Modelo de Reaprendizaje
Modelo de Reaprendizaje
Modelo de Reaprendizaje
ESPECIALIZACIÓN Y MAESTRÍA
EN NEUROREHABILITACIÓN
DOCENTE:
Actuales procesos de
Neurorehabilitación
• Todos los procesos de intervención basados en la evidencia Nivel 3: Ensayos clínicos Pseudoaleatorizados
científica posible.
• ECC. Nivel 4: Estudios de series de casos
• Revisiones sistemáticas.
Nivel 5: Opinión de Expertos
Manejo de la Manejo de la
Espasticidad espasticidad
ACTUALES IMPLICACIONES
EVIDENCIA BASADA EN LA
REHABILITACIÓN
REORGANIZACION CEREBRAL
NEUROPLASTICIDAD
ACTIVACIÓN • Muscular
PRACTICA Y REPETICION CONSTANTE
EL ENTORNO DE TRABAJO
PRÁCTICA • Repetición
La reorganización cerebral y la recuperación funcional depende de:
• Contexto físico.
• Los métodos empleados.
• Destreza del fisioterapeuta
CADENAS CINÉTICAS
CINEMÁTICA CINÉTICA
“la fuerza que causa lo que se puede ver”
Desplazamientos articulares Fuerza producida por los músculos o una parte del cuerpo
COMPONENTES ESENCIALES
gravedad Posturas:
CADENA CERRADA Sentada
Sentada en
En contra de la
gravedad
supino
Mas alta
De pie
PARA EN TRENAMIENTO
Cuclillas
En contra de la
Aspectos cinemáticos
gravedad vertical
Excéntrica Movimientos de
transición
CADENA
MODIFICADA En contra de la Requerimientos cinéticos
(Cadena cinética gravedad – horizontal
abierta – Cadena en brazos de palanca
cinética cerrada) cortos
Componente ambiental
En contra de la Múltiples tareas
Metas Personales
gravedad – horizontal
CADENA ABIERTA A rangos más largos A rangos extremos brazos de palanca
(Cadena cinética Concéntrica largos
abierta)
NIVEL DE ENTRENAMIENTO
• Evaluar y reevaluar
Buchner 1996, Bohannon 2007
CÓMO ES EL ENTRENAMIENTO????
Por qué se ve afectada la
El objetivo principal de la Fisioterapia en la Rehabilitación fuerza muscular???
Neurológica es la optimización del Rendimiento funcional.
PRINCIPALES PROBLEMAS:
• Debilidad muscular
• Parálisis
• Contracturas
• Falta de Resistencia
• Desacondicionamiento
Muy débiles
LA EVIDENCIA
CONTEXTO
REAL
Exercise and Training to Optimize Functional Motor
Performance in Stroke: Driving Neural Reorganization?
Roberta B. Shepherd
Medical Research Council Carr, J.H., Shepherd, R.B., Nordholm, L., &
Lynne, D. (1985) Investigation of a new Motor
Dinamometría
Assessment Scale for stroke patients. Physical
TRABAJO EN GRUPO
http://www.24point0.com/top-PowerPoint/10-presentation-styles.php
http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&v=RksN94KALgU
Ganancias en la fuerza de torque
FAY B. HORAK
Age and Ageing 2006; 35-S2: ii7–ii11 Componente
Biomecánico
Grados de libertad
Fuerza muscular
Límites de la
Estabilidad
ESTRATEGIAS
PROCESO DE
COGNITIVO MOVIMIENTO
Atención Reactivo
Aprendizaje Anticipatorio
Voluntario
CONTROL
POSTURAL
CONTROL
DINAMICO ESTRATEGIAS
Marcha SENSORIALES
Pro acción
ORIENTACION EN
EL ESPACIO
Percepción
Gravedad, superficie,
visión
https://www.physiotherapyexercises.com/
Centro de masa
Base de soporte
AJUSTES POSTURALES:
Componentes esenciales:
BALANCE
Contexto específico
Modificación de tareas
Con soporte Adaptaciones del tono
Acción muscular
Sin soporte APAS (Ajustes posturales
anticipatorios)
BALANCE
Entrenamiento de sentarse y
pararse
La secuencia de la
transferencia a bípedo necesita
alineación fuerza
?
Rango y patrones de movimiento Control postural
Análisis de la marcha
Preguntas??????
CINEMÁTICA
OBSERVACIÓN
CINÉTICA
Optimising motor per for mance following br ain impair ment
La observación del
Proceso depende de la
tarea
Dos fases…
ALCANCE:
Pre-shaping
• Proceso de anticipación
• Posición de la mano y de los dedos
Transporte
• Meta de alcance: mínimo desplazamiento del tronco
• Antes del alcanzar la meta: Movimiento de brazo, mano y hombro
AGARRE:
mano ya en el objeto
Contracciones Musculares
EJEMPLOS DE ENTRENAMIENTOS
Concéntricas Excéntricas
Otras estrategias de
trabajo
Bilateral
CIMT
Training
Electroterapia
REAPRENDIZAJE MOTOR
Annie McCluskey
http://sydney.edu.au/health_sciences/physiotherapy/publications/carr_j.shtml
Libertad en la práctica
independiente
Autorregulación
Variabilidad
Keeth k. Lee TD. Research quarterly for excersice and sport. 2007; 78-5
PRINCIPIOS Y METODOS
PRACTICOS
TRANSFERENCIA DEL
Premisas Básicas: CENTRAR LA APRENDIZAJE
ATENCION
RETROALIMENTACIÓN PRACTICA
Ejecución en una
Demostración Acción específica
Establecer Objetivos • Tareas
Instrucciones Intrínseca y Aumentada • Subtareas
• Modificar la tarea
Aprendizaje • Práctica Mental
• Práctica con diferentes tareas
COGNICIÒN y contextos.
CONTROL MOTOR
E. En balance
GRACIAS
Presentado por:
PRESENTACIÓN:
Este módulo del Seminario Terapéutico II incluye lecturas anexas en las respectivas
librerías y de manera específica para cada tema,), secciones escritas por la docente,
sesiones prácticas entre participantes, actividades de discusión y entrenamiento en
habilidades y práctica clínica de habilidades para optimizar la función en adultos después
de una lesión encefálica.
OBJETIVOS:
Conocer los componentes biomecánicos básicos en cada tarea motora con el fin de
poder determinar procesos de entrenamiento adecuados.
NOMBRE DEL ESTUDIANTE:__________________________________________________________
DÍA 1 DÍA 2
NOVIEMBRE 18 DE 2017 NOVIEMBRE 19 DE 2017
HISTORIA:
A S H W O R T H S C A L E ¿???
restricción es uno de los parámetros más importantes, ejecutada dentro del marco de una
situación tarea.
ACTIVACIÓN • Múscular
PRÁCTICA • Repetición
Actividad • Mejora
Cardiopulmonar Funcional
Este entrenamiento requiere una práctica constante para generar una economía en el
movimiento y poder decir que se ganó una “habilidad”, la cual es producto de un proceso
interno llamado aprendizaje motor, el cual muestra modificaciones neuroplásticas en los
estudios de neuroimagen. Estas habilidades motoras se caracterizan por la capacidad de
generar un complejo de movimientos con una flexibilidad en su variedad y con capacidad
de organización de las demandas del entorno con la mayor economía posible; con la
posibilidad además de adaptar los patrones básicos de movimiento a los diferentes
contextos, los obstáculos y otros cambios requeridos.
En este caso, las recientes investigaciones han mostrado que las personas después del ECV
son débiles durante las contracciones isométricas y parece ser que los músculos distales
se debilitan más que los proximales, los flexores más que los extensores, para lo cual
además se tiene que tener en cuenta el tipo de tarea, la edad y el género.
NOMBRE DEL ESTUDIANTE:__________________________________________________________
Vale la pena recalcar por tanto, que este enfoque de intervención privilegia un adecuado
estado de conciencia y una capacidad de atención que por lo menos le permita entender
que es lo que se está haciendo.
Los tipos de ejercicios recomendados según la evidencia para personas pos ictus son
ejercicios de gradación repetitiva del grupo muscular, realización de la misma actividad
involucrando tareas, incrementando el grado de dificultad, incluyendo aspectos de la
estabilidad y generando tarea complejas o dobles (dual task), práctica y repetición
constante e implosión de estímulos.
CONTRACCIONES DINÁMICAS:
Con relación al tono muscular, es importante reconocer que hoy día no es primordial el
trabajo hacia la recuperación del tono y por tanto la rehabilitación no debe centrarse en
este fenómeno. Así mismo, es importante, reconocer la diferencia existente entre la
espasticidad e hipertonía, pues la espasticidad es ampliamente reconocida como un
trastorno velocidad dependiente de la actividad del reflejo de estiramiento como
resultado de la hiperexcitabilidad de la motoneurona, mientras que la hipertonía es un
aumento de la resistencia pasiva, la cual no solo se ve afectada por el reflejo de
estiramiento, por tanto puede ser de origen neural o no neural.
NOMBRE DEL ESTUDIANTE:__________________________________________________________
En este caso las escalas para evaluar el tono como la escala de Ashworth pasan a ser
subjetivas y no tienen en cuenta los factores que afectan la contracción, la velocidad y los
factores no neurales.
Estudios han encontrado que después del ECV hay un importante proceso de contribución
al aumento de la hipertonía provocada por la tensión de los tejidos blandos, acortamiento
de los nervios periféricos, lo que no está asociado a una hiperactividad de la respuesta
EMG. Las investigaciones realizadas hasta la fecha (Singer 2001) han encontrado que los
cambios no neurales se deben a una proliferación del colágeno y remodelación anormal
del material no contráctil, aumento de los puentes cruzados de actina y miocina, lo que
parece genera un cierre en la contracción del músculo periférico.
Durante la ejecución de una tarea motora las articulaciones se mueven en respuesta a las
fuerzas producidas por los músculos, la gravedad y la aceleración de los segmentos
corporales distales.
paciente debe reconocer o tener la idea del movimiento, luego se adaptan los patrones de
movimiento para generar una habilidad y posteriormente adaptarlos a las demandas del
entorno, por lo cual los mecanismos de atención y de memoria son fundamentales.
Así mismo, dentro del proceso de aprendizaje, se espera la guía del fisioterapeuta a través
de la retroalimentación verbal constante pero bien estructurada, la cual ayuda la
alineación postural y el movimiento de cada una de las partes del cuerpo; así mismo, debe
proveer retroalimentación visual a través de la demostración y guía de la atención hacia el
seguimiento visual (objeto o señal diana) y tener en cuenta las condiciones del contexto,
elementos todos necesarios para promover la máxima independencia posible. En este
sentido, Carr y Shepherd proponen que esa independencia se obtiene al mejorar la
postura, especialmente en sedente y bípedo, para a partir de allí alcanzar otras
habilidades como el alcance, agarre y manipulación, así como la marcha.
Cuando hay parálisis completa es claro que el trabajo es más complicado por tanto, antes
de pensar en mejorar la destreza es importante incrementar la fuerza muscular, para este
caso se recomienda:
NOMBRE DEL ESTUDIANTE:__________________________________________________________
Protracción
Abducción y aducción del hombro
Rotación externa
Flexo/extensión del codo
Extensión de muñeca
Supinación
2. PREHENSIÓN: Manipulación.
Es muy importante medir antes que entrenar como evaluar el rango de movilidad articular
y determinar cuál es el principal problema.
EN CAMA…….
Se puede realizar flexo-extensión de rodilla si está muy débil sentado y un poco más
fuerte de pie.
DE PIE……
Por tanto, como recomendaciones para el entrenamiento del balance es importante tener
en cuenta que no pueden haber entrenamientos del equilibrio de manera aislada de las
acciones que deben volverse a aprender. En este sentido el enfoque de entrenamiento se
debe basar en tarea concretas basadas en situaciones cotidianas, en el entrenamiento de
andar, levantarse y sentarse, alcanzar objetos y manipulación, también se entrenan los
ajustes posturales, ya que la adquisición de destreza implica en gran parte el ajustamiento
fino del control postural y del equilibrio. Los ajustes posturales son específicos de cada
acción y condiciones en que ocurren.
Deambulación en 10m.
Test cronometrado de levantarse y caminar
Ascender y descender 10 bancos o escalones.
Deambulación en 6 metros.
Estación de levantarse a sentarse sosteniendo un vaso con agua. Repetir 3 series de 10
repeticiones.
NOMBRE DEL ESTUDIANTE:__________________________________________________________
Para la estructura del entorno de práctica los objetivos deben plantearse en términos de
facilitar la adquisición de habilidades funcionales, en esto caso para promover el balance
incrementando paulatinamente los niveles de fuerza, resistencia y forma física a través del
logro de objetivos o utilizando tareas concretas.
De acuerdo a lo planteado por Carr y Shepherd la destreza para realizar una tarea motora
en función de la cantidad y el tipo de práctica o la prescripción es crítica ya que no se
tienen parámetros estandarizados y es bien conocido que más práctica es mejor que
menos, en este caso investigaciones citadas por Small y Solodkin en 1998 demuestran que
el aumento del tiempo no necesariamente es sinónimo de mejorar el pronóstico, por
tanto, es probable que el tipo de práctica sea la que genere remodelaciones neuronales.
Para el caso de la prescripción del ejercicio de fortalecimiento muscular según los modelos
de reaprendizaje motor, parece que el número de 10 repeticiones de tres series
representa una carga de ejercicio adecuado en el que se pueden incluir además las
actividades de transición de sedente a bípedo, en este sentido se ha encontrado que las
mayores ganancias en la fuerza pueden conseguirse cuando las repeticiones se hacen sin
descanso entre cada repetición. Cada grupo de 10 repeticiones comprende una serie y el
objetivo debe ser repetir la serie 3 veces, con un breve descanso entre ellas. Se aplica esta
dosificación del entrenamiento de la fuerza en diferentes modalidades o en actividades de
transferencia de sedente a bípedo, donde se puede cambiar la altura del asiento para
facilitar los procesos de restricción.
REFERENCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS
Bernstein, Schmidt R.A. & Lee, T. Motor Control and Learning. Chicago: Human Kinetics.
2000 P.45-48. 2000
Bly, L. Motor Learning en: Network: South Africa NDT-SI Congress. Chicago: NDT Network
1996; 3-7.
Carr, J. Shepherd RB. Fisioterapia en los trastornos cerebrales: Guía clínica. Buenos Aires:
Médica Panamericana. 1985.
Carr, J. Shepherd RB. Motor Realerning Programme for Stroke. 2a. edición. Rockville: An
Aspen Publications. 1987.
Davies, PM. Actividades de la vida diaria en: Pasos a Seguir: Tratamiento integrado para
adultos con Hemiplejía. 3ª. Edición. Madrid: Médica Panamericana. 2003. 218-314
Pinzón MY. Tendencias Actuales del Aprendizaje Motor como estrategia de intervención
Fisioterapéutica. Revista de la Asociación Colombiana de Fisioterapia. Revista Memorias
XII Congreso Latinoamericana de Fisioterapia y Kinesiología Volumen 51 año 2006 Bogotá.
Ryerson, S. Motor control contemporary theories and issues en: Umphred E. Neurological
Rehabilitation. 4ª edición. Maryland: Mosby, Inc. 2001.
NOMBRE DEL ESTUDIANTE:__________________________________________________________
Chapter 21
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER CONTENTS
This chapter aims to explain the theoretical framework
Introduction 367 underlying current practice in neurological physio-
Historical overview 368 therapy for adults with central nervous system (CNS)
Why is theory important? 369 damage. The World Health Organization (WHO) has
Which treatment approach? 369 developed an international classification, which pro-
Key theoretical concepts 370 vides a systematic way of understanding the problems
The promotion of normal movement 371 faced by patients, illustrating the multiple levels at
The control of tone 372 which therapy may act. This classification, originally
developed in 1980 to explain the consequences of dis-
The promotion of function 373
ease, has been revised as the International Classification
Recovery and compensation 374 of Functioning, Disability and Health (WHO, 2001).
Service delivery 375 The ICF organises information according to three
Conclusions 376 dimensions:
References 377 1. a body level
2. an individual level
3. a society level.
The body dimension comprises both body struc-
ture and function. The activities dimension covers the
range of activities performed by an individual. The
participation dimension classifies the areas of life in
which for each individual there are societal opportu-
nities or barriers. This revised framework provides a
mechanism to document the impact of the environ-
ment on a person’s functioning. It now deals with
functional states associated with health.
Terminology within the new ICF has been modi-
fied. The definition of ‘impairment’ remains similar –
a deficit in body structure or function. In other words,
for example, the signs and symptoms associated with
a cerebrovascular accident (CVA). ‘Disability’ is now
described as a restriction in activity, whereas handi-
cap has been replaced as a ‘restriction in participa-
tion’. The ICF is discussed further in Chapter 3.
Following a CVA, an example of impairment
would be weakness, with a restriction in the activity
367
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368
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369
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Table 21.1 A comparison of the Bobath concept and the motor re-learning programme (adapted from Plant
(1998), with permission)
strength training; for example, they strengthen muscle administered needs to be evaluated rather than the label
groups by using the patient’s body weight within a attached to the programme (Partridge & Edwards,
functional activity such as sitting to standing (Ryerson 1996; Pomeroy & Tallis, 2000; Foster & Young, 2002).
& Levitt, 1997; Lennon et al., 2001). Bobath therapists Therapists need to stop referring to named approaches,
prefer to use manual rather than cognitive guidance and start referring to the theoretical evidence base for
to re-educate everyday movement patterns (Lennon & their practice (Ashburn, 1997). Is there a consensus
Ashburn, 2000); they avoid using progressive resisted within neurological physiotherapy about the theoreti-
exercise of specific muscle groups in treatment (Lennon cal basis underpinning practice?
et al., 2001).
Both facilitation of normal movement components
(which includes strategies to maintain muscle and KEY THEORETICAL CONCEPTS
joint alignment) and task-specific practice, using spe-
cific manual guidance, would appear to be critical elem- This section discusses the assumptions that physio-
ents of the Bobath concept (Lennon & Ashburn, 2000; therapists working in the clinic subscribe to, in relation
Lennon, 2001; Lennon et al., 2001). Carr & Shepherd to the current evidence base. The work related to
(1998, p. 16) advocate an emphasis on training control stroke rehabilitation will be presented, as this area has
of muscles, promoting learning of relevant actions and been the main focus for the investigation of the
tasks, and the preservation of muscle length. theoretical basis of physiotherapy practice. Guidelines
It seems that both these approaches use task-specific for physiotherapy practice within the health care team
practice. Task-specific training, a concept of motor have now been published for people with Parkinson’s
learning, should be viewed as a training method that disease (Plant et al, 2000; Guidelines Group, 2001);
can be applied within any treatment approach rather whereas multidisciplinary guidelines for people with
than a treatment approach in its own right. As it is, the multiple sclerosis are currently under development
actual content of therapy that appears to influence the (CSP, 2001). Although further research is required in
outcome (Kwakkel et al., 1999a; Parry et al., 1999), and relation to patient populations other than stroke, it is
what is done under the guise of a named approach, realistic to assume that these assumptions could apply
can vary widely (Partridge & Edwards, 1996); the evi- in other conditions, as physiotherapy management
dence suggests that the components of the therapy is problem-based, not condition-based; patients with
370
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371
CH-21.qxd 31/7/04 17:21 Page 372
Table 21.2 The promotion of normal movement, based on the expert consensus views of senior-level stroke
care physiotherapists in the UK
Theoretical assumption Unsure (%) Agree (%) Disagree (%)
Table 21.3 The control of tone, based on the expert consensus survey
Theoretical assumption Unsure (%) Agree (%) Disagree (%)
In patients where tone is considered to be a major problem, normalising tone 2.5 96.5 1
is important when facilitating movement
Inhibition of spasticity does not necessarily result in movement; movement needs 4 94 2
to be facilitated
advantages of task-specific practice over impairment- However, is aiming for more normal movement
focused intervention in improving outcomes (Kwakkel realistic in all patients with brain damage? Normal
et al., 1999b; National Clinical Guidelines for Stroke, 2002). movement is not achievable for all patients; this
Judgements about appropriate therapeutic goals should depends to some extent on whether or not the patient
not always be made solely on the basis of quality of has a progressive condition (Edwards, 2002, p. 256).
movement, as the solutions to patient problems change Currently there is very little evidence to support the
according to the interaction between the individual, way in which neurological physiotherapy should be
the task and the environment (Shumway-Cook & provided to people with progressive conditions.
Woollacott, 1995, p. 4). Further research is required to evaluate physiotherapy
Textbooks recommend that a systems model of intervention along with the organisation and delivery
motor control be adopted, integrating evidence from of services to these patient groups (Physiotherapy
neurophysiology, biomechanics and motor learning Effectiveness Bulletin, 2001).
(Shumway-Cook & Woollacott, 1995; Ryerson & Levitt,
1997; Carr & Shepherd, 1998; Edwards, 2002). This
The control of tone
survey confirmed that therapists incorporate musculo-
skeletal considerations into patient management; Control of tone is a key theoretical belief of current
however, evidence from motor learning and the mus- practice (see Ch. 25). However, therapists confirm that
culoskeletal systems is not explicitly integrated into changing tone does not automatically unmask the abil-
current theory. ity to move, and that movement needs to be actively
372
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Table 21.4 The promotion of function, based on the expert consensus survey
Theoretical assumption Unsure (%) Agree (%) Disagree (%)
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that therapy effects are limited to the skills being learning research is based on normal patient popula-
trained, showing minimal transfer effects to related tions; much more research is required in patients with
tasks that are not directly trained; e.g. a technique may neurological impairments to determine the most effect-
improve activity in a muscle group without transfer to ive ways in which to structure practice and provide
functional tasks in everyday life (Wagenaar & Meijer, feedback.
1991a, b; Duncan, 1997; Kwakkel et al., 1999a, b). Current In any case, expert consensus suggests that prep-
evidence suggests that the practice of motor skills needs aration is of no value in itself; it must be incorporated
to be both task- and context-specific (Carr & Shepherd, into functional activity (Lennon, 2000; Lennon et al.,
1998, pp. 37–38; Kwakkel et al., 1999a, b; National Clinical 2001; Mayston, 2002, p. 16). Changes in tone and
Guidelines for Stroke, 2000, 2002), but does this mean that improvements in movement must be transferred into
preparation for functional task practice is a waste of functional activity (Lennon, 2000; Lennon et al., 2001).
time? Evidence from motor learning and skill acquisi- It would appear that many therapists may restrict the
tion can provide some guiding principles. activities that patients practise outside therapy, as this
Therapists in the clinic interpret preparation as the may make their movement patterns more abnormal
use of treatment strategies to normalise tone to lengthen (Davidson & Waters, 2000; Lennon & Ashburn, 2000;
muscles, and to facilitate core elements of movement Pomeroy & Tallis, 2000; Lennon et al., 2001). This
(Lennon, 2001; Mayston, 2002). Motor-learning litera- assumption requires further investigation, as it con-
ture also differentiates between whole and part prac- cerns the issue of promoting carryover outside therapy
tice of a task. Current evidence does not suggest that and also, perhaps more importantly, because it may not
whole task practice is more effective at regaining func- take patient and carer wishes into account (Pound et
tion than activities aimed at preparation or facilitation al., 1994a, b; Kelson et al., 1998). For example, patients
of movement (Schmidt, 1991; Shumway-Cook & may associate recovery in terms of the resumption of
Woollacott, 1995, Ch. 2; Majsak, 1996; Leonard, 1998, previously valued activities; they may not be overly
Ch. 7). Research has highlighted practice and feedback concerned about how they perform an activity
as two crucial issues for therapists (Lennon, 2000). The (Hafsteindottir & Grypdonck, 1997). Although thera-
type of practice used may depend on the task at hand; pists voice concern about patients using abnormal tone
for example, part practice of fast, discrete tasks or tasks and movement patterns, there is currently no evidence
with interdependent parts is less effective than practis- to suggest that preventing or delaying a patient from
ing the whole task. It has also been suggested that moving will worsen abnormal tone and movement
patients need to rely on both intrinsic and extrinsic infor- (National Clinical Guidelines for Stroke, 2000; Pomeroy &
mation to learn new skills (Leonard, 1998, Ch. 7). Tallis, 2000; Mayston, 2000, p. 15).
Motor skill learning can be divided into three phases:
an early cognitive phase, an intermediate associative
Recovery and compensation
phase and an autonomous phase (Leonard, 1998, Ch. 7).
Certain types of feedback should be used at different Therapists were questioned about neuroplasticity, the
points in skill acquisition. For example, manual guid- need to work on trunk and limb movements and the
ance should mainly be used at the early cognitive stage use of the neurodevelopmental sequence in the man-
of motor learning, whereas physical and verbal guid- agement of patients following stroke (Table 21.5).
ance may actually interfere with motor learning in the Therapists (94%) believe that recovery of movement
later associative and autonomous stages of skill acquisi- should be encouraged; they believe that physio-
tion (Schmidt, 1991). therapy can influence neuroplastic change. They con-
It may not be necessary to spend time preparing and firmed that both proximal activity at the level of the
practising components of movement before practising trunk and the pelvis and distal movement need to be
functional tasks; the practise of the task itself may practised in therapy. Therapists believe that recovery
normalise tone and access normal movement patterns can occur either proximally and/or distally. Therapists
(Lennon & Ashburn, 2000; Lennon et al., 2001). Different (76%) no longer believe that recovery following brain
techniques may work better with different patients; damage mimics the neurodevelopmental sequence
sometimes it will be necessary to practise the com- followed during child development.
ponents of normal movement that comprise an activity There is strong evidence that the CNS is plastic (see
such as pelvic tilting. Sometimes it will work best to Ch. 5); however, evidence for specific therapy-induced
break tasks down into the different parts before getting changes in brain recovery remains sparse (Pomeroy &
the patient to practise the whole sequence of activity in Tallis, 2000). Therapists aim to promote neuroplasticity
a functional task. On other occasions it will work best of the CNS by targeting different pathways in the CNS
to practise the functional task. The majority of motor (Kidd et al., 1992).
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Kidd et al. (1992) discussed three main systems which focus on promoting compensatory strategies necessary
contribute to the control of movement: for function and discouraging those that may be detri-
1. the ventromedial (VM) descending system which mental to the patient (Edwards, 2002, p. 2; Rogerson,
controls postural adjustments and proximal muscles 2002). The damaged CNS must function in some
2. the dorsolateral (DL) descending system which way, which will be different from before. Currently the
controls selective movements evidence suggests that no therapist should stop a
3. the afferent ascending system. patient from moving unless an alternative strategy can
be substituted to achieve the same goal (Mayston,
In addition, brain areas such as the basal ganglia, the
2000b, p. 14). There should be a balance between the
cerebellum and the premotor area probably store
re-education of more normal movement patterns and
learned motor programmes and direct automatic pos-
both the acceptance and the promotion of necessary
tural adjustments via the brainstem. The descending
and desirable compensation (Shumway-Cook &
information can be initiated through afferent inputs
Woollacott, 1995, p. 113; Ryerson & Levit, 1997, pp. 47–
accompanied by feedforward and feedback informa-
49; Edwards, 2002, p. 2).
tion to other levels, such as the spinal cord and cerebel-
lum. Therapists aim to manipulate afferent information
from the periphery in order to activate these different Key points
routes, thus initiating descending information to pro-
duce motor output. There is sound neurophysiological ● Aiming for the restoration of normal movement is
evidence to support the use of afferent information, in unrealistic for most patients with central nervous
particular from the proximal regions, such as the trunk system damage
and the hip, as well as the foot, to trigger both postural ● The main emphasis in treatment is on the facilitation
adjustments and planned sequences of muscle acti- of movement, not the normalisation of tone
vation during goal-directed movements (Allum et al., ● Current evidence suggests that the practice of motor
1995; Park et al., 1999; Bloem et al., 2000). skills needs to be task- and context-specific, i.e.
This belief in neuroplastic change implies that recov- therapists need to practise functional tasks in
ery of movement and function should be the main aims meaningful contexts with patients
of therapy rather than the promotion of independence ● There is no evidence to suggest that delaying a
using the unaffected side, e.g. compensation. This patient from moving will promote abnormal tone and
therefore implies that compensation is undesirable and movement
should be prevented, as it is detrimental to recovery. ● Compensation is not always detrimental. It may
This assumption has not been investigated in research actually be desirable and necessary for the patient
trials. Compensation is not well defined in the litera-
ture; it refers to the use of alternative strategies to com-
plete a task (Shumway-Cook & Woollacott, 1995, p. 38;
Carr & Shepherd, 1998, p. 12). It can be viewed as both SERVICE DELIVERY
a negative and a positive contributor to movement
dysfunction following brain damage (Edwards, 2002, Although further research is required in relation to
p. 2; Rogerson, 2002). patient populations other than stroke, it is realistic to
Some experts suggest that compensation is not assume that these theoretical assumptions could apply
always detrimental for the patient; therapists need to in other conditions, as physiotherapy management is
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376
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