomes
6. Problem behavior (T) 46.05 (6.61)** 47.98 (7.76) −0.18** −0.05 0.03 −0.01 0.13* 1 −0.24** 0.17** −0.15**
7. Adaptive behavior (T) 45.04 (8.77)** 47.28 (9.68) 0.15* 0.14* 0.16* 0.03 −0.07 −0.39** 1 −0.06 0.27**
8. Problem behavior (M) 50.39 (8.89) 51.02 (9.32) −0.12 −0.06 0.02 −0.02 0.50** 0.24** −0.14* 1 −0.19**
9. Adaptive behavior (M)a 46.90 (9.38)*** 52.38 (9.18) 0.23** 0.11 −0.07 0.47** −0.19** −0.16** 0.27** −0.24** 1
Correlations for the DA sample presented below the diagonal; correlations for the MA sample presented above the diagonal
MA Mexican American, DA Dominican American, T teacher rating, M mother rating
*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001
a
Group differed in variance
7
13
8 Child Psychiatry Hum Dev
Table 3 Correlations among social support and demographic characteristics by ethnic group
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Social support
1. Familial support 1 0.30** 0.02 0.04 −0.03 −0.07 −0.05 −0.06 −0.03
2. School support 0.18** 1 −0.00 0.04 0.02 −0.12* 0.08 −0.06 −0.08
Demographic characteristic
3. Years in US (mother) −0.11 −0.03 1 −0.02 0.17** −0.06 −0.15** −0.05 −0.03
4. Family living in poverty −0.00 −0.00 −0.03 1 0.04 −0.01 −0.04 −0.03 0.04
5. Mother works for pay −0.03 0.03 0.22** −0.04 1 0.11 −0.16** 0.03 0.04
6. Mother’s educational level 0.00 −0.03 −1.00 0.02 −0.05 1 −0.02 0.44** 0.26**
7. Spanish spoken at home −0.01 0.05 −0.16** −0.04 −0.16** −0.02 1 0.02 −0.09
8. Mother’s acculturation −0.02 0.01 −0.03 −0.03 −0.02 0.48** 0.05 1 −0.00
9. Mother’s enculturation 0.02 − 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.06 0.06 −0.05 −0.09 1
Correlations for the DA sample presented below the diagonal; correlations for the MA sample presented above the diagonal
MA Mexican American, DA Dominican American, C.O. Country of origin
*p < .05
**p < .01
Problem
Positive
-.25 (.05)*** behavior (home)
parenting
R² = .12*** R² = .19***
.42 (.05)***
Familial support Adaptive
.26 (.05)*** Harsh parenting -.11 (.05)* behavior (school)
R² = .08** R² = .04
.18 (.05)***
School support Problem
behavior (school)
Parent R² = .16***
involvement
R² = .02
Adaptive
b .47 (.05)*** behavior (home)
R² = .30***
Positive
parenting Problem
-.12 (.05)*
R² = .06* behavior (home)
Familial support R² = .26***
.51 (.05)***
.16 (.06)***
Harsh parenting Adaptive
R² = .14*** behavior (school)
-.12 (.05)** R² = .07*
School support -.11 (.06)* .15 (.06)**
Parent Problem
involvement behavior (school)
R² = .07* R² = .17***
Note. Bolded paths are significant mediational paths. Analyses controlled for family poverty, marital and parent educational status.
Child functioning based on the Behavior Assessment System for Children-2 Parent and Teacher Rating Scale.
Discussion samples [40], less is known about the effects of social support
among immigrant Latinos, an important gap in the literature
The present study aimed to describe social support as per- considering the generally high levels of social disadvan-
ceived by Latina mothers and to test its association with tage experienced by this population of parents. Attending to
child functioning, through parenting practices. While there cultural context, we focused on two specific ethnic groups,
is ample evidence that social support has positive effects on Mexican- and Dominican-origin, and distinguished between
parenting and child development among non-Latino White social support from family versus extrafamilial networks.
13
Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 9
Perceived Social Support from Family and School linking support from family networks with child adaptive
Networks behavior in the home, through positive parenting practices.
Although untested in the present study, it may be that sup-
The first aim of our study was to describe the levels of per- port from family members increased parental self-efficacy
ceived support from two distinct sources: family and school [40] and/or helped mothers to manage their stress, thereby
community. As expected, support was high from family as promoting the use of positive parenting practices [33, 50,
experienced by both DA and MA mothers, supporting the 58].
notion of centrality of family for Latino populations [13]. Though the paths linking support from the school com-
However, DA mothers reported more support from family munity to child outcomes were not significant, we did find
than MA mothers, perhaps because DA mothers in NYC had that more support from school networks was associated
access to larger, multigenerational networks of family mem- with lower self-reported use of harsh practices among DA
bers who resided nearby and could provide both emotional mothers. We expected that mothers who received support
and instrumental support [82]. In contrast, MA mothers in from the school community would have more exposure to
NYC are more likely to represent the first generation of mainstream childrearing values and norms, including the
Mexican immigrants to the city [23, 82]. As such, they may school-sanctioned endorsement of non-physical discipline
have received high levels of emotional support from family strategies such as time out. While this appears to have been
in their country of origin via phone or social media [2] but the case with DA mothers, it is not clear why the association
given the physical distance between family members, emo- was not observed among MA mothers. Qualitative studies
tional support may have been less salient and instrumental with Spanish-speaking parents have shown that language
support may have been altogether limited. Research shows barriers limit the depth and meaningfulness of social con-
that during the beginning of a migratory flow (e.g., Mexi- nections within school communities [28]. It is possible
cans to NYC), immigrants tend to live with other migrants that in the present study, the lower levels of English profi-
who are not part of their family network. In contrast, once ciency among MA mothers shaped the types of support they
a destination has become an established receiving commu- received from other parents at the school (e.g., shared recre-
nity (i.e., an ethnic enclave), immigrants tend to live with ational time versus advice or access to resources), limiting
extended family members [23]. its effects on parenting. More work is needed to identify
Surprisingly, there were no group differences in per- which components of support help immigrant Latina moth-
ceived social support from the school community. Although ers rely less on harsh practices, especially considering the
DA mothers were more highly acculturated (e.g., more pro- robust associations found between harsh parenting and child
ficient in English) and, as residents in an ethnic enclave, functioning.
were more likely to know other parents of children zoned Based on our conceptual model, we also expected, but
to the same public school as their child, both MA and DA did not find, that higher levels of social support within the
mothers reported similar and modest levels of support from school setting (by other parents, not by school staff specifi-
school. Perceived support was not correlated with demo- cally) would be associated with more parent involvement,
graphic variables, including maternal work status or years conceptualized as teacher ratings of mother involvement in
in the US, but future studies should aim to identify factors school-based activities. It may be that parent–parent rela-
associated with support outside of the family, given that tionships are not sufficient to offset cultural gaps between
support from extrafamilial networks is protective [63, 75]. Latina mothers and US American schools, and instead,
parent-teacher relationships are needed to promote school-
Perceived Social Support and Child Outcomes based parent involvement. Not surprisingly, given the cul-
tural gap between Spanish-speaking immigrant mothers and
The second aim of the present study was to test a path model non-Spanish-speaking US American teachers, on average
of social support in relation to child outcomes, indirectly mothers were rated as only “somewhat” involved. Previous
through parenting. Specifically, we examined how social research with schools serving MA populations has high-
support from family and school networks was linked with lighted significant barriers to parent involvement, showing
parent and teacher ratings of children’s problem and adap- that even with communication skills training, Spanish-
tive behaviors, indirectly through positive parenting, harsh speaking parents struggle with school-based involvement.
parenting, and parent involvement in education. Our model Gonzales and Dumka [27] recommend that beyond language
was partially supported, and only some of the hypothe- issues, scholars should attend to how parent involvement
sized associations were observed. Our main finding, which may be promoted by creating a receptive school climate that
emerged for both MA and DA families, showed a path parents understand how to navigate.
13
10 Child Psychiatry Hum Dev
Parenting and Child Outcomes mothers and a community of parents from a mainstream
school develop, are maintained, and influence the parent-
In considering parenting and child outcomes, we made no ing values and practices of mothers. The ethnic makeup
hypothesis about the association between harsh practices of the school population may be important to consider as
and child functioning. We found that harsh parenting was well. For example, school communities that are made up
associated with less adaptive behavior and more problem of other Spanish-speaking parents may facilitate the inte-
behavior as rated by both mothers (for DA and MA chil- gration of new Latino immigrant parents into school net-
dren) and teachers (for MA children only). It is important works, providing invaluable social support and influencing
to note that all mothers, whether MA or DA, reported high the ways in which new parents engage in school-based par-
levels of positive parenting and low levels of harsh parent- ent involvement practices [44]. In the present study, families
ing (with DA mothers reporting modestly but significantly were drawn from schools that ranged from approximately
higher levels of positive parenting). Much scholarly discus- 20 % Latino to nearly 100 % Latino, and it is likely that the
sion has centered around the use of harsh practices among ethnicity of parents in the school network is important in
Latino parents, as past studies have indicated that physical the study of social support [44]. It will also be important
punishment is culturally-normative [45] and possibly unre- for future studies to examine a more comprehensive model
lated to Latino child outcomes [6, 67]. The present study of social support that includes correlates of social support
findings suggest that while harsh practices such as spank- from different sources and the mechanisms by which sup-
ing may be acceptable, they nonetheless appear to be used port influences parenting. Finally, the present study findings
infrequently with 4–5 year old children. Our findings further may be specific to Mexican- and Dominican-origin families
suggest that, despite their infrequent use, harsh practices are during the first years of schooling (i.e., pre-k and kindergar-
associated with poor outcomes among young Latino chil- ten) and should not be generalized to other ethnic groups or
dren. More research using longitudinal study designs is child ages without further study.
needed to test the direction of these associations. Despite these notable limitations, the present study used
In addition, our hypothesis that school-based parent a large sample, attended to ethnic group differences, and
involvement would be associated with positive child func- included both mother and teacher report to examine social
tioning was only partially supported. Parent involvement support among mothers as a protective factor for the devel-
was not related to MA child outcomes at all and was differ- opment of young children. Support, specifically from fam-
entially related to DA child outcomes depending on context. ily networks, does appear to be related to positive parenting
Specifically, school-based parent involvement was associ- and positive child outcomes. Importantly, this association
ated with more adaptive behavior at school but with less was seen even for MA mothers whose support may have
adaptive behavior at home. A positive association between come primarily from family members who remained in
school-based parent involvement and child functioning Mexico (i.e., via social media). Though causality cannot be
has been found in past studies, as mothers who are more inferred, these findings underscore the importance of main-
engaged with their child’s teacher may be best able to sup- taining family ties and suggests that interventions would be
port their child’s success in the classroom [36]. The nega- strengthened by recognizing the role of extended family and
tive association between school-based parent involvement perhaps even by encouraging the participation of extended
and child functioning at home was unexpected, but it may family [31, 57]. Though attention to the potential costs that
be that mothers who are concerned about their child (e.g., are associated with high levels of family involvement and
in terms of low adaptability, difficulty making friends) are obligation is warranted [13], familial support appears to
more likely to engage and communicate with school staff be an important factor for Latino families and one that can
in an attempt to address these concerns. Again, longitudinal potentially mitigate the risks associated with socioeconomic
data are needed to examine how child characteristics influ- disadvantage (e.g., living in poverty; minority status).
ence parenting and vice versa.
The reliance on cross-sectional data in the present study The role of social support in diminishing the stress related
was one major limitation. Longitudinal data is needed to to parenting may be especially important for immigrant
examine causality and also to examine change over time in families who must deal with the stress of adapting to a new
social support and parenting. For example, it may be that culture without the adequate amount of economic resources
the effects of social support from the school community are [18, 40]. Despite evidence showing that social support is an
not immediate but develop over time. Studies are needed important protective factor, little is known about the role
to examine how relationships between immigrant Latina of social support in parenting and child development in
13
Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 11
Latino families [3]. Considering the importance that Lati- 4. Becerra RM (1988) The Mexican American family. Ethnic Fam
Am Patterns Variations 141–159
nos give to the family unit [48], the first aim of our study 5. Belsky, J. (1984). The determinants of parenting: a process
was to describe the level of perceived support that Latina model. Child Dev 55(1), 83–96. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.
mothers receive from the school community and from fam- org/stable/1129836
ily networks. In addition, we focused on examining social 6. Berlin LJ, Ispa JM, Fine MA, Malone PS, Brooks-Gunn J, Brady-
Smith C et al (2009) Correlates and consequences of spanking
support as a protective factor for the early childhood func- and verbal punishment for low-income White, African American,
tioning of children, mediated by parenting practices. In and Mexican American toddlers. Child Dev 80(5):1403–1420.
examining parenting practices, we consider the respective doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01341.x
roles of positive relative to harsh parenting on Latino child 7. Berzenski SR, Yates TM (2013) Preschoolers’ emotion knowl-
edge and the differential effects of harsh punishment. J Fam Psy-
functioning, an issue that is debated in the literature [34, chol 27(3):463–472. doi:10.1037/a0032910
39]. Six hundred and ten Mexican and Dominican Ameri- 8. Brewis AA, Piñeda D (2001) Population variation in children’s
can families participated in our study. Results showed that behavioral. Am J Phys Anthropol, 114:54–60
familial support was higher for both ethnic groups than 9. Bronfenbrenner U, Crouter AC (1983) The evolution of environ-
mental models in developmental research. In: Mussen P (ed) The
support received from school community. Dominican handbook of child psychology. Wiley, New York
mothers reported higher levels of family support than Mex- 10. Burchinal MR, Follmer A, Bryant DM (1996) The relations
ican mothers, but the groups were not different in the level of maternal social support and family structure with mater-
of perceived support from the school community. We also nal responsiveness and child outcomes among African Ameri-
can families. Dev Psychol 32(6):1073–1083. doi:10.1037//
found some evidence of the protective effect of social sup- 0012-1649.32.6.1073
port on children´s functioning, indirectly through parent- 11. Calzada E, Barajas-Gonzalez RG, Huang KY, Brotman L (2015)
ing. For both ethnic groups, familial support was associated Early childhood internalizing problems in Mexican- and Domin-
with child functioning, indirectly through positive parent- ican-origin children: the role of cultural socialization and parent-
ing practices. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. doi:10.1080/153744
ing practices. Although support from the school community 16.2015.1041593
was associated with less frequent use of harsh practices, it 12. Calzada EJ, Eyberg SM (2002) Self-reported parenting prac-
did not show significant association with child behavior. tices in Dominican and Puerto Rican mothers of young
Notably, mothers reported high levels of positive parent- children. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 31(3):354–363.
doi:10.1207/153744202760082612
ing and low levels of harsh parenting practices. In addi- 13. Calzada EJ, Tamis-LeMonda CS, Yoshikawa H (2012) Familismo
tion, harsh parenting was related to less adaptive behavior in Mexican and Dominican families from low-income urban
and more problem behavior for both ethnic groups. Finally, communities. J Fam Issues 34(12):1696–1724. doi:10.1177/019
mothers showed a modest level of involvement in school- 2513X12460218
14. Casagrande Silva AP, Loureiro SR (2014) Analysis of stud-
based activities, which was associated with outcomes ies on social support and children of depressed moth-
among Dominican but not Mexican children. Overall, our ers: a systematic review. Paideía 24(59):397–405.
study provides some evidence that familial support is an doi:10.1590/1982-43272459201414
important factor for Latino families that may promote early 15. Castillo LG, Conoley CW, Brossart DF (2004) Acculturation,
White marginalization, and family support as predictors of per-
childhood development. ceived distress in Mexican American female college students. J
Couns Psychol 51:151–157
Acknowledgments This research was supported in part by an R01 16. Cauce AM, Domenech-Rodriguez M (2002) Latino families:
(R01 H D066122-01) to the last author and by an Alicia Koplowitz Myths and realities. In: Contreras JM, Kerns KA, Neal-Barnett
Foundation grant to the first author. The authors wish to thank the col- AM (eds) Latinos children and families in the United States:
laborating school sites, the participant families, and the research staff Current research and future directions. Praeger, Westport, CT,
who made this work possible. pp 3–25
17. Ceballo R, Kennedy TM, Bregman A, Epstein-Ngo Q (2012)
Always aware (Siempre pendiente): latina mothers’ parent-
ing in high-risk neighborhoods. J Fam Psychol 26(5):805–815.
References doi:10.1037/a0029584
18. Ceballo R, McLoyd VC (2002). Social support and parenting in
1. Barker ED, Maughan B (2009) Differentiating early-onset per- poor, dangerous neighborhoods. Child Dev 73(4):1310–1321.
sistent versus childhood- limited conduct problem youth. Am J Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12146749
Psychiatry 166(8):900–908 19. Chavkin NF, Gonzalez DL (1995) Forging partnerships between
2. Barnett MA (2012) Extended family support networks of Mexi- Mexican American parents and the schools. West Virginia: ERIC
can American mothers of toddlers. National Center for Family Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools
& Marriage Research. Retrieved from https://www.bgsu.edu/ 20. Contreras JM, Lopez IR, Rivera-Mosquera ET, Raymond-Smith
content/dam/BGSU/collegeof-arts-and-sciences/NCFMR/docu- L, Rothstein K (1999) Social support and adjustment among
ments/WP/WP-12-07.pdf Puerto Rican adolescent mothers: the moderating effect of accul-
3. Barnett MA, Mortensen JA, Tilley EH, Gonzalez H (2013) Global turation. J Fam Psychol 13:228–243
and parenting-specific social support as protective factors for the 21. Domenech Rodríguez MM, Donovick MR, Crowley SL (2009)
well-being of Mexican American mothers of toddlers. Fam Sci Parenting styles in a cultural context: observations of “protective
4(1):98–109. doi:10.1080/19424620.2013.807294
13
12 Child Psychiatry Hum Dev
parenting” in first-generation Latinos. Fam Process 48:195–210. mother-toddler relationship outcomes: variations across low-
doi:10.1111/j.1545-5300.2009.01277.x income ethnic and acculturation groups. Child Dev 75(6):1613–
22. Domina T (2005) Leveling the home advantage: Assessing the 1631. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00806.x
effectiveness of parental involvement in elementary school. 40. Izzo C, Weiss L, Shanahan T, Rodriguez-Brown F (2000) Paren-
Sociol Educ 78(3):233–249. doi:10.1177/003804070507800303 tal self-efficacy and social support as predictors of parenting
23. Flores-Yeffal N, Aysa-Lastra M (2011) Place of origin, types practices and children’s socioemotional adjustment in Mexican
of ties, and support networks in Mexico–U.S. Migration. Rural immigrant families. J Prev Interv Commun 20(1–2):197–213.
Sociol 76(4):481–510. doi:10.1111/j.1549-0831.2011.00060.x doi:10.1300/J005v20n01
24. Fracasso MP, Busch-Rossnagel NA, Fisher CB (1994) The rela- 41. Jackson M (2002) The role of the host culture as a resource for
tionship of maternal behavior and acculturation to the quality of developing intercultural understanding in a Dutch international
attachment in Hispanic infants living in New York City. Hispanic secondary school. J Res Int Educ 4:193–209
J Behav Sci 16:143–154 42. Khaleque A, Rohner RP (2012) Pancultural associations
25. Gee CB, Rhodes JE (2007) A social support and social strain between perceived parental acceptance and psychological
measure for minority adolescent mothers: a confirmatory adjustment of children and adults: a meta-analytic review of
factor analytic study. Child Care Health Dev 34(1):87–97. worldwide research. J Cross Cult Psychol 43(5):784–800.
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2214.2007.00754.x doi:10.1177/0022022111406120
26. Ghazarian SR, Roche KM (2010) Social support and low- 43. Knight GP, Virdin LM, Rwsa M (1994) Socialization and fam-
income, urban mothers: longitudinal associations with adolescent ily correlates of mental health outcomes among H ispanic and
delinquency. J Youth Adolesc 39(9):1097–1108. doi:10.1007/ European American children: consideration of cross-ethnic scalar
s10964-010-9544-3 equivalence. Child Dev 65:212–224
27. Gonzales NA, Dumka LE (2004) Preventing poor mental health 44. Klugman J, Lee JC, Nelson SL (2012) School co-ethnicity and
and school dropout of Mexican American adolescents following Hispanic parental involvement. Soc Sci Res 41(5):1320–1337.
the transition to junior high school. J Adolesc Res 19(1):113–131. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2012.05.005
doi:10.1177/0743558403258124 45. Lansford JE, Dodge KA, Malone PS, Bacchini D, Zelli A,
28. Good ME, Masewicz S, Vogel L (2010) Latino English language Chaudhary N et al (2005) Cultural normativeness physical dis-
learners: bridging achievement and cultural gaps between schools cipline and children’s adjustment as a moderator. Child Dev
and families. J Latinos Educ 9(4):321–339. doi:10.1080/1534843 76(6):1234–1246
1.2010.491048 46. Leidy MS, Guerra NG, Toro RI (2012) Positive parent-
29. Green BL, Furrer C, McAllister C (2007) How do relationships ing, family cohesion, and child social competence among
support parenting? Effects of attachment style and social support immigrant Latino families. J Latina/o Psychol 1(S):3–13.
on parenting behavior in an at-risk population. Am J Commun doi:10.1037/2168-1678.1.S.3
Psychol 40(1–2):96–108. doi:10.1007/s10464-007-9127-y 47. Llagas C, Snyder TD (2003) Status and trends in the education of
30. Grolnick W, Slowiaczek M (1994) Parents’ involvement in chil- Hispanics. Retrieved from http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=ie
dren’s schooling: a multidimensional conceptualization and moti- n.35556031991987;view=1up;seq=2
vational model. Child Dev 65:237–252 48. Lugo Steidel A, Contreras J (2003) A new familism scale for use
31. Harrison AO, Wilson MN, Pine CJ, Chan SQ et al (1990) Fam- with Latino populations. Hispanic J Behav Sci 25:312–330
ily ecologies of ethnic minority children development. Child Dev 49. Martinez CR, DeGarmo DS, Eddy JM (2004) Promoting aca-
61(2):347–362 demic success among Latino youths. H ispanic J Behav Sci
32. Haxton CL, Harknett K (2009) Racial and gender differences in 26(2):128–151
kin support: a mixed-methods study of African American and 50. McConnel D, Breitkreuz R, Savage A (2010) From financial
Hispanic couples. J Fam Issues 30:1019–1040 hardship to child difficulties: main and moderating effects of
33. H eberle AE, Krill SC, Briggs-gowan MJ, Carter AS, H eberle perceived social support. Child Care Health Dev 37(5):679–691.
AE, Krill SC et al (2015) Predicting externalizing and internal- doi:10.1111/j.1365-2214.2010.01185.x
izing behavior in kindergarten: examining the buffering role of 51. McKay MM, Atkins MS, Hawkins T, Brown C, Lynn CJ (2003)
early social support predicting. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol Inner-city African American parental involvement in children’s
44(4):640–654. doi:10.1080/15374416.2014.886254 schooling: racial socialization and social support from the parent
34. H ill NE, Bush KR, Roosa MW (2003) Parenting and family community. Am J Commun Psychol 32(1/2):107–114. doi:10.102
socialization strategies and children’s mental health: Low-income 3/A:1025655109283
Mexican–American and Euro-American mothers and children. 52. McLoyd VC, Smith J (2002) Physical discipline and behavior
Child Dev 74(1):189–204. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.t01-1-00530 problems in African American, European American, and H is-
35. Horvat EM, Weininger EB, Lareau A (2003) From social ties to panic children: emotional support as a moderator. J Marriage Fam
social capital: Class differences in the relations between schools 64(1):40–53
and parent networks. Am Educ Res J 40(2):319–351 53. Mickelson KD, Demmings JL (2009) The impact of support
36. Hughes J, Kwok OM (2007) Influence of student–teacher and network substitution on low-income women’s health: are minor
parent-teacher relationships on lower achieving readers’ engage- children beneficial substitutes? Soc Sci Med 68(1):80–88.
ment and achievement in the primary grades. J Educ Psychol doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.09.057
99(1):39–51. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.99.1.39 54. Mulvaney-Day NE, Alegría M, Sribney W (2007) Social
37. Huntsinger CS, Jose PE (2009) Parental involvement in children’s cohesion, social support, and health among Latinos in the
schooling: different meanings in different cultures. Early Child- United States. Soc Sci Med 64(2):477–495. doi:10.1016/j.
hood Res Q 24(4):398–410. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2009.07.006 socscimed.2006.08.030
38. Huss-Keeler RL (1997) Teacher perception of ethnic and linguis- 55. Muthén LK, Muthén BO (2010) Mplus user’s guide: statistical
tic minority parental involvement and its relationships to chil- analysis with latent variables: user’s guide. Authors, Los Angeles,
dren’s language and literacy learning: a case study. Teach Teach CA
Educ 13(2):171–182. doi:10.1016/S0742-051X(96)00018-2 56. Muthén BO, Satorra A (1995) Complex sample data in structural
39. Ispa JM, Fine MA, Halgunseth LC, Harper S, Robinson J, Boyce equation modeling. Sociol Methodol 25:267–316. Retrieved from
L et al (2004) Maternal intrusiveness, maternal warmth, and http://www.jstor.org/stable/271070 doi:10.2307/271070
13
Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 13
57. Niska KJ (1999) Mexican American family processes: nurtur- 71. Trumbull E, Rothstein-Fisch C, Greenfield PM, Quiroz B (2001)
ing, support, and socialization. Nurs Sci Q 12(2):138–142. Bridging cultures between home and schools: a guide for teach-
doi:10.1177/08943189922106792 ers. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahway, NJ
58. Prelow HM, Weaver SR, Bowman MA, Swenson RR (2010) Pre- 72. U.S. Census Bureau (2008) Current population survey/annual
dictors of parenting among economically disadvantaged Latina social and economic (ASEC) supplement. (Table PINC-03:
mothers: mediating and moderating factors. J Commun Psychol educational attainment—People 25 years old and over, by total
38(7):858–873. doi:10.1002/jcop.20400 money earnings in 2007, work experience in 2007, age, race, His-
59. Repetti RL, Taylor SE, Seeman TE (2002) Risky fami- panic origin, and sex). Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/cps
lies: family social environments and the mental and physi- 73. Valenzuela A (1999) Subtractive schooling: U.S.-Mexican youth
cal health of offspring. Psychol Bull 128(2):330–366. and the politics of caring. SUNY Press, NY
doi:10.1037//0033-2909.128.2.330 74. Valle R, Vega W (eds) (1980) Hispanic natural support systems:
60. Reynolds CR, Kamphaus RW (2004) BASC-2 behavior assess- mental health promotion perspectives. Department of Mental
ment system for children manual, 2nd edn. American Guidance Health, California
Service, Inc. Circle Pines, MN 75. Vega WA, Kolody B, Valle JR (1987) Migration and mental
61. Rivera FI, Guarnaccia P, Mulvaney-Day N, Lin J, Torres M, health†¯: an empirical test of depression risk factors among
Alegria M (2008) Family cohesion and its relationship to psy- immigrant Mexican women. Int Migr Rev 21(3):512–530
chological distress among Latino groups. Hispanic J Behav Sci 76. Vega W, Kolody B, Valle R, Weir J (1991) Social networks, social
30:357–378 support, and their relationship to depression among immigrant
62. Robinson CC, Mandleco B, Frost Olsen S, H art CH (1995) Mexican women. Human Org 50(2):154–162
Authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive parenting practices: 77. Villanueva I (1996) Change in the educational life of Chicano
development of a new measure. Psychol Rep 77:819–830 families across three generations. Educ Urban Soc 29(1):13–34
63. Rodriguez N, Mira CB, Myers HF, Morris JK, Cardoza D (2003) 78. Webster-Stratton C (1998) Preventing conduct problems in head
Family or friends: Who plays a greater supportive role for Latino start children: strengthening parenting competencies. J Consult
college students?. Cult Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol 9(3):236– Clin Psychol 66(5):715–730. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.66.5.715
250. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.9.3.236 79. Webster-Stratton C, Reid MJ, H ammond M (2001) Preventing
64. Rodriguez N, Mira CB, Paez ND, Myers HF (2007) Exploring the conduct problems, promoting social competence: a parent and
complexities of familism and acculturation: central constructs for teacher training partnership in head start. J Clin Child Psychol
people of Mexican origin. Am J Commun Psychol 39(1–2):61– 30(3):283–302. doi:10.1207/S15374424JCCP3003_2
77. doi:10.1007/s10464-007-9090-7 80. Weiss SJ, Goebel P, Page A, Wilson P, Warda M (1999). The
65. Roosa M, Tein J, Groppenbacher N, Michaels M, Dumka L (1993) impact of cultural and familial context on behavioral and emo-
Mothers’ parenting behavior and child mental health in families tional problems of preschool Latino children. Child Psychiatr
with a problem drinking parent. J Marriage Fam 55(1):107–118. Human Deve 29(4):287–301. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.
Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/352962 nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10422353
66. Sarason IG, Sarason BR, Pierce GR (1990) Social support: the 81. Wilson MN, Tolson TFJ (1990) Familial support in the Black
search for theory. J Soc Clin Psychol 9(1):133–147. doi:10.1521/ community. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 19(4):347–355.
jscp.1990.9.1.133 doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp1904
67. Slade EP, Wissow LS (2004) Spanking in early childhood and 82. Yoshikawa H (2011). Immigrants raising citizens: undocumented
later behavior problems: a prospective study of infants and parents and their children. Russell Sage Foundation, New York
young toddlers. Pediatrics 113(5):1321–1330. doi:10.1542/ 83. Zambrana R, Silva-Palacios V, Powell D (1992) Parenting con-
peds.113.5.1321 cerns, family support systems, and life problems in Mexican-origin
68. Slykerman RF, Thompson JMD, Pryor JE, Becroft DMO, Robin- women: a comparison by nativity. J Commun Psychol 20:276–288.
son E, Clark PM et al (2005) Maternal stress, social support and Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/1520-
preschool children’s intelligence. Early Hum Dev 81(10):815– 6629(199210)20:4<276::AID-JCOP2290200403>3.0.CO;2-8/
821. doi:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2005.05.005 abstract
69. Soediono B (1989) Main content area measures of perceived social 84. Zimet GD, Dahlem NW, Zimet SG, Farley GK (1988) The mul-
support from friends and from family: three validation studies. J tidimensional scale of perceived social support. J Pers Assess
Chem Inf Model 53:160. doi:10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004 52(1):30–41
70. Tan ET, Goldberg WA (2009) Parental school involvement in
relation to children’s grades and adaptation to school. J Appl Dev
Psychol 30(4):442–453. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2008.12.023
13
Discusión
A pesar de tener en común el uso del español, muchos son los autores que
reivindican una identidad cultural diferenciada para cada país latinoamericano,
atendiendo a las diferencias culturales e históricas (Rosado & Elias, 1993; Vega, 1990).
De la misma manera que no sería fiable que un estudio realizado con muestra rumana o
alemana, generalizara sus conclusiones a toda la población europea atendiendo a las
similitudes culturales comunes a todos los países pertenecientes a esta comunidad, no
60
Discusión
En nuestro estudio encontramos que el nivel de apoyo familiar era elevado tanto
para los dominicanos como para los mexicanos. Estos resultados están en consonancia
con otros estudios que resaltan la importancia de la familia (familismo) en grupos de
cultura latina (Calzada et al., 2012). Los hallazgos obtenidos muestran un nivel
significativamente más alto de apoyo familiar percibido por las madres dominicanas en
comparación con las mexicanas, lo que puede tener que ver con las características
demográficas previamente mencionadas. Los dominicanos llevan más años establecidos
en la ciudad de NY y tienden a buscar la cercanía ubicándose en un mismo barrio y
conformando algunos de los llamados enclaves étnicos de la ciudad (Yoshikawa, 2011).
Esto sin duda facilita la configuración de una red familiar y social proveedora además de
recibir el necesario apoyo emocional e instrumental.
El flujo migratorio de los mexicanos es sin embargo mucho más reciente, lo cual
tiene unas claras implicaciones a la hora de considerar el apoyo familiar y social del que
puede disponer esta minoría. Algunos autores señalan que al principio del flujo
migratorio, los inmigrantes suelen agruparse junto a otros en pisos compartidos en el país
de acogida, y solamente transcurrido un tiempo hacen llegar a sus familiares para
instalarse junto a ellos (Flores-Yeffal & Aysa-Lastra, 2011). Mientras tanto, los
inmigrantes suelen mantener un contacto con la familia de origen a través del teléfono y
de las nuevas comunicaciones (Barnett, 2012) lo que podría limitar el alcance que dicho
apoyo familiar podría tener sobre el inmigrante. Esta situación podría quizá explicar el
menor nivel de apoyo familiar percibido por los mexicanos.
61
Discusión
El efecto que el apoyo social recibido por los padres puede tener en el desarrollo
emocional y conductual de los niños no ha sido suficientemente investigado en población
inmigrante de origen latino (Barnett et al., 2013). Como ya se ha mencionado
previamente, este hecho resulta llamativo por dos motivos: por un lado, estas familias
sufren una especial situación de dificultad económica y social y, por otro lado, la literatura
empírica ha demostrado el claro efecto protector que el apoyo social ejerce a nivel
general. Por estos motivos, podría estar especialmente indicado el estudio del efecto
protector que el apoyo social experimentado por los padres podría ejercer sobre el
desarrollo mental de los niños latinos.
62
Discusión
Tanto para familias mexicanas como dominicanas, nuestro estudio confirmó que
el nivel de apoyo familiar estaba asociado con un mejor funcionamiento adaptativo en el
hogar, gracias al estilo parental positivo mantenido por los padres. El motivo por el que
este efecto se encuentra en ambos grupos puede ser debido a diversas explicaciones. Por
ejemplo, considerando previos estudios, pudiera ser que el apoyo familiar funcionara
como un amortiguador del estrés que estas familias con limitados recursos económicos
experimentan cada día durante la crianza de los niños (Belsky, 1984; Rodriguez et al.,
2007). Esta disminución de estrés experimentada por los padres podría incrementar el
bienestar psicológico de éstos y su sentimientos de seguridad y autoeficacia parental, lo
que conllevaría un menor uso de técnicas coercitivas y un estilo parental más positivo
(Heberle et al., 2015; Izzo et al., 2000; McConnel et al., 2010; Prelow et al., 2010). De
esta manera, este bienestar y funcionamiento parental conllevaría una mayor disposición
para estar con los hijos, una mejor relación con ellos y, en definitiva, una mejor salud
mental que se vería reflejada en un mejor funcionamiento conductual y socioemocional
de los niños tanto en el hogar como en el centro escolar (Burchinal et al., 1996).
Teniendo en cuenta los claros efectos negativos que el uso de técnicas coercitivas
tiene en el funcionamiento de los niños mexicanos y dominicanos, habría que seguir
explorando qué tipo de apoyo se puede ofrecer a las madres desde la comunidad educativa
con el fin de disminuir el uso de este tipo de técnicas culturalmente aceptadas en su
contexto sociocultural (Fracasso et al., 1994). Además conviene resaltar que, por un lado
el uso de técnicas coercitivas es significativamente más alto en las madres mexicanas que
las dominicanas y, por otro lado se observa también que las habilidades adaptativas de
los niños MA son significativamente menores que la de los DA, por lo que estas madres
(e indirectamente sus hijos) son quizá las que más necesitan recibir este tipo de apoyos,
las que más solas se encuentran (menor nivel de apoyo familiar) y las que más difícil lo
tienen para recibirlos (barrera lingüística).
64
Discusión
Se esperaba también encontrar una asociación entre el apoyo social recibido por
parte de otros padres de la comunidad educativa y la involucración de los padres en las
actividades escolares de los hijos. Sin embargo, los resultados obtenidos no apoyaron
nuestra hipótesis inicial. Los niveles de involucración en ambos grupos fueron medio-
bajos, lo que es claramente congruente con los hallazgos obtenidos por estudios previos
con población inmigrante (Klugman et al., 2012; Leidy et al., 2012). Además, como
resultaba esperable dado el menor nivel de aculturación y dominio de inglés, la
involucración es ligeramente más baja en el subgrupo mexicano.
Este bajo nivel de involucración observado en ambos grupos pudiera ser debido a
la distancia cultural que los padres inmigrantes perciben respecto a los centros escolares,
lo que tiene como consecuencia que apenas participen en reuniones y otras actividades
propuestas por los centros (Klugman et al., 2012). Además, suele haber una disparidad
entre los sistemas educativos norteamericanos y los mexicanos y dominicanos, lo que
puede aumentar la sensación de los padres de estar ante un sistema cultural
profundamente distinto al suyo que, unido a las dificultades idiomáticas, puede
desembocar en la presentación de una actitud evitativa de los padres ante la comunidad
educativa.
En el estudio realizado, se eligió el apoyo social recibido por otros padres también
como medida del apoyo social recibido por la comunidad educativa. Sin embargo, quizá
este contacto con otros padres es insuficiente de cara a solventar la barrera cultural con el
centro escolar y es necesario aumentar además la involucración de los profesores de cara
a disminuir la dificultad lingüística y cultural. De esta manera, los profesores podrán
hacer de enlace entre el ámbito familiar y escolar y orientar a los padres sobre cómo
pueden estar más presentes en la vida comunitaria escolar así como en el seguimiento de
las actividades escolares de sus hijos (Gonzales, Dumka, Deardoff, Carter, & McCray,
2004).
65
Discusión
Una vez más, estos resultados podrían interpretarse de acuerdo a las diferencias
demográficas y culturales ya observadas en ambos grupos. Las madres mexicanas viven
en una situación de mayor dificultad económica, laboral, familiar e idiomática, lo que
podría resultar en un nivel de estrés mayor y, por tanto, en el desempeño de una
parentalidad más coercitiva y menos cálida. En contraste, las madres dominicanas,
además de tener un mayor nivel de apoyo familiar y una mejor situación socioeconómica,
tienen un mejor dominio del inglés. Esto puede conllevar un mayor contacto con la
población norteamericana y, en consecuencia, una mayor exposición a otros modelos de
crianza y parentalidad que podrían desembocar en una asimilación de ciertas pautas
parentales. Por último, hay que mencionar también que, según refirieron los profesores,
los niveles de involucración de las madres en las actividades escolares de los niños fueron
relativamente bajos, sin encontrar diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre ambos
grupos.
Basándonos en previos estudios con población de origen latino (ej. Berlin et al.,
2009; Berzenski & Yates, 2013; McLoyd & Smith, 2002; Slade & Wissow, 2004), en la
presente investigación se formuló la hipótesis de no asociación entre el uso de estrategias
coercitivas por los padres y el funcionamiento de los niños. Sin embargo, los hallazgos
que obtuvimos están en la línea con los obtenidos por otros estudios realizados con
población occidental que relacionaron el uso de prácticas coercitivas con un peor
desarrollo emocional y conductual de los niños (Gershoff, Lansford, Sexton, Davis-Kean,
& Sameroff, 2012; Lansford, Deater-Deckard, Dodge, Bates, & Pettit, 2004). De esta
manera, la hipótesis de la normatividad cultural para el uso de técnicas coercitivas en la
crianza de los hijos no se ve apoyada por los resultados obtenidos en la presente
66
Discusión
investigación. Esta hipótesis defiende que no hay asociación entre las prácticas
coercitivas y el funcionamiento de los niños si en el marco cultural de referencia el uso
de estas prácticas es vivido con normalidad (Lansford et al., 2005).
Por último, se esperaba encontrar que una mayor involucración de los padres en
las actividades escolares de los hijos estaría asociada con un mejor funcionamiento en el
ámbito familiar y escolar. Sin embargo, nuestra hipótesis se vio confirmada únicamente
en parte. Para los mexicanos, no se halló ninguna asociación entre ambas variables. Para
los dominicanos, la dirección de la asociación fue diferente en función del contexto
analizado lo que fue algo inesperado. En el ámbito escolar, una mayor involucración
estuvo asociada a un mejor funcionamiento adaptativo mientras que en el ámbito familiar
las madres más involucradas refirieron un peor funcionamiento adaptativo de sus hijos.
El resultado obtenido en el ámbito escolar está en concordancia con los resultados
aportados en previos estudios que señalan que madres más involucradas y partícipes con
el colegio tienden a apoyar de una manera más adecuada a los niños en sus actividades
escolares (Hughes & Kwok, 2007), lo que impactaría de manera positiva en el
funcionamiento de los niños. Sin embargo, el hecho de que estas mismas madres luego
reportaran un peor funcionamiento de los niños en el hogar fue llamativo. Este hallazgo
podría tener que ver con que madres más involucradas en las actividades escolares serán
también mucho más conscientes de las dificultades académicas de sus hijos ya que
presumiblemente realizarán un seguimiento de las tareas escolares de sus hijos en el
hogar.
67
Discusión
Además, de acuerdo a las experiencias escuchadas durante los grupos para padres,
podría considerarse que el hecho de realizar un mayor seguimiento materno en las
actividades escolares en muchas ocasiones implica una mayor tensión relacional en el
hogar, ya que puede ser objeto de disputa entre padres e hijos. Esto podría justificar una
peor visión sobre el funcionamiento adaptativo de los hijos por parte de los padres (p.ej.,
más discusiones en el hogar por el rechazo de los niños a realizar los deberes junto a sus
padres) y, sin embargo, una visión de mejor funcionamiento adaptativo en el colegio por
parte de los profesores (mayor cumplimiento de las actividades académicas por parte del
estudiante). Sería preciso de nuevo realizar un seguimiento longitudinal de estos niños
para valorar si la dirección de esta asociación se mantiene en el tiempo.
Una vez abordadas las diferencias principales de ambos grupos latinos en cuanto
a características sociodemográficas y funcionamiento familiar, se puede intuir la
importancia de facilitar en la medida de lo posible la integración de los distintos mundos
en los que viven estos menores de origen inmigrante. Por un lado, en el hogar se suelen
encontrar inmersos en un mundo en el que permanecen los valores de la cultura de origen
(p. ej., la religión, el familismo, aficiones deportivas como el soccer, etcétera), se habla
español, y los familiares se relacionan principalmente con miembros del mismo grupo
68
Discusión
69
Discusión
70
Discusión
en el estudio no encontramos tales diferencias por género, quizá debido a que estas
mismas van revelándose a lo largo del tiempo siendo muy difícil de detectar en la primera
infancia.
Hay otros importantes factores que considerar relacionados con las características
contextuales de los lugares en los que se desarrolla el niño tales como los tipos barrio, de
72
Discusión
centros escolares y los mensajes de socialización étnica a los que se ven expuestos los
niños en el ámbito familiar y escolar (García Coll & Marks, 2009). Futuras
investigaciones tendrán que considerar también estas variables para enriquecer el análisis
del estudio del desarrollo de la identidad étnica.
Más allá de los datos aquí presentados, hay una escasez de estudios que analicen
la asociación entre la identidad étnica y la salud mental de los niños pequeños de origen
inmigrante latino. En el estudio presentado se observa no solo cómo niños de 4-5 años
de edad tienen ya un sentido emergente de lo que es tener un origen dominicano o
mexicano sino que, además, parece que este sentido identitario está relacionado con un
mejor funcionamiento socioemocional y conductual tanto en el ámbito familiar como en
el escolar. Sin duda, el interés de esta temática irá en aumento a lo largo de los próximos
años, debido a los grandes flujos migratorios y al difícil encaje que muchas veces estos
suponen en la sociedad de acogida. Es en el interés de todos que los niños de segunda
generación con raíces étnicas y/o raciales distintas puedan sentirse integrados y
respetados en la sociedad de acogida. Una adaptación pobre y el sentimiento de no
sentirse pertenecientes y/o tratados de una manera justa en la sociedad podrá impactar en
la salud mental de los mismos, pudiéndose además incrementar y amplificar a largo plazo
los conflictos sociales.
73
Conclusiones
7. CONCLUSIONES FINALES
74
Conclusiones
75
Limitaciones y futuras líneas de investigación
En relación al estudio realizado sobre la identidad étnica, habrá que evitar también
generalizar las conclusiones obtenidas en la investigación a niños de origen latino que no
se encuentren escolarizados (hecho frecuente en niños de este origen étnico residentes en
la ciudad de NY). El hecho de que los niños que sí participaron en el estudio se
encontraran escolarizados pudo resultar un factor determinante en la emergencia de la
identidad étnica de los niños. Como ya se abordó previamente en la discusión, esta
situación contextual podría favorecer en el niño el planteamiento de ciertas cuestiones
relacionadas con la construcción de su propia identidad. Además, la escala de medida
utilizada para la medición de la identidad étnica contaba con preguntas de elección
76
Limitaciones y futuras líneas de investigación
Sin embargo, a pesar de todas estas limitaciones, los estudios presentados en esta
Memoria contaron con una amplia muestra de latinos de distinto país de origen, lo que
permitió observar ciertas diferencias presentadas en ambos grupos. Además, se
incluyeron como informantes a madres y profesores, proporcionando información sobre
dos de los principales contextos en los que el niño se desarrolla: el ámbito familiar y
77
Limitaciones y futuras líneas de investigación
escolar. Todas las medidas utilizadas en nuestros estudios indican unos niveles de
fiabilidad adecuados. Asimismo, ambos estudios contribuyen en cierta manera a cubrir
una necesidad de la comunidad científica de aumentar el conocimiento sobre el grupo
étnico latino, ya que no hay apenas estudios actuales que aborden la temática de la
emergencia de la identidad étnica en la primera infancia ni sobre el impacto del apoyo
social percibido por los padres en el funcionamiento infantil, a través del efecto mediador
de la parentalidad.
Dado que los latinos constituyen en nuestro país el grupo inmigrante extra-
comunitario más numeroso, resultaría de suma importancia realizar estudios sobre cómo
es la adaptación e integración de estos inmigrantes y cómo se están desarrollando sus
hijos ya nacidos en España. Sin embargo, la literatura científica en nuestro país es escasa
habiendo encontrado pocos estudios que aborden esta temática. Algunos de los estudios
realizados con inmigración latina en nuestro país ponen la voz de alarma sobre la alta
vulnerabilidad social y económica en la que se encuentran muchas familias latinas,
constituyendo un factor claro de riesgo para el desarrollo y el bienestar de los niños
(Alcalde-Campos & Pávez, 2013). Por lo tanto, consideramos que sería interesante poder
reproducir en el futuro aspectos de los estudios presentados en esta Memoria en nuestro
país para aumentar el conocimiento científico al respecto.
78
Bibliografía
BIBLIOGRAFÍA
Alba, R. D., Logan, J. R., & Stults., B. J. (2000). The changing neighbourhood
contexts of the immigrant metropolis. Social Forces, 79(2), 587–621.
Bardis, P. (1959). A familism scale. Marriage and Family Living, 21(4), 340–341.
Barnett, M. A., Mortensen, J. A., Tilley, E. H., & Gonzalez, H. (2013). Global and
parenting-specific social support as protective factors for the well-being of Mexican
American mothers of toddlers. Family Science, 4(1), 98–109.
http://doi.org/10.1080/19424620.2013.807294
Bergad, L. W. (2008). Mexicans in New York City, 2007: An update. New York,
NY, United States: Center for Latin American, Caribbean & Latino Studies. Retrieved
from http://clacls.gc.cuny.edu/files/2013/10/Mexicans-in-New-York-City-2007-An-
Update.pdf
79
Bibliografía
Berlin, L. J., Ispa, J. M., Fine, M. A, Malone, P. S., Brooks-Gunn, J., Brady-Smith,
C., … Bai, Y. (2009). Correlates and consequences of spanking and verbal punishment
for low-income White, African American, and Mexican American toddlers. Child
Development, 80(5), 1403–20. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01341.x
Bernal, M., Knight, G., Garza, C., Ocampo, K., & Cota, M. (1990). The
development of ethnic identity in Mexican-American children. Hispanic Journal of
Behavioral Sciences,12(I), 3–24.
Retrieved from http://hjb.sagepub.com/content/12/1/3.short
Berry, J. W., Kim, U., Power, S., Young, M., & Bujaki, M. (1989). Acculturation
attitudes in plural societies. Applied psychology, 38(2), 185-206. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227813463_Acculturation_Attitudes_in_Plura
l_Societies
Berry, J. W., Phinney, J. S., Sam, D. L., & Vedder, P. (2006). Immigrant Youth:
Acculturation, Identity, and Adaptation. Applied Psychology, 55(3), 303–332.
http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2006.00256.x
Bettes, B. A., Dusenbury, L., Kerner, J., James-Ortiz, S., & Botvin, G. J. (1990).
Ethnicity and psychosocial factors in alcohol and tobacco use in adolescence. Child
Development, 61(2), 557–65.
Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2344790
80
Bibliografía
Bracey, J., Bamaca, M., & Umaña-Taylor, A. (2004). Examining ethnic identity
and self-esteem among biracial and monoracial adolescents. Journal of Youth and
Adolescence, 33(2), 123–132.
Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/B:JOYO.0000013424.93635.68
Breitenstein, S. M., Gross, D., Fogg, L., Ridge, A., Garvey, C., & Julion, W.
(2012). The Chicago Parent Program: Comparing 1-Year outcomes for African American
and Latino parents of young children. Research in Nursing & Health, 35(May), 475–489.
http://doi.org/10.1002/nur.21489
Brotman, L. M., Calzada, E., Huang, K.-Y., Kingston, S., Dawson-McClure, S.,
Kamboukos, D., … Petkova, E. (2011). Promoting effective parenting practices and
preventing child behavior problems in school among ethnically diverse families from
underserved, urban communities. Child Development, 82(1), 258–76.
http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01554.x
Brown, A., & Patten, E. (2013). Hispanics of Mexican origin in the United States,
2011. Washington, DC, Pew Research Center. Retrieved from
http://www.pewhispanic.org/files/2013/06/MexicanFactsheet.pdf
81
Bibliografía
Burchinal, M. R., Follmer, A., & Bryant, D. M. (1996). The relations of maternal
social support and family structure with maternal responsiveness and child outcomes
among African American families. Developmental Psychology, 32(6), 1073–1083.
http://doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.32.6.1073
Calzada, E., Barajas-Gonzalez, R. G., Huang, K.-Y., & Brotman, L. (2015). Early
childhood internalizing problems in Mexican- and Dominican-origin children: The role
of cultural socialization and parenting practices. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent
Psychology, 53, 1-12. doi: 10.1080/15374416.2015.1041593
Campos, B., Ullman, J. B., Aguilera, A., & Dunkel Schetter, C. (2014). Familism
and psychological health: The intervening role of closeness and social support. Cultural
Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 20(2), 191–201.
http://doi.org/10.1037/a0034094
82
Bibliografía
Carlo, G., & de Guzman, M.R.T. (2009). Theories and research on prosocial
competencies among U.S. Latinos/as. In F. A. Villaruel, G. Carlo, J. M. Grau, M. Azmitia,
N. J. Cabrera, & T. J. Chahin (Eds.), Handbook of U.S. Latino psychology:
Developmental and community-based perspectives (pp. 191–211). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage
Ceballo, R., Kennedy, T. M., Bregman, A., & Epstein-Ngo, Q. (2012). Always
aware (Siempre pendiente): Latina mothers' parenting in high-risk
neighborhoods. Journal of family psychology, 26(5), 805. doi: 10.1037/a0029584.
Ceballo, R., Maurizi, L. K., Suarez, G. A, & Aretakis, M. T. (2014). Gift and
sacrifice: Parental involvement in Latino adolescents’ education. Cultural Diversity &
Ethnic Minority Psychology, 20(1), 116–27. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0033472
Ceballo, R., & McLoyd, V. C. (2002). Social support and parenting in poor,
dangerous neighborhoods. Child Development, 73(4), 1310–21. Retrieved from
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12146749
Clark, K. B., & Clark, M. P. (1974). Racial identification and preference in Negro
children. In T. M. Newcomb, & E. L. Hartley (Eds.), Readings in Social Psychology. New
York: Holt.
Coatsworth, J. D., Pantin, H., & Szapocznik, J. (2002). Familias unidas: A family-
centered ecodevelopmental intervention to reduce risk for problem behavior among
Hispanic adolescents. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 5(2), 113–32.
Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12093012
Cohen, S., & Wills, T. A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering
hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 98(2), 310–57. Retrieved from
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3901065
83
Bibliografía
Deater-Deckard, K., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. (1996). Physical
discipline among African American and European American Mothers: Links to children’s
externalizing behaviors. Developmental Psychology, 32(6), 1065–1072.
D’Vera Cohn (2015). Census considers new approach to asking about race – by
not using the term at all. Washington, D.C. United States: Pew Hispanic Center.
Retrieved from http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/06/18/census-considers-
new-approach-to-asking-about-race-by-not-using-the-term-at-all/
D’Vera Cohn (2015). Census considers new approach to asking about race – by
not using the term at all. Washington, D.C. United States: Pew Hispanic Center.
Retrieved from http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/06/18/census-considers-
new-approach-to-asking-about-race-by-not-using-the-term-at-all/
Eaton, D. K., Kann, L., Kinchen, S., Shanklin, S., Flint, J., Hawkins, K. H.,... &
Wechler, H. (2011). Youth risk behavior surveillance-United States, 2011 (Morbidity and
Mortality Weekly Report, 59). Atlanta, United States: Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention.
Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss6104a1.htm
84
Bibliografía
Fatori, D., Bordin, I. A., Curto, B. M., & De Paula, C. S. (2013). Influence of
psychosocial risk factors on the trajectory of mental health problems from childhood to
adolescence: A longitudinal study. BMC Psychiatry, 13(1),1.
Fernández, S. (2013, August 7). Hispanic vs. Latino: what's the difference?
[Web log post].
Retrieved from http://hispanichouston.com/hispanic-vs-latino-whats-the-difference/
Flores-Yeffal, N., & Aysa-Lastra, M. (2011). Place of origin, types of ties, and
support networks in Mexico–U.S. migration. Rural Sociology, 76(4), 481–510.
http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1549-0831.2011.00060.x
Flores, G., Fuentes-Afflick, E., Barbot, O., Carter-Pokras, O., Claudio, L., Lara,
M., . . . Gomez, F. J. R. (2002). The health of latino children: Urgent priorities,
unanswered questions, and a research agenda. Jama, 288(1), 82
Fortuna, L. R., Álvarez, K., Ramos Ortiz, Z., Wang, Y., Mozo Alegría, X., Cook,
B. L., & Alegría, M. (2016). Mental health , migration stressors and suicidal ideation
among Latino immigrants in Spain and the United States. European Psychiatry, 36, 15–
22. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2016.03.001
Fry, R. 2008. Latino Settlement in the New Century. Washington, DC: Pew
Hispanic Center. Retrieved from http:// www.pewhispanic.org/files/reports/96.pdf.
Fuligni, A. J., Witkow, M., & Garcia, C. (2005). Ethnic identity and the academic
adjustment of adolescents from Mexican, Chinese, and European backgrounds.
Developmental Psychology, 41(5), 799–811. http://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.41.5.799
Galster, G., Santiago, A., Stack, L., & Cutsinger, J. (2016). Neighborhood effects
on secondary school performance of Latino and African American youth: Evidence from
a natural experiment in Denver. Journal of Urban Economics, 93, 30–48.
85
Bibliografía
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jue.2016.02.004
Garcia Coll, C., Crnic, K., Lamberty, G., Wasik, B. H., Jenkins, R., Vázquez
Garcia, H., & McAdoo, H. P. (1996). An integrative model for the study of developmental
competencies in minority children. Child Development, 67(5), 1891–1914. Retrieved
from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01834.x/abstract).
Garcia Coll, C., & Marks, A. K. (2009). Immigrant Stories: Ethnicity and
Academics in Middle Childhood. Oxford University Press.
Gee, C. B., & Rhodes, J. E. (2007). A social support and social strain measure for
minority adolescent mothers: A confirmatory factor analytic study. Child: Care, Health
and Development, 34(1), 87–97. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2007.00754.x
Gershoff, E. T., Lansford, J. E., Sexton, H. R., Davis-Kean, P., & Sameroff, A. J.
(2012). Longitudinal links between spanking and children’s externalizing behaviors in a
national sample of White, Black, Hispanic, and Asian American families. Child
Development, 83(3), 838–843. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01732.x
Ghazarian, S. R., & Roche, K. M. (2010). Social support and low-income, urban
mothers: Longitudinal associations with adolescent delinquency. Journal of Youth and
Adolescence, 39(9), 1097–108. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-010-9544-3
Gil, A. G., Wagner, E. F., & Vega, W. A. (2000). Acculturation, familism and
alcohol use among Latino adolescent males: Longitudinal relations. Journal of
Community Psychology, 28(4), 443–458. http://doi.org/10.1002/1520-
6629(200007)28:4<443::aid-jcop6>3.0.co;2-a
Gonzales, N. A., Dumka, L. E., Deardoff, J., Carter, S., & McCray, A. (2004).
Preventing poor mental health and school dropout of Mexican American adolescents
following the transition to Junior High School. Journal of Adolescent Research, 19(1),
113–131. http://doi.org/10.1177/0743558403258124
Good, M. E., Masewicz, S., & Vogel, L. (2010). Latino English language learners:
Bridging achievement and cultural gaps between schools and families. Journal of Latinos
and Education, 9(4), 321–339. http://doi.org/10.1080/15348431.2010.491048
Green, B. L., Furrer, C., & McAllister, C. (2007). How do relationships support
parenting? Effects of attachment style and social support on parenting behavior in an at-
86
Bibliografía
Hashima, P. Y., & Amato, P. R. (1994). Poverty, social support, and parental
behavior. Child Development, 65(2), 394–403. Retrieved from
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8013229
Heberle, A. E., Krill, S. C., Briggs-gowan, M. J., Carter, A. S., Heberle, A. E.,
Krill, S. C., … Carter, A. S. (2015). Predicting externalizing and internalizing behavior
in Kindergarten : Examining the buffering role of early social support. Journal of
Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 44(4), 640–654.
http://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2014.886254
Hernández, B., Ramírez García, J. I., & Flynn, M. (2010). The role of familism in
the relation between parent–child discord and psychological distress among emerging
adults of Mexican descent. Journal of Family Psychology, 24(2), 105–114.
http://doi.org/10.1037/a0019140
Hill, N. E., Bush, K. R., & Roosa, M. W. (2003). Parenting and family
socialization strategies and children’s mental health: Low-income Mexican-American
and Euro-American mothers and children. Child Development, 74(1), 189–204.
http://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.t01-1-00530
Hill, N. E., Castellino, D. R., Lansford, J. E., Nowlin, P., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J.
E. and Pettit, G. S. (2004), Parent academic involvement as related to school behavior,
achievement, and aspirations: Demographic variations across adolescence. Child
87
Bibliografía
Hill, N. E., & Taylor, L. C. (2004). Parental school involvement and children’s
academic achievement. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13(4), 161–164.
http://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00298.x
Hughes, J., & Kwok, O.-M. (2007). Influence of student-teacher and parent-
teacher relationships on lower achieving readers’ engagement and achievement in the
Primary Grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(1), 39–51.
http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.99.1.39
Ispa, J. M., Fine, M. A., Halgunseth, L. C., Harper, S., Robinson, J., Boyce, L., …
Brady-Smith, C. (2004). Maternal intrusiveness, maternal warmth, and mother-toddler
relationship outcomes: Variations across low-income ethnic and acculturation groups.
Child Development, 75(6), 1613–1631. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00806.x
Izzo, C., Weiss, L., Shanahan, T., & Rodriguez-Brown, F. (2000). Parental self-
efficacy and social support as predictors of parenting practices and children’s
socioemotional adjustment in Mexican immigrant families. Journal of Prevention &
Intervention in the Community, 20(1–2), 197–213. http://doi.org/10.1300/J005v20n01
Klugman, J., Lee, J. C., & Nelson, S. L. (2012). School co-ethnicity and Hispanic
parental involvement. Social Science Research, 41(5), 1320–37.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2012.05.005
Knight, G. P., Bernal, M. E., Garza, C. A., Cota, M. K., & Ocampo, K. A. (1993).
Family socialization and the ethnic identity of Mexican-American children. Journal of
Cross-Cultural Psychology, 24(1), 99–114. http://doi.org/10.1177/0022022193241007
88
Bibliografía
Knight, G. P., Virdin, L. M., & Roosa, M. (1994). Socialization and family
correlates of mental health outcomes among Hispanic and Anglo American children:
Consideration of cross-ethnic scalar equivalence. Child Development, 65, 212–224.
Kulis, S. S., Marsiglia, F. F., Kopak, A. M., Olmsted, M. E., & Crossman, A.
(2012). Ethnic identity and substance use among mexican-heritage preadolescents:
Moderator effects of gender and time in the United States. The Journal of Early
Adolescence, 32(2), 165–199. http://doi.org/10.1177/0272431610384484
Kuperminc, G. P., Wilkins, N. J., Jurkovic, G. J., & Perilla, J. L. (2013). Filial
responsibility, perceived fairness, and psychological functioning of Latino youth from
immigrant families. Journal of Family Psychology, 27(2), 173–182.
http://doi.org/10.1037/a0031880
Lansford, J. E., Deater-Deckard, K., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S.
(2004). Ethnic differences in the link between physical discipline and later adolescent
externalizing behaviors. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied
Disciplines, 45(4), 801–812. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00273.x
Lansford, J. E., Dodge, K. A., Malone, P. S., Bacchini, D., Zelli, A., Chaudhary,
N., … Palmerus, K. (2005). Cultural normativeness physical discipline and children’ s
adjustment : As a Moderator. Child Development, 76(6), 1234–1246.
Leidy, M. S., Guerra, N. G., & Toro, R. I. (2012). Positive parenting, family
cohesion, and child social competence among immigrant Latino families. Journal of
Latina/o Psychology, 1(S), 3–13. http://doi.org/10.1037/2168-1678.1.S.3
Leventhal, T., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2000). The neighborhoods they live in: The
89
Bibliografía
Lobo, A.P., & Salvo, J., J., (2013). The Newest New Yorkers: Characteristics of
the City's Foreign-born Population. New York, NY, United States: Office of Immigrant
Affairs. Retrieved from: http://www1.nyc.gov/assets/planning/download/pdf/data-
maps/nyc-population/nny2013/nny_2013.pdf
Logan, J. R., Zhang, W., & Alba, R. D. (2002). Immigrant enclaves and ethnic
communities in New York and Los Angeles. American Sociological Review, 67(2), 299–
322.
Martin, C., & Ruble, D. (2010). Patterns of gender development. Annual Review
of Psychology, 61, 353–381.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100511.Patterns.
McConnel, D., Breitkreuz, R., & Savage, A. (2010). From financial hardship to
child difficulties: Main and moderating effects of perceived social support. Child: Care,
Health and Development, 37(5), 679–691. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-
2214.2010.01185.x
McGee, R., Silva, P. A., & Williams, S. (1984). A twelve-year study follow-up of
a birth cohort. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30,
224–232.
McLoyd, V. C., & Smith, J. (2002). Physical discipline and behavior problems in
African American, European American, and Hispanic children: Emotional support as a
moderator. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 64(1), 40–53.
McMahon, S. D., & Watts, R. J. (2002). Ethnic identity in urban African American
90
Bibliografía
youth: Exploring links with self-worth, aggression, and other psychosocial variables.
Journal of Community Psychology, 30(4), 411–431. http://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.10013
Mulvaney-Day, N. E., Alegría, M., & Sribney, W. (2007). Social cohesion, social
support, and health among Latinos in the United States. Social Science & Medicine, 64(2),
477–495. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2006.08.030
Murphey, D., Guzman, L., & Torres, A. (2014). America's Hispanic children:
Gaining ground, looking forward. Bethesda, M.D., United States: Child Trends.
Retrieved from http://www.childtrends.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/2014-
38AmericaHispanicChildren.pdf
National Women’s Law Center & Mexican American Legal Defense and
Educational Fund (2009). Listening to Latinas: Barriers to High School Graduation.
Washington, D.C.: Retrieved
from http://www.nwlc.org/our-resources/reports_toolkits/listeningto-latinas.
91
Bibliografía
Ocampo, K. A., Bernal, M. E., & Knight, G. P. (1993). Gender race and ethnicity:
The sequencing of social constancies. In M. E. Bernal, & G. P. Knight (Eds.), Ethnic
identity: Formation and transmission among Hispanic and other minorities (pp. 11–30).
Albany: State University New York Press.
Ocampo, K., Knight, G., & Bernal, M. (1997). The development of cognitive
abilities and social identities in children: The case of ethnic identity. International
Journal of Behavioral Development, 21(3), 479–500.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/016502597384758.
Pérez, D. J., Fortuna, L., & Alegría, M. (2008). Prevalence and correlates of
everyday discrimination among U.S. Latinos. Journal of Community Psychology, 36(4),
421–433. http://doi.org/10.1002/jcop
Phinney, J. S. (1992). The multigroup ethnic identity measure: A new scale for
use with diverse groups. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7(2), 156–176.
http://doi.org/10.1177/074355489272003
92
Bibliografía
Phinney, J. S., Romero, I., Nava, M., & Huang, D. (2001). The role of language,
parents, and peers in ethnic identity among adolescents in immigrant families. Journal of
Youth and Adolescence, 30(2), 135–153.
Pong, S.-L., Hao, L. & Gardner, E. (2005). The roles of parenting styles and social
capital in the school performance of immigrant Asian and Hispanic adolescents. Social
Science Quarterly, 86(4), 928–950. doi:10.1111/j.0038-4941.2005.00364.x
93
Bibliografía
Repetti, R. L., Taylor, S. E., & Seeman, T. E. (2002). Risky families: Family social
environments and the mental and physical health of offspring. Psychological Bulletin,
128(2), 330–66. http://doi.org/10.1037//0033-2909.128.2.330
Reyes, J. A., Elias, M. J., Parker, S. J., & Rosenblatt, J. L. (2013). Promoting
educational equity in disadvantaged youth: The role of resilience and social-emotional
learning. In G. Sam & B. Robert B. (Eds.), Handbook of Resilience in Children (pp. 349–
370). Boston, MA: Springer US. http://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3661-4
Rodriguez, N., Mira, C. B., Myers, H. F., Morris, J. K., & Cardoza, D. (2003).
Family or friends: Who plays a greater supportive role for Latino college students?
Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 9(3), 236–250.
http://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.9.3.236
Rodriguez, N., Mira, C. B., Paez, N. D., & Myers, H. F. (2007). Exploring the
complexities of familism and acculturation: Central constructs for people of Mexican
origin. American Journal of Community Psychology, 39(1–2), 61–77.
http://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-007-9090-7
Roosa, M., Tein, J., Groppenbacher, N., Michaels, M., & Dumka, L. (1993).
Mothers’ parenting behavior and child mental health in families with a problem drinking
parent. Journal of Marriage and Family, 55(1), 107–118. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/352962
Rosado, J., & Elias, M. (1993). Ecological and psychocultural mediators in the
delivery of services for urban, culturally diverse Hispanic clients. Professional
Psychology: Research and Practice, 24(4), 450-459. Retrieved from http://0-
search.proquest.com.cisne.sim.ucm.es/docview/614319258?accountid=14514
Ruble, D. N., Alvarez, J., Bachman, M., Cameron, J., Fuligni, A., & Garcia Coll,
C. (2004). The development of a sense of “ we ”: The emergence and implications of
children’ s collective identity. The Development of the Social Self, 29–76.
Ruble, D. N., Taylor, L. J., Cyphers, L., Greulich, F. K., Lurye, L. E., & Shrout,
P. E. (2007). The role of gender constancy in early gender development. Child
94
Bibliografía
Rutland, A., Cameron, L., Bennett, L., & Ferrell, J. (2005). Interracial contact and
racial constancy: A multi-site study of racial intergroup bias in 3–5 year old Anglo-British
children. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 26(6), 699–713.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2005.08.005
Sameroff, A. J., Seifer, R., Baldwin, A., & Baldwin, C. (1993). Stability of
intelligence from preschool to adolescence : The influence of social and family risk
factors. Child Development, 64(1), 80–97.
Sarason, I. G., Sarason, B. R., & Pierce, G. R. (1990). Social support: The search
for theory. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9(1), 133–147.
http://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.1990.9.1.133
Schwartz, S. J., Zamboanga, B. L., & Hernandez Jarvis, L. (2007). Ethnic identity
and acculturation in Hispanic early adolescents: mediated relationships to academic
grades, prosocial behaviors, and externalizing symptoms. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic
Minority Psychology, 13(4), 364–73. http://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.13.4.364
Seifer, R., Sameroff, A. J., Baldwin, C. P., & Baldwin, A. (1992). Child and family
factors that ameliorate riska between 4 and 13 years of age. Journal of the American
95
Bibliografía
Serbin, L. A., & Sprafkin, C. (1986). The salience of gender and the process of
sex-typing in three- to seven-year old children. Child Development, 57, 1188–1199.
Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1130442
Shaw, D. S., Gilliom, M., Ingoldsby, E. M., & Nagin, D. S. (2003). Trajectories
Leading to School-Age Conduct Problems. Developmental Psychology, 39(2), 189–200.
http://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.39.2.189
Slade, E. P., & Wissow, L. S. (2004). Spanking in early childhood and later
behavior problems: A prospective study of infants and young toddlers. Pediatrics, 113(5),
1321–30. http://doi.org/10.1542/peds.113.5.1321
96
Bibliografía
http://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-006-0035-4
South, S. J., Crowder, K., & Chavez, E. (2005). Geographic mobility and spatial
assimilation among US Latino immigrants. International Migration Review, 39(3), 577–
607.
Stuber, J., Galea, S., Ahern, J., Blaney, S., & Fuller, C. (2003). The association
between multiple domains of discrimination and self-assessed health: A multilevel
analysis of Latinos and Blacks in four low-income New York City neighborhoods. Health
Services Research, 38, 1735–1760.
Supple, A. J., Ghazarian, S. R., Frabutt, J. M., Plunkett, S. W., & Sands, T. (2006).
Contextual influences on Latino adolescent ethnic identity and academic outcomes. Child
Development, 77(5), 1427–33. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00945.x
Taylor, P., Lopez, M., Hamar Martínez, J., & Velasco, G. (2012). When labels
don’t fit : Hispanics and their views of identity. Washington, DC: Pew Hispanic Center.
97
Bibliografía
Umaña-Taylor, A., Diversi, M., & Fine, M. (2002). Ethnic identity and self-
esteem of Latino adolescents distinctions among the Latino populations. Journal of
Adolescent Research, 17(3), 303-327. Retrieved from
http://jar.sagepub.com/content/17/3/303.short
98
Bibliografía
Retrieved from
https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/meta/long_RHI725215.htm
Valentine, S., & Mosley, G. (2000). Acculturation and sex-role attitudes among
Mexican Americans: A longitudinal analysis. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral
Sciences, 22(1), 104-113. doi: 10.1177/0739986300221006
Van Oudenhoven, J. P., Ward, C., & Masgoret, A. M. (2006). Patterns of relations
between immigrants and host societies. International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
30(6), 637–651. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2006.09.001
Vega, W. A., Kolody, B., & Valle, J. R. (1987). Migration and mental health: An
empirical test of depression risk factors among immigrant Mexican women. The
International Migration Review, 21(3), 512–530.
Weine, S., Feetham, S., Kulauzovic, Y., Knafl, K., Besic, S., Klebic, A., …
Pavkovic, I. (2006). A family beliefs framework for socially and culturally specific
preventive interventions with refugee youths and families. The American Journal of
Orthopsychiatry, 76(1), 1–9. http://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.76.1.1
Weiss, S. J., Goebel, P., Page, A., Wilson, P., & Warda, M. (1999). The impact of
cultural and familial context on behavioral and emotional problems of preschool Latino
children. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 29(4), 287–301. Retrieved from
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10422353
Wille, N., Bettge, S., Ravens-Sieberer, U., & BELLA Study Group. (2008). Risk
and protective factors for children’s and adolescents’ mental health : results of the
BELLA study. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 17(1), 133–147.
http://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-008-1015-y
Williams, L. S., Alvarez, S. D., & Hauck, K. S. A. (2002). My name is not Maria:
99
Bibliografía
Young Latinas seeking home in the heartland. Social Problems, 49(4), 563–584.
Yoshikawa, H., Aber, J. L., & Beardslee, W. R. (2012). The effects of poverty on
the mental, emotional, and behavioral health of children and youth: Implications for
prevention. American Psychologist, 67(4), 272–284. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0028015
Zambrana, R., Silva-Palacios, V., & Powell, D. (1992). Parenting concerns, family
support systems, and life problems in Mexican‐origin women: A comparison by nativity.
Journal of Community Psychology, 20(October), 276–288. Retrieved from
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/1520-6629(199210)20:4%3C276::AID-
JCOP2290200403%3E3.0.CO;2-8/abstract
100
Anexos
9. ANEXOS
Los talleres para padres estaban centrados en abordar cinco temáticas principales:
la disciplina, la educación, la salud mental, el desarrollo emocional y la biculturalidad.
En función de cada tema, se facilitaba un número determinado de talleres. El objetivo
101
Anexos
102
Anexos
103
Anexos
Educación: 4 talleres
A) Involucración parental: entender por qué y cómo involucrarse en la educación
del niño
- Se comenzaba el taller recogiendo las preguntas e ideas que los padres tenían
sobre este tema. En este taller, se hacía un especial hincapié en explorar las
diferencias culturales que los padres entendían que había entre su país de origen
y EE.UU. El objetivo era que compartieran las dificultades experimentadas a la
hora de involucrarse en actividades relacionadas con el ámbito escolar. De esta
manera, se esperaba también que intercambiaran entre ellos la manera de
afrontarlas.
- A continuación, se invitaba a los padres a que recordaran cómo eran ellos de niños
y en qué medida sus padres se interesaban en lo que realizaban en la escuela para
terminar explorando los sentimientos experimentados al respecto.
- Se introducían las consecuencias positivas que la involucración parental ejercía
sobre el desarrollo académico de los niños. Se definía el concepto y las
dimensiones actitudinales y comportamentales que conlleva el mismo. Se
explicaba la importancia que esta involucración tiene para el niño, para los
profesores, y para facilitar una adecuada integración y adaptación cultural.
- Se presentaban los principales estudios comparativos entre estudiantes de alto y
bajo rendimiento académico, subrayando el importante peso que la involucración
parental ha resultado tener en dichas diferencias.
- Se exploraban con los padres las principales consecuencias que experimentaban
como inmigrantes a la hora de contactar con la escuela: nuevas costumbres,
dificultad idiomática, miedo a la deportación por situación de irregularidad,
sentimientos de incapacidad para ayudar a sus hijos escolarizados en un sistema
distinto al suyo propio, etcétera.
104
Anexos
105
Anexos
106
Anexos
107
Anexos
108
Anexos
Cultura: 1 taller
A) Biculturalidad: cómo ayudar al niño a integrar la cultura familiar y la social
- Se abría un espacio para que los padres compartieran sus creencias sobre lo que
es la “cultura”. A continuación, se definía este concepto utilizando también la
información aportada por los padres.
- Se enfatizaba la importancia de mantener la cultura de origen cuando uno reside
en otro país y de fomentar la biculturalidad en el niño. Se introducen los
conceptos de identidad étnica y biculturalidad a los padres.
- Se presentaban los hallazgos en la literatura científica sobre los efectos positivos
que la identidad étnica y la biculturalidad han demostrado tener sobre el
funcionamiento académico, socioemocional y conductual de los niños.
109
Anexos
Desarrollo infantil
A) Bullying acoso escolar: dirigido para niños de 3º y 5º grado6. Concienciación
de las causas y consecuencias del acoso escolar
- Se abría un espacio para que los niños realizaran una lluvia de ideas sobre el acoso
escolar agrupándolas en las siguientes categorías: físicas, verbales, relacionales y
virtuales. A continuación, se partía de las ideas expresadas por los niños para
ofrecer una definición completa sobre lo que es el acoso escolar enfatizando el
aspecto común a todas las posibles conductas relacionadas con fenómeno: el daño
que se realiza sobre un tercero.
- Se realizaba una actividad práctica con los niños en la que se les dividía en grupos
de 3-4 personas y se les ofrecía distinto material sobre el que trabajar esta
temática.
- Se enfatizaba el aspecto de la responsabilidad compartida: no es solamente
culpable el que acosa, también lo son los testigos que lo consienten sin hacer nada.
6
Equivalente en nuestro país a 3º y 5º de Primaria.
110
Anexos
7
En EE.UU., el sistema educativo se divide en tres etapas principales: Lower School (Pre-K, K y de 1º a
5º grado), Middle School (de 6º a 8º grado) y High School (de 9º a 12º grado). Sexto grado
correspondería en España a 6º de primaria.
111
Anexos
112
Anexos
I certify that the manuscript "Social Support, Parenting, and Social Emotional
Development in Young Mexican and Dominican American Children" has not been used
as part of any doctoral dissertation. As a second author of this manuscript, I authorize
María Serrano Villar to use this work to apply for her doctoral degree.
Respectfully,
113
Anexos
I certify that the manuscripts “Ethnic identity: Evidence of protective effects for young,
Latino children” and "Social support, parenting, and social emotional development in
young Mexican and Dominican American children" have not been used as part of any
114