La Animación Como Herramienta Multicultural

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Proceedings from the II International Colloquium

on Languages, Cultures, Identity, in Schools and
Society.
Conference Paper July 2016
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Preface
The present volume features manuscripts by presenters at the II International
Colloquium on Languages, Cultures, Identity, in Schools and Society, held in Soria,
Spain, July 6-8, 2016. This yearly event aims at gathering individuals whose personal
and professional perspectives and experiences contribute to a better grasp of the
interconnectedness between the three topics above.
This is precisely the reason why a Colloquium, rather than a congress or a conference,
constitute the most appropriate scenario for these discussions. A small, intimate,
setting for both presenters and participants to develop the necessary trust and sense
of comradeship to share their expertise and opinions about three critical issues
inherently related to our global village. An environment far from those found in other,
massive, conventions, where endless numbers of participants make it difficult, if not
impossible, to get to know one another.
The main themes of the Colloquium, Language, Culture, and Identity, tend to be
intrinsically present in the mind of anyone who, either voluntarily or involuntarily, has
had to leave behind their birthplace, even temporarily. This change carries with it gains
and losses, new relationships and solitude, discoveries and routines, honeymoon stages
and homesickness, fascination with the new environment and idealized images of the
old country, a blending of feelings leading to a new interpretation of the word
home. In this new paradigm, the words Language, Culture, and Identity may
abandon their original connection to a specific time and place, and start acquiring new
meanings, the result of fluctuations between the old and the new, the present and the
past, the here-and-now and the what-could-have-happened-if.
With this in mind, the present manuscripts explore the uniqueness of these terms, and
their impact and repercussions on individuals, schools, and society from different
points of view. Thus, Cynthia Wiseman reports on an initiative aimed at designing
assignments targeting cultural understanding, global citizenship, intercultural
communication, and integrated reasoning in the Curriculum. Tiffany Farias, Patricia
DiCerbo, and Brenda Aranda explore different aspects of the relationship between
teachers and students in the classroom. Farias, for example, investigates how teachers
represent their own identity while working with socioeconomically diverse students.
Similarly, DiCerbo focuses on teachers construction of their own cultural identities in
regards to race, ethnicity, SES, and language while interacting with university students.
Finally, Arandas research in the US-Mexico borderlands describes how teachers
experiences shape their respective pedagogical approaches.
Cristina Snchez, Nicole Sager, and Joshua Lee offer different perspectives on the use
of students primary languages in the classroom. Snchez does so by highlighting the
positive effect of codemeshing as evidence of transfer of learning, while Sager
examines preschool teachers use of Spanish in the classroom, as well as the role of
this language in students development of literacy in Spanish. For his part, Lee analyzes
the use of Cantonese by Macau students learning Portuguese, one of the official
languages of the former Portuguese colony.
Four articles revolve around immigration-related issues. Laura Guzmn DuVernois

summarizes the legal rights of undocumented immigrants in US schools, and the
repercussions of public policies on immigrant families and students. The principals in
Patricia Silva, Leslie Reese, Serafn Antnez, and Isabel del-Arcos study provide
suggestions for the creation of an appropriate school environment for culturally and
linguistically immigrant students in Catalonia. Elizabeth Paulsen Tonogbanua
investigates the transmigration experiences of Haitian students in Boston schools
through the use of digital storytelling. Lastly, Rochelle Cassells digs deep into the
effects of maternal separation on the academic achievement and dropout rates of
immigrant children.
Francisco Marcos Marn and Anna Nencioni with Paula Pessanha examine the
language used in texts in their respective articles. Thus, Marcos Marn describes the
goals of REISS, the Research Institute of United States Spanish, in the development of the
necessary plain language to be used in translations, as required by the American
administration, while Nencioni and Pessanha investigate how immigrants and refugees
are portrayed in different media, focusing on the language used to do so.
Irene Pagola, Ana Navarrete and Antonia Navarro use texts or visual materials to teach
their students about others. Pagola, for example, uses stories of Nigerian immigrants
in the USA to teach her students about immigration, multiculturalism, and hybridity.
Navarrete describes her working routines teaching grammar and communication
patterns to students of Spanish with three short stories. Along the same lines,
Navarros teaching of other literatures and other cultures in her class is an attempt
to offer alternatives to her students that deviate from existing Eurocentric and
paternalistic points of view.
Carolina Delamorclaz explores the evolution of TV series and sitcoms from the 1960s
to 2010, highlighting critical changes in their characters and plots, i.e., the appearance
of minorities, or the treatment of topics such as sex, race, or social class.
Susana Gmez and Altamira Lpez, with Pablo Celada and Andrs Gonzlez, offer
an overview of two exciting collaborative experiences among educators from different
countries. Gmez, a participant in the Multilingual Schools project, describes the work
carried out by Spanish, Greek, Polish, Italian, and Belgian educators to create materials
and resources for a more culturally inclusive education. Lpez, Celada, and Gonzlezs
project involve teachers and students from nine European countries studying the
impact of the Roman Empire on their culture, sports, art, religion, and languages, to
achieve a better understanding of their common past. Along similar lines, Elena del
Pozo introduces The Global Classrooms Project, a collaborative project in Spain that
attempts to implement the United Nations model in the classroom to enhance
students attitudes about issues affecting Third World countries.
This Preface would not be complete without a big, heartfelt, thank you to all the
individuals who made the II Edition of the Colloquium a success: the presenters and
participants for their interest, comradeship, engagement, and wise observations; the
Soria team, Isabel Sanz, Mariajose Gmez, Oscar Recacha, Adrin Marinero, Fresia
Redondo, Claudia Macrea, and Luis Arancn, for their camaraderie and continuous
help and support. Last, but not least, I am deeply indebted to Shane Martin, Dean of
the School of Education at Loyola Marymount University, and Jess Brez,
Councilman of the Department of Culture of the City of Soria, for their willingness to
support what initially seemed a really strange and, at times, unrealistic idea: organizing
a Colloquium nearly 6,000 miles away from the location of the university, and hosting
a Colloquium organized by a university on the other side of the Atlantic, respectively.
Their vision has made it possible for the Colloquium to become a yearly reality, and
for this I will always be grateful.
Francisco Ramos
Table of Contents
Integrating Global Competencies in the Curriculum

Cynthia S. Wiseman .. 1
These Kids Are Different: An Exploration of How Ideologies and Personal

Experiences Influence Teachers' Identities
Tiffany Farias-Sokoloski 12
Negotiating a Democratic Learning Space through Teacher Cultural Narrative

Patricia DiCerbo . 21
Linguistic Identities and Pedagogical Practices: Transnational Bilingual Teachers

Brenda Oriana Aranda 31
A Conceptualization of Transfer for L2 Multilingual Writing from a Translingual

Lens: Codemeshing as Evidence of Transfer
Cristina Snchez-Martn . 40
Factors Influencing the Use and the Status of Spanish in Five Bilingual Preschool
Classrooms
Nicole Sager ..... 49
Understanding Cantonese in the Portuguese Classroom

Joshua Lee ... 61
Impact of Immigration on Students, the PK-12 Perspective

Laura Guzmn-DuVernois . 70
Cultural and Linguistic Rights of Immigrant Pupils in Catalonia Schools:

The Role of School Principals
Patricia Silva, Leslie Reese, Serafn Antnez & Isabel del-Arco 80
Understanding the Complexities of Transmigration Experiences through

Digital Storytelling
Elizabeth Paulsen Tonogbanua 90
The Psychological and Educational Impact of Immigration-Induced

Maternal Separation on Children
Rochelle C. Cassells 99
RIUSS y el Papel de la Traduccin en el Espaol de los EUA
Francisco A. Marcos Marn .. 110
La Conciencia de la Complejidad: Un Espacio para el Aprendizaje

Anna Nencioni & Paula Cristina Pessanha-Isidoro ... 120
Discovering English[es]: The Experience of Otherness through Literature

Irene Pagola ... 131
La Animacin como Herramienta Multicultural y su Impacto Social

Carolina Delamorclaz Ruiz .. 141
Tres Relatos Contemporneos para la Enseanza del Espaol Lengua Extranjera

Ana M Navarrete Curbelo ... 149
Reflexiones sobre el Proceso Enseanza-Aprendizaje Solidario en un Aula

Multicultural de Literatura Postcolonial
Antonia Navarro Tejero 157
Multicultural Schools: Supporting Diversity in Education

Susana Gmez Martnez ... 165
Los Programas Europeos Erasmus Plus para la Internacionalizacin del Profesorado

y del Alumnado: Following the Footprints of the Emperors, Un Proyecto en Marcha
Altamira Alicia Lpez Gallego, Pablo Celada Perandones
& Andrs Gonzlez Santa Olalla .. 173
Global Classrooms Project: El Modelo de las Naciones Unidas en el Aula

Elena del Pozo ... 182

Cynthia S. Wiseman
Borough of Manhattan Community College, City University of New York
This chapter reports on an initiative funded by an NEH grant and implemented at Borough of
Manhattan Community College, City University of New York. Faculty reflect on and define global
competencies and subsequently enhance existing curricula by designing assignments that target the
development of four targeted global competencies: Cultural understanding, responsible global
citizenship, effective intercultural communication, and integrated reasoning. Participating faculty
attended a series of seminars with invited scholars in global education, discussed challenging
readings/issues in globalization, and pedagogical approaches to the integration of global competencies
in coursework, and developed and implemented assignments for their courses in which they integrate
at least two of the global competencies targeted by this initiative. This chapter reports on the initial
stages of the program.
Keywords: Global competency, bridging cultures, faculty development, community

college initiatives
El captulo informa sobre una iniciativa auspiciada por una Beca del Fondo Nacional para las
Humanidades (NEH), que fue implementada en el Community College del Borough de Manhattan
de la Universidad de la Ciudad de Nueva York. El profesorado reflexiona y define los
conocimientos globales para as mejorar /realzar el currculo mediante el diseo de tareas que se
enfoquen en el desarrollo de cuatro competencias: el entendimiento cultural, el civismo global
responsable, la comunicacin intercultural eficaz, y la pedagoga integral. Los profesores, que
participaron en los seminarios con invitados expertos en pedagoga global, comentaron lecturas y
tpicos sobre la globalizacin, y estrategias pedaggicas para la incorporacin de los conocimientos
globales en las clases. Tambin desarrollaron e implementaron tareas para los cursos en los cuales
integraron por lo menos dos de los objetivos de esta iniciativa global. Este captulo trata de las
primeras etapas del programa.
Palabras clave: Competencia global, acercando culturas, desarrollo professional,

iniciativas de los colegios comunitarios
College graduates in the 21st century are entering the global marketplace, an
international arena that requires skills and competencies to navigate the vast terrain
of international commerce. It is the responsibility of colleges and universities to
prepare students with the knowledge, skills and competencies required to compete in
todays world. The integration of global competencies into the curriculum is thus
critical to providing future graduates with the tools needed to live and work in a
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world that is increasingly complex given the economic, political, social and cultural
dynamics at play in this multicultural, multilingual global village of the 21st century.
Global Competencies for Career and College Readiness

De Blij in The Power of Place writes of barriers imposed by the global core
nations that make it difficult for Locals (the poorest and least mobile) and in some
cases, Mobals (transnational migrants that cross international borders and
challenge the power of place as agents of change) from becoming part of new
lifestyles and opportunities provided by the mainstream of modernization. De
Blij proposes that in order to reverse this trend and empower both Locals and
Mobals, we must lower barriers.
While the US may be one of the global core of nations that de Blij refers to
as the nations that impose those barriers, that does not mean that in North America
there are no Locals and Mobals. It can indeed be argued that many Americans
experience the same barriers as their counterparts in other countries. Indeed, one of
the primary justifications for the implementation of the Common Core in K-12
(Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2016) was the recognition that many
American youngsters do not have the 21st century competencies and skills that are
necessary to meet the demands of a new technologically advanced marketplace, a
clear disadvantage for continued innovation and economic development. It was
acknowledged that there is an urgent need to prepare high school graduates with the
academic skills necessary for college and career readiness, hence the proposed long-
term goal of the Common Core to create a dynamic workforce that would allow
America to compete in a global society.
Institutions of higher learning also play a key role in preparing young people
with the skills and competencies they need to compete in 21st century careers. Not
only do students need to graduate with the academic and technical skills needed for
jobs in todays world but they also need to be globally competent.
The term global competency has been variously defined, but there are
some similar themes in each definition. In 1996 the Stanley Foundation and the
American Council on International Intercultural Education (ACIIE) convened a
group of twenty-four community college educators and representatives of
government, private industry and NGOs for a conference Building the Global
Community: The Next Step. The conference objective was to define community
college goals in global education and they agreed that the globally competent learner
is aware of diversity commonalities and the interdependence of the world,
understands the non-universality of culture, religion and value, and accepts the
importance of all peoples, appreciating the impact of other cultures on ones own
culture. The globally competent learner is also empowered by the experience of
global education to help make a difference in society. He/she is capable of working
in diverse teams and accepting the responsibility for global citizenship (ACIIE,
1996).
2
In a similar vein, Dr. Sandra L. Russo, Director for International Center at

the University of Florida and Leigh Ann Osborne, coordinator of the International
Student Services areas at Florida State University (2004) defined a globally
competent student as one who exhibits both cross-cultural sensitivity and
adaptability because s/he takes advantage of opportunities to interact with diverse
individuals. In doing so, the globally competent student questions assumptions and
challenges stereotypes of his/her own and of others (p. 8). Russo and Osborne
identified five themes in defining a globally competent student: a diverse
knowledgeable worldview, understanding of international dimensions of a major
field of study, effective communication in another language and/or across-cultures,
cross-cultural sensitivity and adaptability, and lifelong cultivation of global
competencies.
Michigan State University (2010) made a noteworthy effort to bring the
various perspectives on global competencies together in the Liberal Learning and
Global Competence Framework in which they linked global competencies to defined
liberal learning goals and outcomes. The intention was to provide a framework that
would foster students active engagement in learning in and outside the classroom so
that graduates would be able to demonstrate the knowledge, attitudes and skills
needed to be outstanding leaders and lifelong learners in this global village. The
targeted global competencies in this framework were cultural understanding, effective
communication, effective citizenship, integrated reasoning, and analytical thinking.
Like MSU, colleges and universities across the US must thus incorporate
elements of global competency in academic courses to meet the professional
demands that students will meet upon graduation. Community colleges are at the
forefront serving large populations in America with affordable tuition, ease of access,
flexible course scheduling, course variety, and transfer prospects to universities.
Integrating global competencies in the college curriculum is one way to effectively
lower barriers by systematically providing Locals, e.g., non-traditional students in
urban community colleges, with the resources necessary to compete internationally.
The Context of the Initiative: An Urban Community College

The Borough of Manhattan Community College (BMCC) is one such
institution of higher learning. BMCC is an urban community college, one of the
twenty-four campuses within the City University of New York (CUNY). BMCC is
one of the most diverse community colleges in the nation, serving over 26,000
students who represent over 155 countries of origin and speak more than 113
languages. For the vast majority of these students, BMCC embodies their singular
opportunity to acquire the higher education essential to their future success. BMCC
is thus committed to high quality education in a pluralistic multicultural environment.
(BMCC Fact Book. Retrieved from http://www.bmcc.cuny.edu/about_bmcc).
Despite its diversity, many of the colleges students have only a limited
understanding of increasingly complex relationships among world cultures and
3
emerging global issues. For most, even their exposure to and knowledge of other
ethnic groups is limited to their educational experiences in the classroom. To
enhance exposure, BMCC has provided numerous activities to foster a greater
understanding of multiculturalism and multilingualism and development of global
competency. Despite these efforts, there remain challenges that inhibit the degree to
which BMCC students of diverse backgrounds fully participate in the community of
the college and, equally important, that they maintain a solid sense of their own
identity and individuality. Like the program at Michigan State University, BMCC
wants its students to graduate with the competencies essential in todays global
marketplace.
BMCC has thus dedicated efforts towards globalization of the curriculum. In
its five-year strategic plan: A Bridge to the Future, BMCC identified the commitment to
promote student awareness and understanding of global issues as one of four
strategic priorities for the college. As part of the strategic planning process, a
Steering Committee on Globalization was formed in 2011. Given that global
competencies are essential, high impact skills needed for our students to be
competitive in the 21st century global economy, the committee recommended a series
of comprehensive strategies aimed at infusing the curriculum with global
experiences. The committee developed and piloted a professional development
initiative aimed at infusing global competencies across the curricula in the humanities
in a coordinated and comprehensive manner, guided by experts from global studies
in the humanities. The aim of this project was to provide faculty pedagogical support
in integrating global competencies into diverse classrooms and to foster a rich
understanding of and deeper appreciation for global issues as well as a capacity to act
as increasingly confident and responsible global citizens throughout their professional
and personal lives. The program was piloted in summer 2014 with nineteen faculty
from across the humanities.
Forging Interdisciplinary Dialogue in a Globalized World

The following year the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH)
Bridging Cultures Initiative funded this three-year initiative Negotiating Otherness:
Forging Interdisciplinary Dialogue in a Globalized World, to support faculty in the
redesign of curriculum to infuse global competencies into course offerings in the
Humanities at BMCC. This is a special initiative through which NEH is investing in
community college programs that strengthen the humanities through special attention
to bridging cultures themes and to advance the role of humanities at community
colleges through curriculum and faculty development focused on bridging cultures at
home and abroad (National Endowment for the Humanities Bridging Cultures
Initiatives, 2010.)
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An Initiative for Professional Development in the Humanities

In this professional development initiative, Cultivating Global Competencies
in a Diverse World, participating BMCC faculty in the first cohort attended a series
of seminars on readings and presentations led by invited global studies scholars
during the 2015-2016 academic year. The first group of this NEH-funded initiative
included sixteen faculty from across ten disciplines, including speech, academic
literacy and linguistics, social science, e.g., economics, criminal justice, and history,
English, modern languages, art and music, and health education. Following the
seminars, faculty redesigned assignments to enhance the development of global
competencies in their respective courses, including SPE100, ESL94, and ENG101,
ITL106 and SPN102, among others. Through pedagogical presentations and
discussions of the enhanced assignments, participating faculty across disciplines
provided continuing support and feedback to colleagues in the cohort in preparation
for the implementation of the enhanced assignments during the semester. Student
self-perception of their global competencies were assessed pre- and post-intervention,
using an adapted version of the Global Perception Inventory (GPI).
Based on the Liberal Learning and Global Competence Framework
developed by Michigan State University, this initiative targeted four of the original
five global competencies aligned with higher education liberal learning goals: cultural
understanding, effective interpersonal communication, responsible global citizenship,
and integrated reasoning. Participating faculty were encouraged to further articulate
performance indicators for each global competency adapted from the Michigan State
University framework. For example, for responsible global citizenship, BMCC
students would participate as a member of local, national, and international
communities and have the capacity to lead in an increasingly interdependent world by
1) demonstrating a personal sense of ethics, service and responsibility informing
decision-making with regard to diverse issues; 2) analyzing the impact of personal
behavior on diverse systems; and 3) utilizing knowledge, attitudes, and skills to engage
in diverse challenges facing humanity. and develop assignment learning objectives
(ALOs) to measure the competencies.
Participating faculty were asked to redesign at least two assignments targeting
at least two of the four global competencies as defined within the Michigan State
University framework. The selection of assignments, the targeted global
competencies, and the redesign to enhance the assignments and achieve assignment
learning objectives (ALOs) were left to the discretion of participating faculty.
Sample Assignment
One participating faculty in the Academic Literacy and Linguistics department
chose to redesign an assignment in Critical Thinking 100 (CRT100) targeting two
competencies: integrated reasoning and responsible global citizenship. She redesigned
a mini-research project on obesity in the US and at BMCC. This module included a
series of assignments intended to teach an approach to critical thinking through the
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lens of the scientific method applied in the humanities. The first assignment described
a scenario in which groups were assigned roles, e.g., a representative from the FDA,
for a debate about who should take primary responsibility for a childs diet that would
introduce and narrow down the topic to clarify the issue through the reading and
discussion of articles. Students would later write a literature review based on their
reading and research. Students were provided with a number of articles focusing on
childhood obesity and the various parties contributing to this issue, e.g., the
advertising and food industries, government regulating agencies, the schools, and the
family.
The second part of the assignment focused on the obesity epidemic at BMCC.
The scenario described the establishment of an ad hoc task force set up by the
Student Government Association (SGA) to make recommendations to be presented
to the food service corporation at the college. Each student was directed to write up a
list of recommendations to SGA. Students were advised that this would first entail the
collection of data regarding any aspect of the student cafeterias operations that might
be contributing to poor eating habits of the college community, e.g., menu, display of
food, product placement, pricing, or traffic slow. Student groups were asked to
summarize the data and present the analysis to the ad hoc committee.
The third assignment was to write a letter to the Student Government
Association about how BMCC could join the fight against the epidemic of obesity at
our school and submit their recommendations for changes in the food and cafeteria
service to include practices that would promote healthier eating and contribute in a
positive way to the campaign to fight the public health problems in obesity.
Targeted Global Competency: Responsible Citizenship

This assignment targeted the global competency of responsible citizenship
which requires that 1) students participate as members of local, national, and global
communities and demonstrate the capacity to lead in an increasingly interdependent
world; 2) develop a personal sense of ethics, service, and civic responsibility informing
decision-making with regards to diverse issues; 3) demonstrate understanding of the
impact of personal behavior on diverse system; and 4) utilize knowledge, attitudes,
and skills to engage with diverse challenges facing humanity. This assignment required
BMCC students to participate as members of their national community by first
investigating childhood obesity as a national crisis and relating it to the local level by
examining obesity at BMCC. Through their research on the national obesity epidemic,
students would be analyzing the impact of personal behavior on diverse systems, i.e.,
impact of practices of the school food service and students, facultys and staffs food
choices, and utilizing knowledge, attitudes, and skills to engage in diverse challenges
facing people in the contemporary world. Through the application of that research to
the BMCC context, collecting data and making recommendations to SGA, students
would be working at a local level, developing their capacity to lead in an increasingly
interdependent world by informing decision-making of their SGA leaders.
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Redesign of Assignment
Although this assignment already had all the essential components to
support the development of responsible global citizenship as defined in this
framework, this faculty member rewrote the assignment to make the focus on the
global competencies more explicit and asked students to more explicitly articulate the
relationship between the national epidemic and the situation at BMCC, to narrow
their research to factors impacting students and facultys food choices, to collect and
analyze data from the local cafeteria to explore the potential impact of those factors
on obesity at the school and later to serve as evidence supporting their proposed
changes in the food service, and to engage in the challenge at a personal and social
level by writing the Student Government Association president with
recommendations supported by data. The scenarios were rewritten to focus on the
objective of gathering, analyzing, and reporting data relevant to the issue and using
this evidence to make recommendations to the SGA to submit to the food service on
behalf of the BMCC community.
Reflective Practice
Further enhancement of the obesity project to increase student awareness of
the issue and how this issue involves them personally was the addition of a reflective
practice that required journaling before, during and after the research project:
Before: Reflect on the problem of obesity in the world today. What are
factors contributing to obesity? What are solutions? What can you do
about the problem of obesity on a personal level?
During: As you are collecting and analyzing data with your partner what
are your thoughts about the BMCC cafeteria, the BMCC community, the
BMCC administration, and the students and our choices about food and
nutrition? Do you think that your project and the data that you collect will
make a difference? Is this project affecting your own food choices?
After: What did you learn about obesity and food choices at BMCC?
What did you personally do to fight the growing problem of obesity?
Assessment
Global Perspective Inventory (GPI)
To assess the impact of the implementation of the redesigned curriculum, an
adapted version of the Global Perspective Inventory (GPI) was administered pre- and
post-intervention, that is, at the beginning and end of the semester. The GPI was
designed as a tool to measure human development in three major domains: cognitive,
intrapersonal, and interpersonal. The cognitive domain centers on ones knowledge
and understanding of what is true and important to know. The intrapersonal domain
focuses on becoming more aware of and integrating ones personal values and self-
identity into ones self. The interpersonal domain is centered on the willingness to
interact with people of different social norms and cultural backgrounds, acceptance of
7
others, and feeling comfortable in relating to others (Braskamp, Braskamp, &

Engbert, 2014). The original GPI is comprised of six scales with two scales in each
dimension. It has been used by private and public colleges and universities offering
BA and MA degrees as well as institutions offering doctorates to measure global
perspectives before and after study abroad experiences and other program or
institutional interventions, such as the implementation of assignments enhanced to
develop global competencies. An adapted version of the GPI comprising 28 items
targeting the 4 competencies (r = .884) was developed for use in this initiative.
This survey was administered by participating faculty pre- and post-
intervention. Aggregate pre- and post- scores for each scale measuring global
perspective in the respective competency were compared to examine changes in
global perspectives among students, both for the overall program and for individual
classes. This will be useful feedback for faculty on the effectiveness of the assignment
and will be useful for this initiative in moving forward with future cohorts.
Items from the survey were mapped onto their related global competencies to
create scales for each competency. Student gains from pre- to post-assessment for
targeted global competencies were measured by aggregates of performance on items
measuring a targeted competency. For example, eight items were tagged to measure
responsible citizenship, including I stand up for my rights and I am informed of
current issues that impact international relations. Table 1, Global Competencies
Spring 2016 Responsible Citizenship shows student gains on all items measuring
responsible citizenship, suggesting that students perception of their own global
competencies have experienced change.
8
Global Competencies Spring 2016

Responsible Citizenship
21. I am accepting of people 4.56
with different religious, 4.58
15. I stand up for my 4.39
principles. 4.29
18. I am sensitive to those 4.13
who experience 4.07
10. I am curious to explore the 3.89
causes of local, national, and 3.93
2. I think of my life in terms of 3.86
giving back to society. 3.74
5. I am informed of current 3.82
issues that impact 3.52
11. I work for the rights of 3.60
others. 3.36
22. I put the needs of others 3.52
above my own personal 3.42
25. Volunteering is not an 2.64
important priority in my life. 2.60
Post-survey 1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Agree=5, Agree=4, Neutral=3, Disagree=2, Strongly Disagree=1.
Figure 1. GPI Measure of Students Self-Perception on Responsible Citizenship
Survey responses have been collected for classes in the first cohort, yielding
preliminary results that document changes in self-perception, behaviors and attitudes
related to global competencies.
Implications for Curriculum Development and Integration of Global Studies in

the Curriculum
This curriculum and faculty development project to infuse global
competencies in the curriculum in an urban community college is ongoing and
promises to yield positive results both for faculty and students in meeting the
challenges of preparing students to face the competitive demands of the 21st century
workplace. It offers faculty the opportunity for continued development in their
pedagogical approaches to convey the knowledge and provide for the acquisition and
development of those skills and competencies needed by students in their study of the
humanities and it gives faculty the opportunity for continued scholarship in
pedagogical approaches in their own respective disciplines. Approaches to improving
pedagogy are often complex but this initiative has established a framework through
9
which faculty in the humanities can embrace that challenge to the benefit of
themselves and their students.
In addition, this initiative follows the Writing Across the Curriculum (WAC)
model that has already been institutionalized throughout CUNY. One Writing
Intensive (WI) course is now a requirement for graduation and faculty are encouraged
to develop WI courses to enhance the curriculum. Faculty are awarded a stipend for
participation in the WAC training and subsequent development and implementation
of courses that integrate writing in the course design. In addition, WI courses are
capped at twenty-five students, a clear incentive for faculty participation. It is hoped
that the benefits to students, faculty, and the college in developing assignments with a
global component will be significant so that the college will support the college-wide
implementation of a Global Competencies Across the Curriculum to develop Global
Intensive Courses required for graduation. The institutionalization of this requirement
will ensure that BMCC students will graduate with the global competencies needed in
the 21st century.
References
American Council on International Intercultural Education & The Stanley Foundation (1996,
November 15-17). Educating for the Global Community: A framework for Community Colleges. Convened
at Airlie Center Warrenton, VA. Retrieved July 10, 2016 from
http://www.stanleyfoundation.org/publications/archive/cc2.pdf.
Beer, D.J. (2009). Global competency in hospitality management programs: A perfect recipe for
community colleges. Unpublished dissertation. National-Louis University Community College
Leadership Program, Chicago, IL.
de Blij, H. (2008). The Power of Place Geography, Destiny, and Globalizations Rough Landscape. New York,
NY: Oxford University Press.
BMCC. (2008). A Bridge to the Future: BMCC Strategic Plan 2008-2013.
BMCC Steering Committee on Globalization (2013). Negotiating Otherness: Forging
Interdisciplinary Dialogue in a Globalized World. NEH Bridging Cultures Initiative.
BMCC Steering Committee on Globalization (2013, May 8). Proposal to the Collaborative Improvement
Council. Strategic Plan AY 2013 to 2015. Retrieved on July 17, 2016 from
http://www.bmcc.cuny.edu/about_bmcc/upload/globalizationsc.pdf
Braskamp, L.A., Braskamp, D.C., & Engberg, M.E. (2014). Global Perspective Inventory (GPI): Its
purpose, construction, potential uses and psychometric characteristics. Chicago, IL: Global
Perspective Institute Inc. Retrieved July 17, 2016 from
https://gpi.central.edu/supportDocs/manual.pdf
Common Core State Standards Initiative (2016, September 10). Common Core State Standards.
Retrieved from http://www.corestandards.org/about-the-standards/.
Michigan State University Office of the Provost. (2010, November). Liberal Learning and Global
Competence Framework at MSU. Retrieved July 17, 2016 from
https://msu.edu/~freshsem/LLG%20%20GC%20combined%20table.pdf
National Endowment for the Humanities Bridging Cultures Initiatives. (2010). Retrieved July 17, 2016
from http://www.neh.gov/divisions/bridging-cultures/about
10
Russo, S. L., & Osborne, L.A. (2004). The Globally Competent Student. National Association of State
Universities and Land-Grant Colleges. Retrieved July 17, 2016 from
http://www.aplu.org/projects-and-initiatives/international-programs/comprehensive-
internationalization/comprehensive-internationalization-documents/globally-competent-student-
russo-and-osborne.pdf
Cynthia S. Wiseman, Department of Academic Literacy and Linguistics, Borough of Manhattan

Community College, City University of New York. Correspondence regarding this article can be
sent to the author at [email protected].
This initiative was supported in part by a grant from the National Endowment for
the Humanities (NEH) Bridging Cultures Initiative.
11
These Kids Are Different
These Kids Are Different: An Exploration of How Ideologies and

Personal Experiences Influence Teachers' Identities
Tiffany Farias-Sokoloski
University of Texas at San Antonio
Este estudio trata de atraer atencin a las complicadas y nicas experiencias de vida de maestras que
trabajan con estudiantes de diversos niveles socio econmicos en escuelas pblicas. Pone el enfoque en
cmo las maestras representan sus identidades e ideologas a travs de las interacciones con sus
estudiantes. La estructura terica del estudio est basada en el pensamiento feminista post-estructural,
ya que esta teora investiga las relaciones entre lo individual y lo social; la manera en que las mujeres
encuentran sentido en sus experiencias, tratan de transformar instituciones como las escuelas, y cmo
rechazan la perspectiva de que las investigaciones son objetivos o sin prejuicios (Weedon, 1996; Norton,
2000). Las identidades de las maestras que participaron en el estudio subray la negociacin entre su
narrativa personal como maestra y la narrativa dominante institucional de la escuela que era parte en
la prctica pedaggica.
Palabras clave: Formacin del profesorado, ideologa, identidad, cultura
This study seeks to bring attention to the complex and unique lived experiences of elementary public
school teachers who work with socio-economically diverse students by calling attention to how teachers
represent their identities and ideologies through interactions with students. The theoretical framework
for this study is rooted in feminist poststructuralist thought because this particular theory investigates
the relationships between the individual and the social; the way women make sense of their
experience(s), aim at transforming institutions such as schools, and rejects the view that research is
objective or unbiased (Weedon, 1996; Norton, 2000). The identities of the teachers involved in the
study underscored the negotiation between her personal narrative as a teacher and the institutionalized
master narrative of the school that was a part of the teaching practice.
Keywords: Teacher education, ideology, identity, culture
The teaching profession extends far beyond simply delivering instruction.

Teachers often find themselves taking on various roles such as that of a counselor,
friend, parent, and at times, a performer. Teaching can also be a political act as teachers
reflect, interact with, and advocate for equitable education for students of socio-
economically, socio-culturally, and socio-linguistically diverse backgrounds. In this
study, I follow three elementary teachers as they transition into their third year teaching
at a socio-economically diverse school. The aim of this study was to explore the ways
in which ideologies and personal experiences influence teachers identities.
12
As a definition for identity, I use Nortons (2000) concept: how a person

understands his or her relationship to the world, how that relationship is constructed
across time and space, and how the person understands possibilities for the future (p.
5). Moreover, I characterize a teachers identity as a process that is fluid, non-linear,
and heavily influenced by lived experience as well as social interaction (Ricoeur, 1991).
Thus, continuous interactions between the teacher and her students are an important
element in the formation of a teachers identity and may play a significant role in the
ways in which social class is distinctively reflected in the teachers ideologies, and
interactions with her students.
Theoretical Framework
Identity
As a definition for identity, I use Nortons (2000) concept: how a person
understands his or her relationship to the world, how that relationship is constructed
across time and space, and how the person understands possibilities for the future (p.
5). Moreover, I characterize a teachers identity as a process that is fluid, non-linear,
and heavily influenced by lived experience as well as social interaction (Ricoeur, 1991).
Thus, continuous interactions between the teacher and her students are an important
element in the formation of a teachers identity and may play a significant role in the
ways in which social class is distinctively reflected in the teachers ideologies, and
interactions with her students.
I also use Ortners (2006) definition to describe class so that it is explained as
a position in social space defined by economic and cultural capital (p. 1068). Thus,
continuous interactions between the teacher and her students are an important element
to the formation of a teachers identity and may play a significant role in the ways in
which class is distinctively differentiated from, and reflected in, the teachers lived
experiences, ideologies, and interactions with her students (Banks, 2006; Heath &
Street, 2008, Milner, 2010).
School as an institution
This study refers to school as an institution as a unified program of change
planned and organized by the norms and ideologies of groups in power (Heath &
Street, 2008, p. 19). In other words, it is within institutions of formal education that
teachers cultural patterns are shaped. Cultural patterns reflect habits, ideologies, and
provide a foundation for teachers to create, explore, test social relationships, and
develop a sense of agency (Heath & Street, 2008). Ideology is understood to be the
ideas that a society views as common sense (Oakes et al., 2013). The ideas are so
thoroughly accepted that they seem natural, whereas views that dont fit that same
ideology might seem unacceptable, countercultural, or radical (Oakes et al., 2013, p.
46). In poststructuralist feminist terms, ideology is characterized as language in the
form of conflicting discourses which constitutes us as conscious thinking subjects and
enables us to give meaning to the world and to act to transform it (Weedon, 1996, p.
13
31). Agency is integral to the notion of ideology because it is seen as discursively

produced in the social interactions between culturally produced, contradictory subjects
(Weedon, 1996, p. 176). A poststructuralist feminist analysis of school as an institution
suggests that socio-political forces pressure members (in this case teachers) to adopt a
particular ideology, and in this way, teachers are coerced to learn the schools modes
of operation and the values maintained (Weedon, 1996). Framing school as an
institution allows for a critical exploration for the ways in which institutional power
and practices further shape teachers narrative identities within the specific context of
the classroom.
Teacher culture
Every institution of formal education contains its own form of teacher culture.
Within the context of this study, teacher culture is defined as a core of complex habits
and beliefs that are set forth as prescriptive norms. This study adopts Street and
Heaths (2008) description of culture as a verb in order to underscore the idea that
teacher culture is unbounded, dynamic, and fluid. Heath and Street (2008) describe
this shift in teachers narrative identities as a process when individuals sustain old
habits and values and invent new ways to relate, display, and transmit who they are and
how they came to be as well as what they see themselves becoming (p. 14). In fact,
classroom discourse drawn from interviews and classroom observations further
substantiates this idea for two major reasons. For one, classroom discourse serves as
the primary site where teachers identities are played out. Finally, it is the classroom
discourse that is influences by the institution, teachers identities, culture, and issues
of power relations that stem from poststructuralist thought. Power is a relation that
inheres in difference and is a dynamic of control, compliance and lack of control
between discourses and the subjects constituted by discourses, who are their agents
(Weedon, 1996, p. 110). The notion of culture as a verb provides a lens for exploring
teachers narrative identities because it recognizes the dynamism of teachers lived
experiences and ways in which teachers narratives impact shifts in actions, memories,
and identities.
Subjectivity
Subjectivity, as defined by Weedon (1997) consists of ones conscious and
unconscious thoughts and emotions, which can account for the relationship between
the individual and the social (p. 3). Individuals, in this case, three women entering in
and working within a school learn how the institution (or school) operates as well as
the values and beliefs, the prescriptive norms it upholds. According to Weedon, (1997)
poststructuralism theorizes subjectivity as a site of disunity and conflict, central to
the processes of political change and to preserving the status quo, and can therefore
be characterized as fluid rather than fixed, and intimately tied to power (p. 21).
Weedons (1997) notion of subjectivity is critical to this study because it places the
ways in which teachers make sense of their lives at the core for understanding and
14
explaining power relations and the effect such relations may have on student
experiences in the classroom.
Methodology
The study implemented an explanatory case study design rooted in
poststructuralist feminist thought. The explanatory case study design was vital to the
study because it aided in the process of examining the ways in which teachers frame
their experiences and identity as teachers of socioeconomically diverse students. The
study aimed to provide the opportunity for teachers to openly share their experiences
within and outside of their work in the school, and more importantly, allow the
teachers and the researcher to reflect upon, and counter, previous ideologies.
Marina Elementary
Marina elementary is the pseudonym I use for the school where the study took
place. The school is located in South Texas and is part of a district known as one of
the five largest school districts in the State of Texas. In fact, the school is one out of
a total of 74 elementary schools in the district. It is located in the citys far West side
of town and is referred to by teachers and administrators as Title I. According to
the United States Department of Education, Title I, Part A of the Elementary and
Secondary Education Act (ESEA), provides financial assistance to local educational
agencies (LEAs) and schools with high numbers or high percentages of children from
low-income families to help ensure that all children meet challenging state academic
standards (http://www2.ed.gov/programs/titleiparta/index.html). One can see that
the term Title I refers to a specific section of the Elementary and Secondary
Education Act (ESEA) rather than a particular institution itself. The U.S. Department
of Education goes on to explain that Title I is designed to help students served by the
program to achieve proficiency on challenging State academic achievement standards.
Title I schools with percentages of students from low-income families of at least 40
percent may use Title I funds, along with other Federal, State, and local funds, to
operate a "school wide program" to upgrade the instructional program for the whole
school (http://www2.ed.gov/programs/titleiparta/index.html).
Interestingly, although the U.S. Department of Education clearly lays out and
explains Title I as a federal aid program created to help students from low-income
households achieve State academic standards, it is more often than not used by
teachers and administrators to mean the school. As a result, Title I schools have
become a social construct often associated with students of color such as Black or
Latino, and stereotypes such as poor, run-down, and dangerous. As such, designating
a Title I campus as the primary site of the investigation provided an opportunity to
provide a platform with which to spotlight teachers experiences and explore
classroom discourse, and attempt to better understand particular social constructs
associated with socio-economically diverse campuses.
15
Participants
The study focused on one particular campus. At the time of the study, there
were seven teachers with fewer than five years of experience. Of the seven, three were
in their third year of teaching and taught different grade levels. These three teachers
were subsequently chosen as participants, primarily based on their years of experience.
Focusing on three teachers afforded the time and space to establish trust and rapport
with each teacher in order for them to feel relaxed when I was in their classroom, and
comfortable when speaking to me about their beliefs and daily experiences.
Each participant was given a pseudonym in order to maintain anonymity. Ms.
Max taught second grade and was in her second year of graduate school. Her graduate
work was in literacy because she eventually wanted to become a reading specialist
within the district. Ms. Sally taught Kindergarten. Teaching was something that Ms.
Sally went back to school for because she realized later in career that she knew she
wanted to do. Ms. Lucy began teaching after earning her Masters degree in education.
At the time of the study, Ms. Lucy was the first grade, bilingual teacher and was
questioning whether teaching was a profession she wanted to remain in.
Data Collection
In an attempt to try to understand each teachers experiences, I needed multiple
sources of data that would provide a perspective other than just that of my own. These
included interviews that documented how each teacher narrated her experiences, field
notes that notated my weekly observations of each teacher in practice, and an
awareness of what other experiences were influencing her practice and perceptions of
teaching socioeconomically diverse students. In turn, I collected data that I hoped
would best capture and reflect each teachers personality and experience, would help
me contextualize and better understand their realities, and would spotlight the ways in
which each teacher enacted their identities. In order to do this, I collected interviews,
classroom observations, transcriptions of interviews and classroom observations, and
photographs of each teachers classroom as well as around the campus.
Data Analysis
Analysis and interpretations of the data were obtained in a recursive manner
as interview transcripts, field notes, and various artifacts were reviewed multiple times
throughout the process. As a first step, NVivo 10 was used to organize the data and
help break down the transcripts from the interviews and classroom observations into
discrete parts. Coding was implemented in two separate cycles because according to
Saldaa (2009), coding is the transitional process between data collection and more
extensive data analysis (p. 4). I tackled the first cycle by implementing descriptive and
narrative coding methods (Saldaa, 2009). I chose descriptive coding for the informal
interviews, field notes, photographs, and video recordings because its primary goal is
to assist the reader to see what you saw and to hear what you heard (Saldaa, 2009,
p. 71) and further provided an organizational grasp of the study.
16
Findings
This section captures the formal interviews between the teacher and me, and
moreover, the examples provide a means with which to further observe and examine
the teachers ideologies and identities.
Interview with Ms. Max

From the first week of school until the last week of my observations, Ms.
Maxs classroom routine seemed to run in a smooth and controlled manner. Ms. Max
describes her students as struggling and views Title I funding as a means for providing
additional academic support.
Throughout my time with Ms. Max, she was confident in her decision-making
as well as fair and consistent when interacting with students. I began to wonder if she
was even aware of the confidence she exuded so as part of the exit interview, I asked
Ms. Max to tell me more about her class and the way it was run. The response below
begins to layout the ways in which Ms. Max perceived herself and her role in the
classroom:
You know theres always that kid thats going to be really challenging, but
I dont have those kids this year. Maybe, Im just more comfortable with
my grade level and I know what to do now. Maybe, Im more
knowledgeable about how to handle situations. I feel more
knowledgeable and I can kinda gauge how things are going to turn out.
(Interview, Ms. Max, 12/09/2014)
From this conversation, one can see the ways in which Ms. Max begins to
reflect on her practice then begins to link her effectiveness and decrease in behavioral
problems to her feeling more comfortable and knowledgeable with her job. As such,
Ms. Maxs level of confidence and knowledge is reflected in her positive perception
of self.
Another factor that contributed to Ms. Maxs growth in knowledge and
confidence was her work and experience in graduate studies. In what follows, Ms. Max
describes the ways in which her graduate work has helped to strengthen and improve
her teaching abilities:
I think Im less ignorant because now, Im not satisfied with everything I
do. I think before I mightve been because I didnt know any better, but
now I think it helps. Now, I know that I can do that better and its exciting
because I feel different. I know Im different (laughs) and knowledgeable.
(Interview, Ms. Max, 12/09/2014)
Her willingness to reflect upon her teaching not only places herself
accountable for her effectiveness in the classroom, it also fuels her need to improve as
she gains more experience(s) and knowledge. She recounts her first year of teaching,
when she did not think about why she was doing things in particular way with her
students. She describes her then self as ignorant because she now realizes and
17
underscores the importance of reflecting or, as she refers to it, thinking about what
she does with the students and, perhaps more importantly, how she does it.
Interview with Ms. Sally

This year proved to be quite the challenge for Ms. Sally. The quotidian stresses
every teacher faces were coupled and intensified by the daunting, yet rewarding
experience of being pregnant with her first child. On several occasions, she told me
how her husband and family were concerned with her stress levels. In the next section,
Ms. Sally begins to tell me what it is like for her to teach at a low-income school.
As a Title I school, we are given resources to help out those kids and get
them where they need to be because guardians or the parents or whoever
is with them is not able to give them that. A lot of my family, after the
baby, want me to go to a non-title school (Interview, Ms. Sally,
12/11/2014).
When asked how she felt about moving to an affluent school, Ms. Sally
responded with the following:
I like being with these students. I like students who crave attention cause
I feel like you can work with them easier. Theyre a lot easier to reach if
youre paying attention. If you go to another school thats not a title, youre
going to have to deal with the parents, and isnt that the purpose of being a
teacher? To work with the students? (Interview, Ms. Sally, 12/11/2014)
In a sense, Ms. Sally provides a counter-narrative for what it is like to work at
a school that qualifies for Title I funding. She describes the students as craving
attention and uses that as an opportunity to enhance her rapport and effectiveness in
the classroom. She thinks that moving to an affluent school would only turn the tables
around, leaving her to work with parents craving her attention rather than the students.
Ms. Sally believes challenging situations with students are what help make a good
teacher. Thus, Ms. Sallys narrative identity correlates with her students, as she believes
their successes and failures are a direct reflection of her.
Interview with Ms. Lucy

Ms. Lucys interview revealed the ways in which her narrative was highly
influenced by the school as an institution and teacher culture. In the next section, Ms.
Lucy discusses her experiences teaching at low-income school:
I knew that I loved teaching, but you never think of the behaviors. Then I
thought, maybe I dont want to do this. Then I thought, maybe I really
dont have any control. Maybe its me, but then they [students] go to other
teachers and its the kids. I mean, yeah, you have some control, but
sometimes, its just who they are (Interview, Ms. Lucy, 12/11/2014)
From her comment, one can begin to see the marginalization occurring within
the narrative as she begins to think, maybe its me, but then realizes that its not her,
its the kids. In this, one can see the ways in which Ms. Lucys disconnect from her
18
students has distanced herself in such a way that she feels she has no control over the
ways that her students behave.
Conclusion
The school as an institution played a pivotal role in how the teachers framed
their narrative identities. The schools implicit expectations further established the
norms for the teacher culture as well as things like teachers perceptions, values, and
classroom practice. For example, every faculty restroom door had a poster with a
message displayed in large print. The posters messages all related to cultural deficit
perspectives that implicitly influence teachers perceptions and overall classroom
practice. Messages such as the ones just mentioned served as the crux for the ways in
which teachers framed their narratives. Arguably, the posters affirmed the notion that
working at Title I comes with children who are poor and are from broken homes that
lack love and attention. Clearly, such posters and messages are problematic in the ways
in which they frame the teacher culture and implicitly influence teachers narratives,
perceptions, and interactions in classrooms.
Perhaps the bigger issue is that interactions in classrooms are not only
reflections of teachers as individuals as much as they are reflections of a larger
institutionalized system in place to privilege and reproduce ideologies. Moreover, class
and race are centrally placed within this institutionalized system where certain ideas
are allowable and others are not. This in turn informs the shifts that occur within
teachers narrative identities because it is the institutionalized system that influences
what teachers go on to resist and not resist.
Ultimately, the teachers discourse served as a site where teachers identities are
played out, and also reflected the influences of the school as an institution, teacher
culture, and issues of power relations. Subjectivity additionally brought forth the ways
in which teachers made sense of their classroom practice while highlighting teacher
and student power relations. Subjectivity or as Weedon (1997) describes conscious
and unconscious thoughts and emotions, which can account for the relationship
between the individual and the social (p. 3) facilitates in the process of how the
teachers learn the particular values and beliefs upheld by the school as an institution.
References
Analysing identities in discourse: Discourse approaches to politics, society and culture. (2008). R. Dolon & J.
Todoli Eds.). Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Banks, J. A. (2006). Democracy, diversity, and social justice: Educating citizens for the public interest
in a global age. In G. Ladson-Billings & W. F. Tate (Eds.), Education research in the public interest:
Social justice, action, and policy (pp. 141-157). New York: Teachers College Press.
Darder, A., & Torres, R. (2013). Latinos and education: A critical reader (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
Del Alba Acevedo, L. et al. (Eds.). (2001). Telling to live: Latina feminist testimonios. Durham: Duke
University Press.
Delgado Bernal, D. et al., (Eds.). (2006). Chicana/Latina education in everyday life: Feminista perspectives on
pedagogy and epistemology. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
19
Gee, J. (2001). Identity as an Analytic Lens for Research in Education. Review of Research in Education, 25,
99-125.
Gee, J. P. (2010). An introduction to discourse analysis: Theory and method. New York, NY: Routledge.
Grad, H. & Martn Rojo, L. (2008). Identities in discourse: An integrative view. In R. Dolon & J. Todoli
(Eds.). Analysing identities in discourse: Discourse approaches to politics, society and culture (pp. 3-28).
Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Hancock, D. R. & Algozzine, B. (2011). Doing case study research: A practical guide for beginning researchers.
New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Heath, S. B. (1983). Ways with words: Language, life, and work in communities and classrooms. New York, NY:
Cambridge University Press.
Heath, S. B., & Street, B. V. (2008). Ethnography: Approaches to language and literacy research. New York, NY:
Teachers College Press.
Milner, H.R. (2007). Race, culture, and researcher positionality: Working through dangers seen, unseen,
and unforeseen. Educational Researcher, 36(7), 388-400.
Milner, H.R. (2010). What does teacher education have to do with teaching? Implications for diversity
studies. Journal of Teacher Education, 61(1-2), 118-131.
Moore, J. (2009). Visions of culture. NY: AltaMira Press.
Norton, B. (2000). Identity and language learning: Gender, ethnicity and educational change. Harlow, England:
Pearson Education.
Weedon, C (1997). Feminist practice and poststructuralist theory (2nd ed.) MA: Blackwell Publishing
Tiffany Farias-Sokoloski works at The Office of Organizational Learning and Professional

Development, San Antonio Independent School District. Correspondence regarding this article can be
addressed to the author at [email protected].
20
Negotiating a Democratic Learning Space through Teacher

Cultural Narrative
Patricia DiCerbo
The George Washington University
This study examines 23 in-service teachers cultural perspectives, as displayed by interactions within
a graduate course on diversity at a North American university. The study draws from sociocultural
theory that emphasizes culturally responsive pedagogy, and the relationship between lived experience
and worldview. An assumption is that, by providing opportunities to reflect on their cultural
identities, teacher perspectives may be refocused to meet the needs of different students. Qualitative
analyses examine how teachers construct their cultural identities with respect to dimensions such as
race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and language, as well as how teachers relate these identities to
the larger community. Over the course of a semester, teachers began to articulate new understandings
of cultural privilege, and to acknowledge the influence of cultural diversity within their school
communities. Findings point to the strength of narrative in teacher education for cultural
responsiveness.
Keywords: Cultural identity, cultural responsiveness, teacher education
Introduction
Strengthening cultural responsiveness and willingness to engage with issues of
diversity is a critical piece of teacher education (Hayes & Juarez, 2012). As defined by
Ladson-Billings (1994), cultural responsiveness is a pedagogy that uses cultural
referents to impart knowledge, skills, and attitudes" (p. 382). Cultural responsiveness
is therefore a prospective remedy for the mismatch of cultural identities that can
occur when the profiles of teachers and their students are wildly dissimilar (Foster,
Lewis, & Onafowara, 2003). This paper traces teachers cultural identities as
demonstrated by interactions within a graduate course on diversity in education.
Theoretical Perspectives
The study draws from socio-cultural theory that emphasizes, first, the
criticality of culture and the part it plays in a teachers identity and pedagogy, and
second, the notion of narrative as means to capture the relationship between lived
experience and worldview. Culture, defined by Dewey (1916) is the capacity for
constantly expanding the range and accuracy of ones perception of meanings (p.
123). Within the theoretical construct of this study, culture is viewed through the
frame of positioning theory, which emphasizes the interactions between self and
other that shape our social reality. Positioning theory conjectures that cultural
identities are not static but rather fluctuate in response to these interactions
21
(Andreouli, 2010). The assumption of this study is that, through written cultural
autobiography and written and verbal dialogue, teachers will come to understand
cultural identity and its influence on pedagogical practices and teacher-student
relationships. An expectation is that this examination will carry over into the
classroom and support a more ethical, equitable, democratic space for diverse
students (Bartolom, 2004) as teachers become more responsive to cultural
differences.
Vital to teachers cultural responsiveness is making the deliberate choice to
embrace student difference and assume student competence (Gay, 2000). Engaging
teachers in meaningful dialogue can provide a basis for them to clarify and push the
boundaries of their own deeply held cultural beliefs (Assaf & Dooley, 2010), beliefs
which may stifle cultural responsiveness. The mutual shaping that occurs as ideas
are shared through dialogue creates opportunities for individual worldviews to be
enhanced (Stewart & McClure, 2013, p. 95). Articulating ones cultural beliefs
through narrative is a dialogic process that similarly engages individuals in (de)
constructing cultural identities through the narrative choices they make (Clandinin &
Connelly, 2000). Narrative in this study is defined as the whole of the written and
verbal exchanges undertaken by teachers throughout the course.
Study Description
This qualitative study documents in-service teachers unfolding perspectives on
the cultural identities they claim for themselves. The study is guided by the question,
first, of how teachers construct their cultural identities with respect to race, ethnicity,
socioeconomic status, language, and other dimensions of difference, and second,
how teachers relate their own cultural identities to the larger community including
the students they teach.
Methods
Participants. The study examines the cultural perspectives of 23 in-service
teachers (all female) who enrolled in an American university graduate certificate to
work with culturally and linguistically diverse learners. Teachers were drawn from
rural K-12 school districts; they represent different grade levels (K-12) and subject
areas (all core subjects, ESL, Spanish, reading, special education).
The study focuses on teacher interactions within the first course in the
program sequence, Development and Diversity, which is taught by the researcher.
The course intentionally involves teachers in the exploration of their cultural
identities, taking the stance that only then can they comprehend and appreciate
their students cultural backgrounds (Ndura, 2004, p. 1). Thus, course texts
challenge teachers perspectives, and emphasize the importance of noticing our own
assumptions, biases and understandings when confronted with difference.
Data Sources and Analyses. Data sources include teachers written cultural
autobiographies and verbatim dialogue related to diversity. Data were analyzed using
22
a grounded theory approach (Birks & Mills, 2011) that incorporated both open and
selective coding; and clustered findings by prominent themes arising from the data.
To begin the process of weaving a narrative of cultural identity, teachers are
asked to compose a cultural autobiography describing various aspects of their culture
and the effect on their lives and teaching. Teachers are asked to describe their
personal or individual development; interactions or experiences where they had a
newfound understanding of anothers culture; and the ethnic, linguistic, racial,
socioeconomic affiliations that have been a part of their life, and influenced who
they are.
In addition to a cultural autobiography, teachers are asked to extend their
narrative through face-to-face and online dialogue with peers. Dialogues are semi-
structured (i.e., focusing questions that relate to the current topic are provided). Each
dialogue takes place over the course of one week or more. These additional
narratives demonstrate teacher capacity for transforming their cultural perspectives
through interactions.
For this paper, analyses were limited to two sets of dialogue especially salient
to the notion of cultural responsiveness: A discussion of implicit bias in response to
results from one or more implicit association tests, and a discussion of explicit bias in
response to a video of a social experiment. These discussions occurred near the
midpoint and end of the course for these 23 teachers.
Results and Discussion

Dimensions of Culture in Written Cultural Autobiographies
As expressed in their written cultural autobiographies, teachers constructed
their cultural identities in terms of race, ethnicity, language, socioeconomic status,
religion, and gender - dimensions of diversity specifically mentioned in the
assignment. Cultural identity was also defined in terms of unique experiences or
perspectives that teachers indicated were of importance. This section presents the
individual dimensions of diversity identified. Dimensions are in descending order of
frequency (i.e., the number of teachers who included this dimension in their cultural
autobiographies).
Race. A majority of teachers (18/23) assigned themselves to one or more
racial categories. Thirteen of the twenty-three teachers identified themselves as
Caucasian or White, one as Asian, one as Hispanic/Latina, one as Black, and two as
racially mixed (African American/Cherokee) European/Native American).
Socioeconomic status. Eighteen of the twenty-three teachers described
their past or current socioeconomic status (i.e., blue collar, working class, middle or
upper middle class) as part of their cultural identity. However, many teachers also
avoided or qualified this terminology, choosing to situate more precisely with regard
to status (e.g., I grew up in a working community I consider myself a middle class
citizen based on the assets I own and my educational background -T15). Teachers
who qualified their status were from low, middle and higher income backgrounds.
23
Religion. Sixteen of the teachers identified themselves as religious or having a

religious background that included Baptist, Catholic, Christian, Evangelical Christian,
Hindu or simply church. In many cases, religion was described as a strong
influence on these teachers cultural identities (e.g., I firmly believe that my life has a
distinct plan and purpose. I am a teacher because I believe this to be my calling -
T16).
Ethnicity. Less than half of the teachers (9) identified their ethnic affiliation.
Among the nine, the following ethnicities were identified: Anglo/English, French,
German, Irish, Scandinavian, Scottish, Slovakian, Southern, Welsh. In a face-to-face
discussion following the cultural autobiography assignment, teachers referred to the
problem of naming their ethnic group.
Language. Eight teachers identified their native language and other languages
that they spoke well or fluently. One Hispanic/Latina teacher explained, my
mother tried very hard to keep me grounded, and to keep me true to my culture; by
this time, I spoke English most of the time, and sometimes even to her. I would
sometimes mix Spanish and English and she would sternly say, You either speak
Spanish or English but not both at the same time - T5)
Gender. Only two of the teachers specifically mentioned their own gender
(female), both in a simple declarative (e.g., I am a 49-year old female).
Unique experience or perspective. Teachers, too, chose to describe
personal experiences or qualities that did not fit within the other categories of
diversity. Teachers wrote, for example, of mental illness within their family and of
mothers who modeled a love of reading. Teachers described their passion for
teaching, their shyness, their persistence. This emphasis on the personal may be
related to the high value placed on being a unique and independent person that is
one hallmark of the American culture (Leichtman, Wang, & Pillemer, 2003, p. 92). It
may also be a reflection of the limitations on fully capturing ones cultural identity
solely in terms of a small number of cultural dimensions.
Summary of Dimensions of Culture

Overall, teachers in this study were more apt to identify with race,
socioeconomic status, and religion than with any other dimensions of diversity.
However, assigning their race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status was problematic
for many teachers, including those who chose to name one or more affiliations.
Encouraging these teachers to move beyond what may be considered an
underdeveloped sense of cultural identity is viewed as essential to the process of
gaining cultural responsiveness (Bender, Negi, & Fowler, 2010).
Cultural Positioning in Written Cultural Autobiographies

Teachers cultural autobiographies also demonstrate the ways in which they
position themselves within the larger culture. Four main themes depicting teachers
24
view of their cultural identities or place emerged from the data, though these
categories were not mutually exclusive.
Culturally congruent with the dominant culture. Ndura (2005) found in
her study of teachers cultural identities that, sometimes, an individual's own cultural
identity is so embedded in the core mainstream culture that his or her micro culture
is seen as inconsequential or even trivialized (p. 12). Similarly, the majority of
cultural autobiographies analyzed for the current study demonstrated these teachers
belief that they had no culture other than being part of a particular segment of
American culture (e.g., When I think about diversity in terms of my family, there
was not much. They are all white, middle class -T12).
In contrast, three cultural autobiographies demonstrated a different
perspective, that of being a cultural outsider (e.g., everybody at [name of
university] did not appreciate the presence of Black students in that school, not even
the teachers - T2). Teachers who wrote of alienation were from diverse racial
categories. In addition, teachers did not express the idea that they were outsiders in
all areas of their lives. Instead, they wrote of situations where they could draw
parallels to the feelings their students might be experiencing.
Culturally privileged. As teachers reflected on their cultural
autobiographies, one conclusion they made was that they had privileges not available
to others privileges in the form of community ties, relative financial security and
adult role models who emphasized a strong work ethic, respect for others, and
education. Teachers also expressed the idea that since their own cultural
autobiography was one of privilege, they owe it to their students to support them in
their struggles. One teacher reasoned: I am teaching children with needs, who may
not have someone in their life to expose them to adventures of the world or to
hope (T14).
The idea that we hold a relatively privileged position in society has possible
negative effects on our teaching. Zwiers (2007), for example, speaks of the linguistic
enabling (p. 107) that he found in a seventh grade classroom as teacher expectations
of student inability were linked to student opportunities and outcomes.
Changing in response to lived experience. Teacher cultural
autobiographies reflected a sense of cultural identity as mutable, primarily as a result
of exposure to other places and people through literature, work, migration or travel.
As one teacher reported, I developed a newfound understanding of other cultures
through my experience teaching ESL for church (T10). Another teacher described
her move to a more insular community in which racial tension combined with a
southern, rural culture where everyone knew each other since generations back left
me an outsider for the first time in my life - T18). Writing about encounters with
new communities and cultures seemed to facilitate teachers growing cultural
awareness.
Free of cultural bias. Cultural bias in teaching refers to behaviors that
acknowledge only the contributions and perspectives of the dominant social group
25
(Strickland, 2000). Cultural bias, for example, influences the choice of literature read
class, or the role models displayed. Teachers in this study wrote little about their
cultural biases in the autobiography assignment, choosing to focus on their lack of
bias or acceptance of diversity (e.g., I do not judge them [my students] for their race
or socioeconomic status; I would only be a hypocrite if I did - T14; I have
consistently been drawn towards people who are different from me - T9).
Denying the reality of cultural bias may be seen as a natural defense since
acknowledging bias is uncomfortable for most individuals. However, ignoring
cultural difference and the perceptions we have may further societal inequities rather
than lessen them (Holoien & Shelton, 2012). One teacher touched on this in her
concluding remarks: by viewing people as so similar I think I have failed to
appreciate that the beauty of people is in their differences (T4).
Summary of Cultural Positioning

A majority of the teachers in this study positioned themselves as part of the
dominant, privileged culture, sometimes in contrast to the students they teach. On
the whole, teachers positioned themselves as responsive to cultural difference and
free of cultural bias. Through the development of cultural autobiography, teachers
had the opportunity to reflect more deeply on the concept of cultural identity and its
influence on their lives.
Teacher Dialogue
Implicit bias. Teachers are asked to assess their implicit or unconscious
biases using one of several tests (implicit.harvard.edu), and discuss the implications
for themselves and their students. Unlike the earlier cultural autobiographies, teacher
dialogue demonstrated the willingness of some teachers to accept implicit biases as
both inevitable and a source of learning. The following excerpt from one discussion
is representative of this finding:
And because people tend to think of themselves as normal or
good, anything different is viewed as the opposite bad! This
is how bias is made, and, depending on how strong a feeling a
person may have, prejudice and hatred. So I wonder, for those
of us who do oppress our unintentional instinctive bias and do
treat people equally, do we really? Or do we just think and hope
we do? (T1)
...I also wonder whether my personal biases may affect the way
that I interact with others more than I am aware. Regardless of
how accurate the tests were, I think they served their purpose in
encouraging us to consider this. (T16)
As the discussion moved from the teachers own biases to their classrooms,
teachers demonstrated that, even when they do not recognize or openly admit to the
26
biases they themselves hold, they notice bias in the language or behavior of their
students. As one teacher remarked:
I can help students recognize their own bias by their comments
made in class I can use them as an opportunity to teach and
reflect. I had a student refer to Muslims as diaper heads in class
because her dad used the phrase she admitted. I asked her to
think about her word choice and the connotation and how that
would make others feel (T10)
The discussion of implicit bias appeared to be an engaging one for teachers,
and teachers drew from course materials, their areas of expertise and day-to-day
experiences to describe their perspectives.
Summary of Implicit Bias Dialogue

Teacher dialogue demonstrated differences in teacher acceptance of their
own unconscious biases. While some teachers considered the possibility, teachers
also chose to emphasize the biases of other people, including their students.
Teachers showed a willingness to engage with their students on sensitive issues, and
to connect course discussions to their teaching. In general, teacher dialogue
demonstrated more acceptance of cultural identity and its influence than was evident
in their written autobiographies.
Explicit bias. Teachers were asked to view and discuss a video related to a
social experiment conducted by American teacher Jane Elliott. This blue
eyes/brown eyes experiment examines how students' beliefs about themselves as
successful learners may be dependent on whether or not they are part of the
dominant group. One teacher rejected the relevance of the experiment, suggesting
that cultural bias is not a significant part of the current social climate:
In a time when discrimination and hate was prevalent it may have
seemed necessary to conduct an experiment such as this one. .
Schools have been integrated for so long that our students do not
see the difference between themselves except maybe for language
differences and socioeconomic differences. (T13)
Teachers were uncomfortable with the experiment depicted in the video but
the majority also saw it as an important learning experience, explicitly linking the idea
of cultural privilege to student performance (e.g., A two-day experiment of
experiencing both inferiority and superiority made so much difference. All I can
think after seeing this is how must a lifetime of experiencing either inferiority or
superiority affect someone? - T12).
Several teachers recognized the limitations that their individual cultural
identities impose on their worldview and ability to empathize (e.g., As much as we
long to understand that or think we do understand that as a white woman in the
middle class I know that it isnt something I can fully understand (T8). This piece of
27
dialogue is indicative of teachers emerging ease with referring to race, and with
describing race as a socially powerful concept.
In some instances, teachers responded to the feelings engendered by the social
experiment shown in the video by identifying themselves as a possible agent of social
change (e.g., I remember the little girl saying their group did poorly because they just
kept thinking about those collars they had to wear. From just watching, I want to be
a teacher who removes those collars! -T7; How can we become more aware of our
own biases and prejudices and what can we do to change them? -T8). This
discussion demonstrates recognition among these teachers that we all play a part in
creating and upholding inequities. It contrasts with the cultural autobiographies
written at the beginning of the semester in that recognition.
Summary of Explicit Bias Dialogue

Overall, teacher dialogue demonstrated an understanding of the influence of
cultural bias on learning. The effect of the social experiment on student performance
resonated with teachers and they were able to make connections to their own
classrooms. A majority of teachers responded by acknowledging their privilege in
society and their power and responsibility as teachers.
Conclusions
This study examined teachers perspectives in relation to the construction of
cultural identity demonstrated within a graduate course on diversity in education. Of
special significance is the opportunity the course afforded for extending cultural
awareness through written and verbal interactions. Limitations of the study include
those imposed by the constraints of the course assignments and course length.
Assignment instructions framed teacher discussions in particular ways that might not
occur in the absence of those instructions. Although the ten weeks of the course
were long enough for teachers to develop the trust demonstrated in their dialogue, a
second semester would have allowed for a deeper understanding of outcomes for
their students. Nonetheless, findings point to the strength of narrative in teachers
recognition of cultural identity and difference.
Teachers initially struggled with where to situate themselves in terms of race,
socioeconomic status and ethnicity, and believed themselves to be relatively
unbiased. On the whole, teachers took for granted their cultural identities as typical
of their communities. Teachers took for granted, too, the ways in which aspects of
our diversity position us as privileged or its opposite in society. Through course-
mediated dialogue, teachers began to articulate new understandings of cultural
privilege and inequities, and to acknowledge the influence of cultural diversity within
their school communities.
Given the predictability of social disparity, furthering cultural responsiveness
through teacher professional development is an important consideration. This study
helps us understand the complexities of learning to create a space for difference in
28
schools. It documents the process of teachers uncovering their own cultural

perspectives; and recognizing the influence on their teaching. Comfort with cultural
identity is a step in the process of viewing cultural difference as a rich source of
learning opportunities rather than a threat to classroom cohesion (Ndura, 2004, p.
16). In general, teachers in the study exhibited an increasing level of comfort with
explicit discussions of sensitive issues related to bias, including issues of race and
privilege. Negotiating this critical dialogue is part and parcel of a democratic school
environment. A conclusion for teacher educators is to embrace similar assignments
and conversations as a means to extend teacher insights and, ultimately,
responsiveness to cultural difference.
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Patricia DiCerbo, Graduate School of Education & Human Development, The George
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[email protected]
30
Linguistic Identities and Pedagogical Practices
Linguistic Identities and Pedagogical Practices:

Transnational Bilingual Teachers
Brenda Oriana Aranda

Northern Illinois University
This ethnographic study explored how the linguistic practices of seven bilingual transnational teachers
shape their pedagogy within public education on the U.S.-Mexico borderlands, the frontera
(Anzalda, 1987; Staudt, 2008). Within a transnational context, the histories of teachers multiple
identities were analyzed drawing from theories of Funds of Knowledge (Moll, Amanti, Neff, &
Gonzlez, 1992; Gonzlez, Moll, & Amanti, 2005), which value the historically and culturally
developed pedagogies of the home. Data included interviews, observations, and artifacts. Findings
showed the intertwining of language and identity in practitioners narratives and practices. Within the
borderlands, bilingualism and biliteracy practices illustrate both structure and agency. Intersections
between language, culture, and identity were central to the study. Bilingual educators benefit from
practice that incorporates the full range of linguistic repertoires.
Keywords: Ethnography, bilingual teachers, transnational teachers, borderlands,

identity
Este estudio etnogrfico explor cmo las prcticas lingsticas de siete maestras bilinges
transnacionales dan forma a su pedagoga dentro de la educacin pblica en la frontera Mxico-
Estados Unidos, la frontera (Anzalda, 1987; Staudt, 2008). Situadas en un contexto
transnacional, se analizaron las historias e identidades de las docentes, considerando un marco terico
de capital cultural (Moll, Amanti, Neff & Gonzlez, 1992; Gonzlez y Moll, Amanti, 2005)
que valora los conocimientos histricamente y culturalmente desarrollados en el hogar. La recoleccin
de datos incluy entrevistas, observaciones y artefactos. Los resultados demostraron el entrelazamiento
del lenguaje e identidad en las narrativas y en la prctica docente. Dentro de las zonas fronterizas, el
bilingismo y la lectoescritura en dos idiomas ilustran tanto estructura como capacidad de
desplazamiento. Las conexiones entre lengua, cultura e identidad fueron fundamentales en este estudio.
Los educadores bilinges se benefician de una prctica docente que incorpore toda la gama de sus
repertorios lingsticos.
Palabras clave: Etnografa, maestros bilinges, maestros transnacionales, la frontera,

identidad
Purpose
The rationale for this study was to investigate how bilingual practitioners
linguistic profiles influence their pedagogical practice. This ethnographic study aimed
to discover how dual language teachers developed self-knowledge and views about
31
learning and teaching. Extensive interviews and observational data were explored in
order to understand how linguistic repertoires shaped K-2 bilingual educators
pedagogy. The focus was on practitioners who are bilingual/biliterate in English and
Spanish and teach in the context of public education at the elementary level on the
U.S.-Mexico border region.
This research is situated in a U.S.-based context where Latinos are the largest
minority public school population (K-12) and Spanish is the most common language
other than English (Prieto, 2009). Educating Latino children is a pressing issue as this
population is expanding in the U.S. (Rong & Preissle, 2009). Garca and Kleifgen
(2010) convey that, since 80% of emergent bilinguals are Latinos, the meeting point
of language use and educational opportunities should be addressed. Regarding
language use, analysis of census data showed that most Latinos have lost fluency in
Spanish by the third generation (Gndara & Contreras, 2009). Bilingual education is a
useful pedagogical tool that addresses the learning needs of diverse student
populations (Garca, 2009; Hornberger, 2004; Prez, 2004).
There is a recent trend in U.S. bilingual education to encourage dual language
instruction, pushing teachers to follow an agenda which promotes bilingualism and
biliteracy (Palmer & Martnez, 2013). Dual language programs integrate native English
speakers and speakers of another language, providing instruction in both languages for
all students; two-way immersion programs promote bilingualism and biliteracy, grade-
level academic achievement, and positive cross-cultural attitudes and behaviors in all
students (Center for Applied Linguistics, 2013; Christian, Montone, Lindholm, &
Carranza, 1997; Lucero, 2010). Collier and Thomas (2009) describe that in dual
language programs, teachers support their students socioculturally through a
bilingual/bicultural curriculum, providing a context for students to develop
cognitively, linguistically, and academically through both languages for at least six
elementary school years.
Adopting a sociocultural approach to understand the formation of identities,
literacy practices (NLG, 1996; Street, 1984; 1993), and the continua of biliteracy
(Hornberger, 2004), this study examined the social identities of Latina bilingual-
certified teachers and their pedagogical practices along the U.S.-Mexico border.
Teachers linguistic repertoires were positioned within a Funds of Knowledge
perspective (Moll, Amanti, Neff, & Gonzlez, 1992). The focus was to explore how
female bilingual-certified educators experienced the relationship between their
identities and agency as bilingual, biliterate, and bicultural professionals teaching in
dual language programs within the U.S.-Mexico border context.
32
The following overarching research question is addressed: What are the

linguistic identities and pedagogical practices of female Latina K-2 dual language
teachers along the U.S.-Mexico frontera? The subquestions include:
Linguistic Identities:
(1) What are the linguistic backgrounds of Dual Language (DL) teachers
on the border?
(2) How do DL teachers use their bilingualism/biliteracy in the elementary
classroom?
Pedagogical Practice:
(3) What is the preferred language of instruction for Latina DL teachers?
(4) Why do DL teachers prefer to teach in Spanish, English or both?
Methodology
Research Design
The research design of this study is ethnography (Barton & Hamilton, 2000).
This methodology is appropriate to examine the linguistic identities of teachers since
ethnographic work focuses on the everyday meanings and uses of literacy in specific
cultural contexts. According to Heath & Street (2008), in language and literacy studies,
ethnographers most often choose classrooms as their focus. Ethnography is suitable
to examine how teachers identity and language practices are intertwined. Dyson and
Genishi (2005) articulate that in language and literacy studies in the interpretive
tradition, researchers are interested in how teaching and learning happen through
social participation. Moreover, many contextual actors matter in language use, among
them the purpose for communicating, the language being used, and the demographic
qualities of participants including age, gender, culture, and social class.
Data Collection
Data collection consisted of ethnographic methods which included life history
interviews with each participating teacher, and classroom observations in all seven K-
2 dual language classrooms. These observations were documented by writing extensive
field notes (Emerson, Fretz, & Shaw, 1995), integrating thick description. Following
Seidmans (2006) three-interview series as a guide, interview one was focused on the
life history to establish the context of the participants experience; interview two
focused on the details of the teaching experience to allow participants to reconstruct
the details of their experience within the context in which it occurs; interview three
was about the reflection on the meaning of their teaching experience. Three in-depth
semi-structured life history interviews were conducted with each teacher; the focus
was the linguistic profiles of bilingual teachers. The interviews were audio recorded
for analysis purposes.
Data collection consisted of (a) 21 in-depth interviews with the dual language
teachers; (b) classroom observations focusing mainly on teachers language use; and
33
(c) collection of artifacts/documents (e.g., photographs; school newsletters,

brochures, newspapers, flyers, schedules, advertisements for school events). Weekly
classroom observations lasted 15 weeks, the seven classrooms were observed
periodically, once a week on average. This time in the field during the fall semester of
2013 was dedicated to participant observation, informal interviewing, artifact
collection. The focus of the spring semester of 2014 was member checking with the
seven participating teachers.
Data Analysis
Dyson and Genishi (2005) describe data analysis as the process in which one
transforms data including field notes, interviews, and artifacts into findings. I began
such process by closely reading the transcribed interviews to write reflective memos,
which led to preliminary coding of all data, as I thought about how the literature related
the data. The twenty-one interviews were transcribed using software (Gear Player),
and I translated interview and observational data from Spanish to English as needed.
After the initial open coding, analytic codes were developed to group pieces of data
into categories of relevant information in order to address the overarching research
question guiding the study. When many examples are analyzed, common threads or
themes are found, meaning some of the categories and subcategories frequently recur
(Dyson & Genishi, 2005) Themes were identified by using a manual color-coding
process of data. Data were analyzed in light of the research questions and theoretical
framework guiding this study.
Context and Participants

This study took place among K-2 dual language teachers in a public school
district in Texas. This is a small local district, consisting of five elementary schools,
two middle schools, and one high school; some of these schools are located in semi-
rural areas. The teachers in this study work in the smallest elementary K-5 school, La
Escuelita (all names are pseudonyms), where there is one strand of the dual language
program model. The school district is located in a colonia, which implies its location on
the outskirts of town, with a high level of poverty and a high presence of immigrants,
although the majority of the children are U.S. citizens. The U.S. Census Bureau (2013)
provides the following demographic data about Desierto Esperanza (pseudonym), the
small Texas city where the research was conducted: of 6,321 persons, 90.8% are of
Latina/o origin; furthermore, 80% of the population speaks a language other than
English at home, mostly Spanish. The persons who are living below the poverty level
comprise 24% of the community. The purposeful sample included seven participants
who were selected because they were Mexican-origin Latinas, Spanish-English
speakers, DL educators at the early elementary levels (K-2) in a small school district in
the El Paso region. For each grade level, two teachers were partnered, one teacher
provided instruction in Spanish while another one taught in English.
34
Findings
Key findings showed the intertwining of language and identity in practitioners
narratives and practices. This piece explored the linguistic backgrounds of DL teachers
on the borderlands which were shaped by country of origin and languages, schooling
experiences, and transnationalism. Data illustrated how teachers constructed different
identities for themselves when they used language in different contexts. The national
origin of the seven teachers was divided between Mexico and the U.S. Four teachers
were born in the U.S., three in El Paso and one in California, while three of them were
born in Mexico, two teachers in the border town of Ciudad Jurez and one in
Acapulco, Mxico. When the teachers talked about their country of origin and the
languages they grew up with, they also self-identified as Mexican or Mexican-
American. Three teachers, Miranda, Felicity, and Marisol described themselves as
Mexicans, two of them having been raised and schooled entirely in Mexico and one
schooled in the U.S. who communicated in Spanish at home. The four teachers who
self-identified as Mexican-Americans, Andrea, Diana, Cassandra, and Marissa had
Mexican parents and had been schooled in the U.S., and for two of them the language
of communication at home was Spanish; for the other two it was English.
Regarding schooling experiences, three of the seven participating teachers,
Andrea, Diana, and Miranda were enrolled in transitional bilingual education programs
in the U.S. during elementary school. There were two U.S.-based teachers, Cassandra
and Marissa, who did not receive any type of bilingual education instruction. Felicity
and Marisol received their elementary and secondary education entirely in Spanish in
Mexico. Transnational teachers have the ability to go back and forth to the country of
origin. In Jimnezs (2000) study about how identity influences language and literacy
development, results indicated transnational students and teachers were influenced by
their borderland experiences; their identities were connected to their status as
bicultural, bilingual, and biliterate persons. Two focal teachers were part of cross-
border families (Vlez-Ibez & Grenberg, 1992) themselves. Andrea as a child lived
in Jurez and would come to school to El Paso during her early schooling years; her
family moved to El Paso thereafter. Marisol was also part of a cross-border family as
an adult; she would cross from Jurez to El Paso to attend English as a Second
Language (ESL) classes at a community college. In this study, the bilingual teachers
linguistic resources included varieties of Spanish and English.
Situated in sociocultural theory, this research explored the identities and
practices of bilingual Latina teachers working with young Mexican American children.
We can learn from the individual and collective stories with the ultimate goal of
identifying strengths that can better inform bilingual teacher preparation and practice
by paying particular attention to the linguistic histories of bilingual teachers multiple
identities. Language learning, language use, and ideas about speakers of a given
language are strongly shaped by the family environment, and schooling, and whether
one has a closer connection to Mexico or the U.S., or easily navigates between both
worlds. The levels of bilingualism in the seven teachers covered a broad range, even
35
when they taught at the same public school with the same Texas issued credentials.
Gonzlez (2005) also found that within the borderlands, ideas about languages are
neither uniform nor fixed. Drawing on teachers personal and professional
biographies, as well as institutional and cultural values and attitudes, identity offers a
more complex way of thinking about teaching (Benson & Cooker, 2013).
Teachers linguistic identities were not limited to being Mexican or Mexican
Americans, their identities proved multiple and constantly negotiated as their linguistic
repertoires in English and Spanish varied widely. The teachers ranged from being
closely tied to Spanish and Mexico to being more identified with the U.S. and English.
Within the context of the U.S.-Mexico border, varying degrees of bilingualism and
biliteracy development result from constant meaningful experiences with two
languages. Furthermore, the frontera provided ample opportunities to engage in two
languages throughout the community. Language learning, language use, and language
ideologies were shaped by the family environment, schooling experiences, and
transnational trajectories. The levels of bilingualism and biliteracy in the seven teachers
covered a broad spectrum, although they held the same teaching credentials. Identity
development is closely tied to the context of language learning.
Discussion
This study generated important findings applicable to dual language programs
and classrooms. The importance of adhering to a structure program model (Lindholm-
Leary, 2001; 2005) presupposes the equal distribution of time and resources are
determining factors in student learning. In practice, DL teachers negotiated and
decided the distribution for time; at the same time, they were language resources. In
some cases, the DL program showed limitations in teachers proficiency of Spanish
because Spanish was being spoken with mispronunciations or limited vocabulary.
Although most participating teachers agreed upon the goal of biliteracy, there may
have not been enough opportunities for all students to become biliterate, due in part
to the lack of materials and the interpretation of the program at La Escuelita.
Garca (2009) discusses that communicative practice of U.S. Latino
communities draw on both their linguistic knowledge of the Spanish language and
their cultural knowledge of the U.S. The narratives and pedagogies implemented by
the bilingual teachers in this study exemplify this merging of linguistic and cultural
knowledge to inform teaching culturally and linguistically diverse student populations.
Its significant to consider these bilingual-certified teachers received very limited
coursework or professional development on how to develop their biliteracy skills;
participants reported not having received specific courses for learning or teaching
Spanish literacy in their teaching preparation programs in the U.S. (Fuentes, 2015).
Researchers and advocates in the field of bilingual education have voiced the need for
specific development and research in biliteracy in the U.S. (Flores, Hernndez Sheets,
& Riojas Clark, 2011). It seems that teacher preparation programs do not recognize
the importance of biliteracy and Spanish skills and these areas get insufficient attention
36
in the preparation and development of bilingual teachers. Biliteracy development for

teachers is also an important step for preparing and retaining qualified teachers (Flores
et al., 2011).
Based on the findings, it is argued that within the context of the U.S.-Mexico
border, bilingualism and biliteracy are the result of countless meaningful experiences
with two languages. Some of the meaningful experiences that are particular to border
residents and were embedded in the participants linguistic identities included having
and visiting Spanish-speaking family members living in Mexico, namely grandparents
and siblings, like in the case of Diana, Andrea, and Cassandra. Another common
practice was to live on the Mexican side of the border and attend school in the U.S.,
either as a child or as an adult, as experienced by Andrea, Felicity, and Marisol. In the
case of Marisol, for a period of time she lived in the U.S., but kept commuting to
Mexico to work as a school teacher. Most of the participating teachers, six out of
seven, had a concern for raising bilingual children to varying degrees; they ultimately
saw bilingualism as an asset. Furthermore, the frontera (Staudt, 2008) is fertile ground
for bilingualism and biliteracy to develop since there are ample opportunities to engage
in two languages.
Conclusion
Language learning and language use are strongly shaped by the family
environment and schooling, whether one has a closer connection to Mexico or the
U.S., or easily navigates between both worlds. The levels of bilingualism in the seven
participating teachers covered a broad range, even when they taught at the same public
school with the same Texas-issued credentials. Gonzlez (2005) also found that within
the borderlands, ideas about languages are neither uniform nor fixed. The linguistic
practices of Mexican-origin Latina dual language teachers on the border illustrated the
dynamics of structure and agency. Social approaches to language education research
have reconceptualized language identities as multiple, dynamic, and contested. For
women of Mexican-origin, including the participants, negotiating multiple identities is
embedded in the continuum of daily life (Gonzlez, 2005). The participating teachers
illustrated how identity development is an important outcome of language learning,
and the context where this learning takes place. The linguistic identities of the seven
bilingual teachers were reflected in their pedagogical practice within a dual language
setting. The findings were helpful to expand our vision about how teachers construct
different identities for themselves when they use language in different contexts. The
intersections between language, literacy, and identity were central to the study, thus,
suggesting that bilingual educators benefit from preparation and practice that
incorporates the full range of teachers language and literacy repertoires.
This inquiry provides the basis to argue that both future bilingual teachers and
practitioners should be encouraged and supported to discover and research the Funds
of Knowledge found in bilingual borderland communities. This study shed light on in-
service bilingual teachers identity and practice and strongly identifies ample
37
opportunities to contribute to both preparation and practice that integrates identity

formation, access to developing academic Spanish skills, and deep understanding of
the structure and implementation of bilingual education models. This research drew
from self-reported data and the observations of teachers practice in DL classroom
which are complex learning environments. Although the participants taught in
English-Spanish bilingual programs, findings from this study could reflect the
experiences of DL teachers who work in other languages besides Spanish and English.
This scholarly work aimed to understand teaching practices, with the goal of
contributing to the reframing of bilingual education, and the preparation and retention
of teachers.
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39
A Conceptualization of Transfer for L2 Multilingual Writing
A Conceptualization of Transfer for L2 Multilingual Writing from a

Translingual Lens: Codemeshing as Evidence of Transfer
Cristina Snchez-Martn
Illinois State University
Translingualism offers a new orientation to linguistic practices in composition as always stemming

from a context and thus, as dynamic and consisting of a continuously developing linguistic and
multimodal repertoire (Canagarajah, 2013; 2015; Horner et al., 2011; Lu and Horner, 2013).
However, SLW scholars have criticized these translingual approaches to understanding linguistic
practice, arguing that they dont offer practical ways to help language learners, especially those in the
first stages of learning a new language (Atkinson et al. 2015). I will address this criticism by
arguing that codemeshing (combining knowledge of languages in writing from a translingual
perspective) is evidence of transfer of learning (Canagarajah, 2011), and thus it should not be
avoided in the writing of emerging L2 users.
Key words: Translingualism, transfer, codemeshing, L2 writing.
Codemeshing, the negotiation of languages and modes of communication in

writing, and an integral notion of translingual writing, evidences transfer of
knowledge and thus, learning of writing. For the purpose of this presentation, L2
and multilingual writing are used interchangeably to refer to writing performed by
users of English whose main language for literacy development was not English. My
ultimate goal is to argue that L2 writing pedagogies could be reinforced by
translingualism, an approach that explains more accurately actual writing practices as
always involving the negotiation of diverse semiotic resources, by promoting the use
of codemeshing and, thus, the transfer of learning.
It is well known that number of multilingual students (also referred to as L2
writers) continues to increase in North American universities; therefore, there is an
urgent need to respond to these demographic changes with writing pedagogies that
allow them to grow as student writers in practical ways.
The question of learning how to write intrinsically relates to the notion of
transfer (generally understood as the application of knowledge learned in one setting
to a new one) (Yancey et al., 2014). Investigating what constitutes transfer of learning
implies a better understanding of learning itself and, therefore, the possibility of
implementing adequate pedagogies in the classrooms.
From a Second Language Writing (SLW hereof) standpoint the notion of
transfer has mostly been addressed as the influence of a learners L1 knowledge and
skills on L2 learning and performance and as a negative outcome or interference of
the L1 in L2 performances (DePalma & Ringer, 2011) has resulted in pedagogies that
40
encourage L2 writers to avoid all traces of their L1. Rather than encouraging L2
writers to keep learning, these constraints in writing hinder their performances. As
Kubota (1998) claims, avoiding differences (and thus, negative transfer from this
view) in rhetorical patterns between the L1 and the L2 in L2 writing has been the
major concern of Contrastive Rhetoric, with direct consequences in SLW
pedagogies. Although Kubota stated that only if similar rhetorical structures are
present across cultures, positive transfer could occur (1998, p. 75), I argue that L1
influences on L2 writing, whether they are rhetorical or linguistic and disregarding
the level of similarities between the languages at stake, depict transfer of learning
always in progress and, as such, are opportunities to develop it. In this sense,
Canagarajah points out, the deviations from a language that we see in the usage of
multilinguals might be cases of positive transfer rather than negative interference
(2011, p.413).
In their 2012 study, Kobayashi and Rinnert refer to Cooks term of
multicompetence (the compound state of a mind with two grammars, 1992),
which calls, in their opinion, for a better interpretation of transfer because, while
recognizing crosslinguistic influence, Cook (2002) argues that there is no movement
of linguistic elements from one part of the mind to another. Rather than separate
systems with clear boundaries, he conceptualizes L1 and L2 (interlanguage) as
merged or overlapping systems (p. 103).
These conceptualizations of transfer in L2 writing are limited to the cognitive
dimension of the phenomenon, overlooking the social and ecological aspects that
impact learning processes, and as DePalma and Ringer contend, ignoring the agency
of writers (p. 138), which, at the same time generates in Matsudas words a static
theory of L2 writing (1997, p. 242-244 in DePalma & Ringer, 2011, p. 137). To
account for these issues, DePalma and Ringer propose the term adaptive transfer
for both L1 and L2 writing, which they define as a conscious or intuitive process in
which composers apply and reshape their writing knowledge and experiences in
order to negotiate new and potentially unfamiliar rhetorical tasks (2011, p.141).
DePalma and Ringer recognize the multilingual nature of transfer since, they claim
writers have the agency to draw from among a variety of discourses and language
varieties (p. 141), but they also state that adaptive transfer does not treat every
deviation from Standard Written English as a sign of agency (p. 144). However, as I
will further explain, whether or not writers deviate from SWE, they are already
engaging in translingual practices (Lu & Horner, 2013).
Because the notion of transfer has received more attention within the fields
of educational psychology and composition studies, I will propose a
conceptualization of transfer for L2 writing that takes into consideration principles
from DePalma and Ringers adaptive transfer and other educational psychologist and
composition scholars but that, first and foremost, is rooted in translingualism. In
fact, Leonard and Nowacek (2016) argue that transfer scholarship might be
informed by a translingual approach to composition in two main ways (p. 260).
41
First, in relation to language ideologies, transfer studies could investigate why

attitudes towards linguistic diversity are more tolerant in FYC than in subsequent
courses. Second, the nature of transfer itself is informed by translingualism, since
language difference as a locus of meaning rather than a problem () transfer
researchers might reorient their understanding of what has caused a transfer attempt
to failand what, in fact, constitutes failure (p. 260). The conceptualization of
transfer for L2 writing that I propose goes in line with their arguments, as examples
of codemeshing will show.
While the notion of transfer is being revisited in the context of L2 writing, an
approach to composition that directly implicates L2/Multilingual writers,
translingualism, is emerging in North American contexts to provide theoretical and
practical answers to the increasing changes in student populations. However, this
new orientation to writing hasnt been taken up optimistically by SLW scholars.
In fact, Atkinson et al. (2015) addressed the concerns created, they claim, as
the result of the conflation of SLW and translingualism. As a response to this letter,
Canagarajahs piece Clarifying the Relationship between Translingual Practice and L2 Writing:
Addressing Learner Identities (2015) discusses (and answers) the criticisms described
from a SLW perspective.
Atkinson et al. define SLW as an international and transdisciplinary field of
study that is concerned with any issues related to the phenomenon of writing in a
language that is acquired later in life (2015, p. 384). Studies from a SLW perspective
frequently rely on Contrastive Rhetoric, therefore, assuming that writing in one
language is intrinsically different from writing in a second language. While the
trajectory of SLW as a disciplinary area goes back to the 1960s when ESL was
consolidated as a field and Contrastive Rhetoric was first established by Kaplan
(around 1966), translingualism stands as a novel work in progress (Matsuda 2014,
p. 478) approach to composition 1 . Translingualism, emphasizes the fluidity,
malleability, and discriminatory potential of languages and, therefore, it challenges
language and writing ideologies related to the assumption of monolingualism and the
use of standard norms by calling on a more agentive use of various language
resources in constructing and negotiating meaning, identity, and even larger
ideological conditions (2015, p. 384) in all composing practices.
Some of the tenets of translingualism, as described by Lu and Horner (2016,
p. 208) are the following:
- Language is performative, not something we have but something
we do (p. 208)
- All decisions on language use inform and are informed by the
contexts in which they take place as well as economic,
geopolitical, socio-historical and cultural factors,
1This orientation to language diversity in writing was introduced by Horner et al. in 2011
(Canagarajah 2015, p.5).
42
- Difference as the norm of all utterances, which are acts of

translation inter and intra languages, media, modality in what
seems adaptations to dominant conventions or deviations (p.
208).
Finally, it is important to mention that translingualism differs from
multilingualism in its view of linguistic practices as emerging from contexts rather
than discrete systems that can be isolated and systematically measured.
Another criticism coming from SLW scholars is that a translingual approach
does not take into consideration the fact that multilingual or L2 students might want
to abide to norms considered standard for practical reasons and thus, as Ruecker
claims, translingualism might be delaying students attempts to learn standardized
language varieties (2014, p. 116 in Canagarajah 2015, p. 11). Canagarajah addresses
this criticism by saying that, from a translingual approach, standard varieties are
understood as social constructs and they are deconstructed in the classroom in order
to understand how social norms became to be dominant (p. 11). In this regard, a
translingual approach would ask students to explore ways by which they might
engage in fertile mimesis and critical agency in recontextualizing all forms of English,
including those recognized by some as standard and those not (Horner & Lu, 2013,
p. 34). Rather than teaching student writers the norms of a standard variety, an L2
writing pedagogy informed by a translingual approach would help them learn how to
negotiate those norms as well as their rationale behind and diverse forms of
reception.
Most importantly, Atkinson et al. claim that, because translingual writing
attends to the use and practices of an individuals linguistic repertoire, it has not
addressed the needs of emerging L2 writers (2015, p.384).
Codemeshing as Evidence of Transfer

It still seems unclear for SLW scholars how concrete pedagogical translingual
practices can help L2 writers improve their writing. Due to the fact that languages
are seen as fluid and continuously subject to variation, a new understanding of
competence and proficiency is necessary. From a translingual approach, learners are
language users and vice versa. Therefore, mastery in linguistic practices is assessed as
appropriate responsiveness to diverse situations and the creative use of linguistic
differences as resources in meaning-making activities. To address this criticism, I will
explain that codemeshing (a form of translanguaging in writing) (Canagarajah, 2011)
evidences transfer of learning and thus, how its use could be implemented in L2
writing courses.
The idea of codemeshing is akin to translanguaging, a term that originated
in the tradition of bilingual education (Garca, 2009), which is defined as a naturally
occurring competence that multilinguals perform in daily communicative practices,
by which they integrate languages and modalities in their learning to enhance it
(Canagarajah, 2011, p. 401-402). Translanguaging is based, according to Garca
43
(2009) on a dynamic and recursive model of bilingualism. Dynamic because it refers

to language practices that are multiple and ever adjusting to the multilingual
multimodal terrain of the communicative act (p. 144) and recursive because it
reaches back to the bits and pieces of ancestral language practices, as they are
reconstituted for new functions and as they gain momentum to thrust forward
towards the future (145). Garcas translanguaging, thus, implies an understanding
of language as action (2014) that necessarily encompasses knowledge from what
from a monolingual perspective we refer to as separate languages. The following
example shows how a kindergarten child develops her linguistic knowledge,
imperfectly (bigger > mas grande not *grander) and progressively (*grander is
a step previous before learning ms grande):
Teacher: This tree is bigger. That tree is smaller.
Adriana: [Tries out under her breath]. This tree is grander
(9/23/2007) (Garca, 2009, p. 156)
This understanding of translanguaging as action goes hand in hand with a
translingual orientation to writing. In this regard, genres are, in Bazermans words,
not just forms. Genres are forms of life, ways of being. They are frames for social
action. They are environments for learning (p. 19) which, therefore provide an
exigency for transfer as Nowacek claims (2011, p. 28) . Codemeshing is, according to
Canagarajah, the realization of translanguaging in texts (2011, p. 403). As a practice
deployed in translingual writing, codemeshing is also a learning strategy that allows a
writer to negotiate her linguistic repertoire and, as such, evidence of transfer of
learning. The examples from one of Canagarajahs students, Buthainah, show how
she strategically moves beyond the modality/one language monolingual assumption
(translanguages/codemeshes) in her literacy narrative writing.
- Example 1: Our first exposure to real English was at that airport.
The man said beaucoup de choses that I could not understand.
- Example 2: At that time, my dear reader, I have not learned
English in school yet since English was required to seventh
graders and beyond; and I was in sixth grade
Her reflection accounts for how she is codemeshing languages and
modalities: Symbols work as another way of expressing myself. I used Arabic,
poems, French, and now symbols. Limiting myself to one language isironically
limiting . . . But, experiencing more than one language, we are able to express
ourselves in different ways or the best way. So, symbols serve as another language
that words may not be the best tool to express (p. 405).
- Example 3: As I type each word in this literacy autobiography,
storms of thoughts stampede to be considered and mentioned
(p. 407).
Referring to this expression, she explains: it provides the readers of a visual
for what I felt at that time. I do not see why only bulls stampedethis verb can be
44
used figuratively as well. I do not think that this is an issue of native speakers of
English, I think that it is a stylistic choice (p. 407).
Buthainah deploys interactional strategies in her writing, which allow her to
negotiate meaning with readers. In her own words,
I really do respect the readers of my paper. And I know that
there will be different interpretations of my text. However,
acknowledging this fact and informing the reader that I-as the
author-know that they exist and that they are different thinkers
and intellectuals than I am is a gesture of respect (p. 408).
It is important to notice that, as Canagarajah explains, form (grammatical
accuracy) is not a priority for Buthainah if it is hindering meaning, because
multilinguals acknowledge that writing is multimodal, that meaning is co-constructed
and there are ecological resources that work as cues for interpretation (p. 413).
In addition, it is important to notice that Buthainah is willing to accept the fact that
there are mistakes in her writing, for example, misspelling verses as versus. As
she herself explains,
I am quite embarrassed about this error (and another mistake
below). I had multiple drafts of this essay, but did not notice this
error. Of course, if I noticed it, I would have corrected it. I could
have misspelled it, and the Word document auto-corrected it. I
was so engaged in developing the content that I did not notice it
(p.414).
A Conceptualization of Transfer for L2 Writing from a Translingual Approach

These examples demonstrate her ability to repurpose/reshape and transform
her previous knowledge (on different genres and their conventions) and the use of
different codes (Arabic, French and English) and modes (visual, linguistic). By
codemeshing strategies, she is also performing her agency by experimenting with
language and writing and thus, expanding on her knowledge of writing (p. 405), for
example, by being sensitive to the capabilities of the audience in negotiating her
text (p. 403) and assessing her readers uptake of her codemeshing strategies. As
Rounsaville et al. argue, the ability to understand prior resources and knowledge is
one of the hallmark strategies that effective writers bring with them to any new
writing context (2008, p. 98). Strategies of codemeshing require the writers to
connect in meaningful ways their prior knowledge (on writing, languages, modalities)
to new writing situations. In addition, codemeshing implies, in Reiff and Bawarshis
(2011) words, boundary crossing behavior, since the writer explicitly negotiates her
prior knowledge and readapts it in different writing scenarios.
By looking at the types of knowledge that she brings to her writing in English
by codemeshing, we can conceptualize the notion of transfer in L2 writing as:
A dynamic process of transformation in accordance with DePalma and
Ringers adaptive transfer (2011; also in Yancey et al, 2014) that affects
45
the individual and changes their identities as well as the relationship

between herself and the social activity in line with Beachs idea of
consequential transitions (defined as developmental changes in an
individual, the activities in which she engages in or both that allow for
knowledge construction, 2003, p. 55). The writer constructs her text in
relation to specific ecologies and social contexts by interacting with/in
them, thus building relationships with participants in the process
(readers, reviewers and other resources). For example, Buthainah writes
for a class, for her classmates and teacher, developing relationships with
them stemming from and allowing for the production of her writing. She
treats writing as social action (2009, p. 411). By codemeshing she
discovers the meaning of her literacy experiences in Arabic, French and
English.
Transfer involves constancy with change or finding similarities
between two writing situations but also contradictions (Beach 2003, p.
39) and thus, assuming the situatedness of writing and genres as spaces
for negotiation. Buthainah is familiarized with the conventions of
different genres and, at the same time, of how cultural, religious and
other factors influence the patterns of language use and genre
conventions.
Because every writers linguistic repertoire is unique and responds to
readers in particular ways to accomplish specific purposes, transfer of
knowledge is divergent and idiosyncratic (dePalma, 2015). Two writers
do not transfer the same knowledge to the same situation, everyones
previous knowledge and unique literacy experiences will shape their
uptake and genre performance.
Transfer is imperfect, since transferred knowledge might apply to one
specific situation but not to another one and readers uptakes determine
the trajectory of the genre. This idea goes in line with Nowaceks
argument that A robust theory of transfer must acknowledge and
account for frustrated as well as for successful integration experiences
(2011, p. 41). In this regard, as Canagarajah states in relation to BS
writing strategies, Her views () are not settled and final. As her
positions are unresolved, she would benefit from expert guidance (p.
414) because choices are not always clear-cut and there is always an
element of risk-taking in rhetoric (p. 414).
Transfer is multidirectional, since multilingual writers use their
knowledge of diverse languages and language varieties, registers and
language usage, genre patterns and modes of communication.
46
Implications for the L2 Writing Class

In order to develop pedagogies for the L2 writing class, it is essential to design
curricula that consider a conceptualization of transfer of that correlates to how actual
writing practices take place. Composition practices always involve negotiation and
thus, transfer of previous knowledge that, is, in many cases, hard to pinpoint, as
argued by Wardle (2007). Codemeshing as evidence of transfer allow us to see what
types of knowledge are being repurposed and thus, to build on them and use them
strategically in different writing situations.
In relation to how these pedagogical principles could be implemented to help
emergent L2 writers (which was the main criticism coming from SLW scholars),
several activities can be designed to accomplish this goal. For example, we could ask
students to compile a literacy portfolio with examples of different types of writing
with diverse linguistic varieties (prestigious and less prestigious ones) that made an
impact (positive or negative) on their lives and engage them in activities about the
social and ecological contexts in which the writing took place. To trace how their
knowledge developed in idiosyncratic ways, students can create diagrams/conceptual
maps in which they connect their previous writing/linguistic experiences and the
new writing/linguistic notions learned during the class.
To conclude, L2 writing courses should be approached from a translingual
lens in order to help L2 student writers develop their learning by encouraging them
to transfer their previous knowledge and codemesh rather than by asking them to
avoid traces of their previous writing and linguistic knowledge and thus, hinder not
only their communicative skills, but also, and most importantly, their learning.
References
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C. (2015). Clarifying the relationship between l2 writing and translingual writing: An open letter
to writing studies editors and organization leaders. Coll. Engl, 77, 383-386.
Bazerman, C. (1997). The life of genre, the life in the classroom. Genre and writing: Issues, arguments,
alternatives, 19-26.
Beach, K. (2003). Consequential transitions: A developmental view of knowledge propagation
through social organizations. Between school and work: New perspectives on transfer and boundary-crossing,
39-62.
Canagarajah, S. (2011). Codemeshing in academic writing: Identifying teachable strategies of
translanguaging. The Modern Language Journal, 95(3), 401-417.
Canagarajah, A. S. (2013). Translingual practice: Global Englishes and cosmopolitan relations. Routledge.
Canagarajah, A.S. (2015). Clarifying the Relationship between Translingual Practice and L2 Writing:
Addressing Learner Identities. Applied Linguistics Review, November, 2015.
DePalma, M. J. (2015). Tracing Transfer across Media: Investigating Writers' Perceptions of Cross-
Contextual and Rhetorical Reshaping in Processes of Remediation. College Composition and
Communication, 66(4), 615.
DePalma, M. J., & Ringer, J. M. (2011). Toward a theory of adaptive transfer: Expanding disciplinary
discussions of transfer in second-language writing and composition studies. Journal of Second
Language Writing, 20(2), 134-147.
47
Garcia, O. (2009). Education, multilingualism and translanguaging in the 21st century. Social justice
through multilingual education, 140-158.
Horner, B., Lu, M. Z., Royster, J. J., & Trimbur, J. (2011). Language difference in writing: Toward a
translingual approach. College English, 303-321.
Kobayashi, H., & Rinnert, C. (2012). Understanding L2 writing development from a multicompetence
perspective: Dynamic repertoires of knowledge and text construction. RM Manchn (Eds.) L, 2,
101-134.
Leonard, R. L., & Nowacek, R. (2016). Transfer and Translingualism. College English, 78(3).
Lu, M. Z., & Horner, B. (2013). Translingual Literacy, Language Difference, and Matters of
Agency. College English, 75(6), 582.
Lu, M. Z., & Horner, B. (2015). Introduction. Translingual Work. College English, 78(3).
Reiff, M. J., & Bawarshi, A. (2011). Tracing discursive resources: How students use prior genre
knowledge to negotiate new writing contexts in first-year composition. Written
Communication, 28(3), 312-337.
Matsuda, P. K. (2014). The lure of translingual writing. PMLA, 129(3), 478-483.
Nowacek, R. S. (2011). Agents of integration: Understanding transfer as a rhetorical act. SIU Press.
Rounsaville, A., Goldberg, R., & Bawarshi, A. (2008). From incomes to outcomes: FYW students
prior genre knowledge, meta-cognition, and the question of transfer. WPA: Writing Program
Administration, 32(1), 97-112.
Tuomi-Grhn, T., & Engestrm, Y. (2003). Conceptualizing transfer: From standard notions to
developmental perspectives. Between school and work: New perspectives on transfer and boundary-crossing,
19-38.
Wardle, E. (2007). Understanding transfer from FYC: Preliminary results of a longitudinal
study. Writing Program Administration, 31(1-2), 65-85.
Yancey, K. B., Robertson, L., & Taczak, K. (2014). Writing across contexts: Transfer, composition, and sites of
writing.
Cristina Snchez-Martn is a Ph.D. student at Illinois State University. Correspondence regarding

this article can be addressed to the author at [email protected].
48
Factors Influencing the Use and Status of Spanish
Factors Influencing the Use and the Status of Spanish in Five

Bilingual Preschool Classrooms
Nicole Sager
University of Colorado, Boulder
This study investigates how preschool teachers and aides use Spanish with emergent bilingual children
in the classroom. The importance that teachers and aides place on preschool emergent bilingual
childrens Spanish language development was examined. Teachers and aides were interviewed
regarding their language orientations and backgrounds and classroom observations were conducted.
Findings suggest that the use and status of Spanish in the classroom were influenced by curriculum,
teacher leadership style, teacher and aide Spanish abilities, and to a lesser degree, teacher and aide
language orientations. Policy and professional development recommendations are discussed.
The Latino Population in the U.S.

Given the Latino population increase in the United States, the educational
needs of this population must be considered. More than 12.4 million Hispanics were
enrolled in U.S. public pre-K through 12th grade schools in 2010. The nature of the
growth is such that rather than immigrating to the U.S. as children, 70% of emergent
bilingual children currently living in U.S. were born in the U. S. Krogstad & Lopez
(2014) found that U.S. births, not immigration, are the driving force in Hispanic
population growth.
According to the same study, 12.3 million (26%) of Hispanics aged five and
older speak only English at home. These children are being exposed to English from
birth and are potentially at a greater risk of experiencing Spanish language
attrition/loss, unless home language development is supported in their immediate
environments.
The Latino population continues to grow while access to bilingual education
programs decreases. The 2002 No Child Left Behind Act drastically changed language
policy. English acquisition became the priority and the number of bilingual programs
in the U.S. decreased (Crawford, 2008; Evans & Hornberger, 2005), in spite of the
many known benefits of bilingualism.
Benefits of Bilingualism
Bilinguals show superior mental flexibility and conceptual development (Peal
& Lambert, 1962) and enhanced metalinguistic awareness and problem-solving skills
(Ben-Zeev, 1977; Feldman & Shen, 1971; Kessler & Quinn, 1980). Bilingualism can
foster academic and cognitive advantages (Cummins, 2000), superior executive
function (Bialystok, 2010; Martin-Rhee & Bialystok, 2008) and provide protective
factors, such as staving off dementia (Craik, Bialystok, & Freedman, 2010).
49
Bilingualism not only offers significant individual benefits, but societal benefits as well,
which are discussed in more detail in the next section of this paper.
Considering the nature of population growth, current political trends in
education, and the myriad personal and societal benefits of bilingualism, educators and
policy makers must understand attitudes and practices that foster and hinder Spanish
development and maintenance. Our society would benefit from embracing a language-
as-resource perspective in which all languages are perceived as inherently valuable.
Examining the nature of language use in the classroom can provide insight into what
fosters and hinders Spanish language development so as to improve the quality of
education for young emergent bilingual children.
Spanish language maintenance must be addressed in education. It has been
widely documented that immigrant populations often experience language shift
towards the majority language (Kohnert & Bates, 2002; Kohnert, Bates, & Hernndez,
1999; Montrul, 2005, 2008; Oller, Jarmulowicz, Pearson, & Cobo-Lewis, 2011; Valds,
2001).
This research is framed through the lens of sociolinguistics and language
orientations. Sociolinguistics informed the present study, as it examined who speaks
what language to whom and when (Fishman, 1965; 1972) in order to gain insight into
factors contributing to the promotion of Spanish maintenance. It also framed how
classroom language was observed and analyzed. Language orientations, for its part,
shed light on the factors that influenced the use of Spanish in the classroom, such as
teachers and aides beliefs and attitudes about language. In this regard, Ruiz (1984)
proposed that language orientations frame how people think and talk about language
issues. In other words, language orientations legitimate certain attitudes concerning
the value of a language. Ruiz (1984) critiqued the language-as-problem orientation,
and the way the connection of non-English language heritage and bilingualism with
social problems has become entrenched in popular thought (p. 6). The language-as-
problem orientation views language as a social problem that must be identified and
then remedied through treatments, such as transitional programs (whereby students
transition to English away from Spanish). Efforts to counteract language-as-problem
views are based on the language-as-right orientation.
Court cases based on a language-as-right orientation have addressed
protections for language minority groups. However, Ruiz problematized language-as-
right orientations as doing little to change public opinion, leading to non-compliance.
Therefore, Ruiz proposed a third orientation to address the problems inherent in the
language-as-right orientation, claiming that language should be viewed as a valuable
resource.
Bilingualism affords cognitive, societal, and economic benefits that positively
impact our society. Ruiz (1984) proposed that our society would benefit from
preserving and developing important language capabilities and that seeing language as
50
a resource would help change attitudes towards language and language groups.
Adoption of a language-as-resource orientation could lead to an overall increase in
bilingualism, which some scholars argue can help decrease intergroup conflict, increase
cross-cultural understanding, and enhance the ability of different ethnic groups to
thrive in our society (Keller & Roel, 1979).
Related Literature
The work of Tabors (2008) describes how social and affective factors influence
language learning and highlight that teachers play a key role in classroom language use.
Chang et al. (2007) found that teachers use of Spanish in the classroom was associated
with children having better social skills and relationships and stronger child-adult
relationships, and an increase in children participation. Yet, Rolstad, Swadener, and
Nakagawa (2004) found that promoting Spanish use in the classroom is challenging.
In spite of the many positive results of proactive techniques to promote
Spanish, English clearly intruded over time even though teachers modeling
appreciation for the Spanish language helped to elevate the status of Spanish. Lee and
Oxelson (2006) concluded that teachers who do not believe in the benefits of
bilingualism and do not understand the potential detrimental effects of HL loss are
not likely to consider the needs of HL speakers. Teachers fluency in another language
also influenced teachers beliefs and classroom language practices in favor of HL
maintenance. The studies reviewed here suggest that affective factors influence
language learning and that use of the childs home language in the classroom can be
beneficial for various reasons. These studies also highlight how the elevated status of
English can impede the promotion of Spanish use. With this in mind, the present study
explored preschool teachers and aides stated language orientations and beliefs
regarding the importance of Spanish maintenance and how teachers and aides used
Spanish in the classroom.
Methodology
A multiple case study approach shed light on how language orientations and
the use of Spanish varied from classroom to classroom by combining the qualitative
data on the intended curriculum and teachers stated language orientations with
quantitative data (from the CLASS protocol) of how Spanish was used in the
classroom for each of the three CLASS domains. The CLASS observation protocol
captures the nature of adult-child interactions as indicators of high-quality education
preschool to third grade (Hamre & Pianta, 2007; LeParo, Pianta, & Stuhlman, 2004;
Pianta, LeParo, & Hamre, 2008). The three domains of the CLASS are Classroom
Organization, Instructional Support, and Emotional Support, as shown in the figure
below.
51
Commonalities of the Five Classrooms

City, District, Administrators, Intended Curriculum, White Teachers, Latina Aides
__________________________________________________________________________
Commonalities and Divergences Between Classrooms
Classroom 1 Classroom 2 Classroom 3 Classroom 4 Classroom 5
Teacher/Aide Teacher/Aide Teacher/Aide Teacher/Aide Teacher/Aide

Spanish Use Spanish Use Spanish Use Spanish Use Spanish Use
(semi-structured (semi-structured (semi-structured (semi-structured (semi-structured
and CLASS and CLASS and CLASS and CLASS and CLASS
protocol protocol protocol protocol protocol
observations) observations) observations) observations) observations)
Language Language Language Language Language

Orientations Orientations Orientations Orientations Orientations
(interviews) (interviews) (interviews) (interviews) (interviews)
Setting
The case studies were conducted in five classrooms in a medium-sized
mountain town of the United States. In addition to using Creative Curriculum, an add-
on Maintenance Transitional Bilingual Education curriculum was in use to promote
teaching the curriculum through English and Spanish, provide intensive instruction in
English using second language methodology, strengthen Spanish through strong
language arts instruction, and foster additive bilingualism with the ultimate goal of
bilingualism. Teachers were instructed to use both languages in all areas all day and
include the childs home language in everyday curriculum.
Participants
Four teachers and five teachers aides participated in the study. All lead
teachers were white, native English speakers. Only one lead teacher spoke Spanish. All
of the aides were Latinas. Three were U.S. born and two were born in Mexico.
Classrooms consisted of Latino and white children at or below the federal
poverty level. Table 1 outlines the demographics of all of the children.
52
Table 1 Child demographics
Classroom Childrens Ethnicity Classroom Language Preference

(teacher report)
Latino Anglo Spanish English Both
1 80% 20% 53% 20% 27%

n = 15
2 75% 25% 31% 44% 25%
n = 16
3 65% 35% 47% 53% 0%
n = 17
4 80% 20% 40% 47% 13%
n = 15
5 87% 13% 44% 26% 30%
n = 17
Data Collection
Data was collected in one year. Stage 1 of the classroom observations focused
on the basic sequence of activities of each classroom and instructional formats. Stage
2 consisted of eight 30-minute observation cycles for each classroom using the CLASS
observation protocol-four cycles of whole group circle time and four cycles of small
group time.
Face-to-face interviews with teachers explored amount of Spanish and English
used in the classroom, teacher/aide attitudes towards L1 maintenance/attrition,
teachers and aides language abilities and instructional priorities.
Data Analysis
Teacher and aide interview data was analyzed via a researcher-developed
language orientation coding system. Teachers and aides comments were coded as
language as problem, right, resource, or ambivalence. Their self-ratings of Spanish and
English abilities were also elicited. Stage 1 and 2 classroom observation data was used
to analyze the classrooms individually and the subsequent level of analysis compared
and contrasted the patterns in the five classrooms. Frequency of type of Spanish use
according to the corresponding CLASS Domains was calculated. Teachers and aides
language orientations provided an additional layer for understanding the classroom
language use.
Findings
Teacher and Aide Language Orientations
No teacher or aide expressed language-as-problem orientations, although one
teacher did express an ambivalent orientation. Results suggested that more than stated
language orientations, teacher leadership style and Spanish ability were key factors
53
influencing Spanish use and status in the classrooms. Considerable incongruence

existed between stated language orientation and Spanish use in the classroom. The
figure below provides a synthesis of the relationship between the teachers and aides
stated language orientations and classroom Spanish use, as well as factors that do and
do not contribute to the support of Spanish use in the classroom. Discrepancies
between teachers language orientations and Spanish use in the classroom were largely
due to teachers lack of Spanish skills and their minimal intentionality around
classroom Spanish use. When aides language orientation and Spanish use were
minimally/somewhat congruent, it was primarily due to their lack of voice in the
classroom. Congruence between stated orientation and Spanish use in the classroom
was seen with the teacher of classroom 4 and 5, whose stated orientation was
ambivalent and use of Spanish was minimal.
54
55
Factors Influencing Classroom Language Use and Status of Spanish.

Teacher language ability. The teacher in Classroom 1 expressed a strong language-
as-resource orientation, used Spanish in all contexts, and was responsive to students
needs and elevated the status of Spanish. The other four teachers could not interact
with children in Spanish. The teacher in Classroom 2 viewed Spanish development as
the parents responsibility and using Spanish in the classroom as a means to facilitate
English learning. In Classroom 3, the teacher understood some Spanish but was
uncomfortable speaking Spanish. In Classrooms 4 and 5, the teacher did not speak
Spanish, did not encourage parents use of Spanish in the home, and English was the
official language of whole group instruction.
Teacher leadership/teaching style. Power dynamics and teachers leadership styles

greatly influenced the use of Spanish. In three out of the five classrooms, teachers
hierarchical leadership style led to aides been given menial rather than instructional
tasks. Three aides expressed frustration because teachers neither solicited their ideas
nor invited them to collaborate. Teachers held the floor and controlled language use
in a whole group setting. In two of these three classrooms, English was given status as
the official language of whole group and the aides role was limited to behavior
management.
The two teachers with collaborative leadership styles asked aides to contribute
ideas and teach lessons, and encouraged both English and Spanish in whole group
instruction. These two aides were U.S. born Latinas who lacked confidence in their
Spanish abilities and had limited breadth and depth of vocabulary and grammar
knowledge. This reflects a systemic issue, as they grew up in the U.S. in subtractive
educational contexts (Baker, 2011; Friedenberg, 2002; Guerrero, 1997; Valenzuela,
1999).
Possessing a strong language-as-resource orientation and adopting an intended
curriculum that values Spanish were insufficient to actively promote extensive Spanish
use in the classroom. Spanish use in the classroom was limited if lead teachers did not
speak Spanish and if aides who do speak Spanish are not granted a voice and
pedagogical responsibilities.
Spanish was used mostly for classroom organization (primarily behavior
management), somewhat for emotional support, and minimally for instructional
support. Thus, children were exposed to minimal advanced vocabulary in Spanish and
were seldom being prompted to analyze, problem solve, and predict in Spanish.
Feedback loops encouraging students reasoning and analysis seldom occurred in
Spanish. Gebhard (2004) has documented how instruction for emergent bilinguals can
lack conceptual and analytical sophistication. Teachers and aides ended up using
Spanish primarily as a transitioning tool into English.
Intended versus enacted curriculum. Spanish use was also influenced in by the way
the curriculum was enacted. The name of the curriculum, Transitional Maintenance, is
56
itself contradictory, and teachers and aides unanimously expressed uncertainty about
how to enact the curriculum. Aides did not receive equivalent training to the teachers
and trainings were conducted in English. This is a systemic problem of leaders failing
to recognize the key roles Latina aides play in providing quality and quantity of
language input for emerging bilinguals (Pickett, 1989; Rueda & Monzo, 2000),
especially if aides are the principal source of Spanish for the children.
Implications and Recommendations

To implement bilingual curriculum with fidelity, avoid segregating children by
language abilities, form relationships with children, and meet their needs, teachers need
to be bilingual. Dual language programs with teachers who possess extensive
knowledge of the second language learning process and an understanding of
sociocultural issues unique to emergent bilinguals are extremely successful (Commins
& Miramontes, 2006; Howard & Loeb, 1998; Howard & Sugarman, 2007; Takahashi-
Breines, 2002).
Latina aides possess essential cultural and linguistic resources and their
contributions should be valued. The aides in this study were the primary source of
Spanish for the children, but three of the five aides expressed frustration and
resentment because they had little or no say in what was taught or how. The main
teachers hierarchical leadership style limited the extent to which, and the ways in
which, Spanish was used in the classroom. Aides must be considered integral to the
quality of childrens education and be granted more of a voice in what transpires in
the classroom, particularly if they are the sole source of Spanish. Administrators must
prioritize professional development for aides and recognize their importance,
especially when qualified bilingual lead teachers are scarce.
Lack of support for bilingual education leads to limited access to bilingual
programs, which leads to teachers pressured to transition children to English as soon
as possible. Lack of bilingual programs beyond preschool weakens the status of
Spanish at various levels. The lack of bilingual programs also leads to limited
opportunities for individuals to develop their Spanish, which often leads to Spanish
attrition within the U. S. Latino population. This contributes to the dearth of bilingual
individuals entering the work force and higher education, which then results in a
reduced pool of potential educators with the cultural and linguistic skills necessary to
meet the needs of emergent bilingual children.
Providing Latino children with bilingual Latino/a lead teachers trained in
bilingual instruction is an essential component of equitable, quality education. Higher
education should create pathways for Latinos to access the requisite training to become
main teachers (Bernal & Aragon, 2004; Haselkorn & Fideler, 1996; Genzuk & Baca,
1998; Haselkorn & Fideler,1996).
There is a need for more high quality heritage language programs that help
Latinos continue to develop biliteracy and academic Spanish skills (Guerrero, 1997) so
that bilingual aides can provide richer Spanish input to the children (Bernal & Aragon,
57
2004; Valenzuela, 1999). Researchers have problematized the fact that individuals with
less developed Spanish are responsible for evaluating childrens skills (Pickett, 1989;
1990; Rueda & Monzo, 2000).
Most emergent bilingual children are granted fewer and fewer opportunities to
develop their Spanish in additive contexts as they progress through the public school
system (Menken & Kleyn, 2010). The U.S. needs more high-quality bilingual programs
in the elementary and secondary levels.
Limitations
This study could be improved by including a greater number of classroom
observations and providing a more detailed analysis of Spanish language use. This
would also address the main limitation of the study that Spanish and English use was
operationalized in an overly dichotomized manner that did not account for code
switching/code mixing.
Future Research
The field could benefit from more longitudinal studies of classroom Spanish
use focused on maintenance and attrition. There is also a need for studies examining
the economic, linguistic and educational barriers to higher education that aspiring
Latina/o educators face. Future research that focused on teacher training practices
that fostered language-as-resource and educational equity would also positively
contribute to the field.
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60

Joshua Lee
University of Macau
Portuguese is one of the official languages in Macau, China, although most local residents speak
Cantonese. Studies in language teaching by Auerbach (1993) and Cook (2001) have focused on
challenging the monolingual English classroom. This article seeks to understand why Cantonese-
speaking students use their L1 for Portuguese language learning. The data came primarily from a
survey. Overall, the usage of Cantonese may help in learning Portuguese, improving motivation, and
supporting students identity.
Keywords: Code-switching, motivation, Portuguese, identity, social networking
El portugus es una lengua oficial de Macau, China, pero muchos residentes locales hablan cantons.
Estudios para ensear ingls de Auerbach (1993) y Cook (2001) se centraron en estimular el aula
monolinge de ingls. En este artculo se busca entender por qu estudiantes que hablan cantons
usan la L1 para aprender la lengua portuguesa. Los datos se recogieron principalmente a travs de
un cuestionario. En general, el uso del cantons puede ayudar en el aprendizaje del portugus, el
aumento de la motivacin, y el apoyo a la propia identidad de los estudiantes.
Palabras clave: Cambio de clave, motivacin, portugus, identidad, redes sociales
Macau, located in Southern China, was a Portuguese colony for 400 years
until its recent return to mainland China (Chou, 2005). Currently, about 2% of the
population are Macanese (mix of Portuguese and Asian descent). In terms of actual
language use, 83.3% (449,274) of the population used Cantonese and about 2.4%
could speak Portuguese, according to the Direco dos Servios de Estatstica e
Censos (2011). The limited number of people who speak Portuguese in this former
colony has similarities in other former Portuguese colonies, in which locals were
limited in their education on Portuguese cultural norms (Mendy, 2003; Fry, 2000).
Now that Macau has been decolonized, locals have continued to learn
Portuguese despite Cantonese being the dominant language in daily life. Their
motivations may vary, as some students needed to learn Portuguese as they worked
for the Macau government, which uses the language for administrative purposes
(Moody, 2008). Other students included those working at the tertiary level or in
secondary school; lastly, others, like the researcher, studied Portuguese for cultural
enrichment. Initially, the researcher, as an English language instructor, did not plan
to research this topic. His intent was to learn Portuguese and to use it as an
opportunity to reflect as a language learner. In order to achieve this aim, he became a
61
language student and placed in an A2 level class, per the Common European
Framework of Reference for Foreign Languages (Little, 2006). In the process of
studying Portuguese for a year with local Macau students he became interested in
understanding the reasons for the usage of Cantonese in the classroom and also in
course-related discussions.
Literature Review
Few studies have examined the impact of Cantonese as an L1 on Portuguese,
although studies exist on the use of other L1s in language acquisition. For example,
the use of the L1 in English is not surprising. Storch and Wigglesworth (2003)
explain that, L1 may be a normal psychological process that allows learners to
initiate and sustain verbal interaction. Cook (2001) and Auerbach (1993) have also
argued that an English only classroom fails to fully utilize the cognitive and linguistic
resources of the learner and challenged the monolingual classroom. Perani and
Abutalebi (2005) found that, in the process of learning an L2, the learner uses his
neural devices involved with L1 acquisition. The parts of the brain that are
activated in language usage are consistent even with different languages, although
there is a variation, as every individual brain differs in age and mental development.
Research on participants perceptions on the usage of L1 in an L2 classroom
have demonstrated mixed sentiments and results. Thus, Nazary (2008) studied
students perceptions on the usage of L1 in an Iranian context and obtained mixed
results, which also depended on students proficiency levels in their L2. Other studies
looking at perceptions toward reading found that positive feelings toward reading in
the L1 somewhat carry over into the L2 (Yamashita, 2004). Despite not being a
Macau local, the researcher was an insider in this project, as he shared the language
of Cantonese with his students; yet, he was also an outsider, as all of the students in
the class were local Macau people, with the exception of one relocating from
Guangdong (Irvine, Roberts, & Bradbury-Jones, 2008).
In a language classroom, elements of code-switching are likely to occur,
particularly if all the participants share two common languages. Factors causing
code-switching could be limited proficiency in the language or asserting ones
identity. Although there are limited studies about code-switching in Macau, in
particular related to Portuguese and Cantonese, research has been carried out for
Cantonese and English in Hong Kong. Tsang and Wong (2004) examined a Hong
Kong comedian, Chan (2009) studied Cantonese pop music, and Chan (2007)
researched the phenomenon in classrooms. In most cases, Botha (2013) found that
students in Macau who claimed to use English mostly code-switched during extra-
curricular activities, while San (2009) examined blogs that mixed Cantonese and
English in Macau, as there were no Cantonese equivalents for certain words. Other
factors leading students to code-switch include creating solidarity with other
speakers. Even in supposedly English-medium universities like in Hong Kong, there
will always be code-switching in Cantonese. In terms of social interactions between
62
Cantonese people, Cantonese is the most likely language to be used (Flowerdew, Li,
& Miller, 1998).
Methods
Design
Primary data came from a survey (see Appendix) in which 15 students
voluntarily filled in the survey about L1 usage and from personal observations by the
researcher. The survey was distributed during the Portuguese class with the
permission of the Portuguese language instructor. Explanations were provided in
English. Questions in the survey were stated in English, while the consent form
utilized Chinese and English. Students were free to answer the questions in the
language they felt most comfortable. In order to prevent students from pleasing the
experimenter, a distractor question was included, Why are you in this class?
To protect the identity of the students, a single letter was put into the upper
right hand corner. Responses were reviewed and organized by themes. Additionally,
pseudonyms were used.
Participants
Most of the 15 students surveyed were female and ranged in age from
teenagers in high school to the early 30s. Since the researcher had been in the class
for a year with the students, he had come to know some of them personally. The
students formed a WeChat group (a popular social networking program) as a means
of communication and support for course assignments (Crampton, 2014). The
researcher was part of the group. Due to the sensitive nature of these discussions,
the WeChat conversations were not included in the paper.
Research questions
The surveys assisted in providing information about the following research
questions:
1) Why do students use Cantonese (L1) in the Portuguese class?
2) Why do students use a certain language on WeChat for course related work?
Findings
In general, students responded in English to the English survey. The overall
findings indicate students perceptions that Cantonese plays an important role in
language identity and assistance in language learning, although a few had negative
feelings toward using their L1 (Cantonese) in the process of learning Portuguese.
The chart below shows primary language use in the responses, but does not make a
distinction between Mandarin or Cantonese; rather they are both referred to as
Chinese. An interesting factor was how students responded in terms of language, as
some wrote Chinese and others emphasized Cantonese; this could be related to the
variations in Macaus identity as a border city to the mainland (Breitung, 2009).
63
12
10
0
Category
1
English Chinese Portuguese
Fig. 1 Language used in the survey
Identity
Positive identity marker. One major thread in the responses was related to
students comfort with Cantonese, as well as its social ties as their mother language.
Thus, utilizing Cantonese as their L1 in class helped them to relax and feel
comfortable in the Portuguese classroom. This was primarily in response to the
research question on language use in the class WeChat. This research question
yielded a variety of results. A second question, Why do you or your classmates use
Cantonese in class? also reinforced the views of Cantonese as a marker of their
identity. Student M responded, [they are all Guangdong people], as
Cantonese is the most popular language and, for many students, the native language
of Guangdong people (Wang & Ladegaard, 2008). Student Z also supported
this view by stating that, as a Macau person that is the mother tongue or native
language. Another student, M, responded in Chinese that Cantonese makes them
feel [warm].
The L1 also had a positive connotation for students, as it evoked positive
home like images. These views were supported in response to the question, How do
you feel when Cantonese is used in class? Student U responded, Cozy; Student S,
Very good; Student D, I feel delighted; Student P stated Comfortable, and for
Student T, We feel more familiar with it. This could be true for local Macau people
who have a positive Macau identity; this could also happen with those with a strong
Hong Kong identity, as they tended to engage more in Cantonese (Tong, Hong, Lee,
& Chiu, 1999).
Daily usage. The reason why their primary language made students feel
comfortable may be that the language is widely used in Macau society. Thus, a
student responded that Chinese is used in their daily life, and another indicated that
it was natural. This indicates greater Chinese usage for them in their own personal
64
life as illustrated by Student A, Chinse. Porque os meus amigos so Chineses

[Chinese, because my friends are Chinese]. This seems to make sense as most of the
students are local Macau people who primarily speak Cantonese as their L1. Since
the language was widely used in Macau, it would spill over into other aspects of their
life, namely the WeChat group and the Portuguese language classroom.
Oppositional identity. Identity is not simply formed in solidarity with
others, but also developed in contrast to others. The usage of Cantonese helped to
form students identity in the Portuguese classroom. Student R wrote, Cause here is
Macao; not USA! [sic]. The pride students felt in the language could be related to
the colonial relationship between Portugal and Macau and as a matter of resistance.
Amaro (2015) interviewed a number of Portuguese living in Macau and found they
do not wish to fully integrate into the Chinese community and they have a
reputation of not trying to acquire Cantonese proficiency. In the same study, one
participant learned Cantonese in Macau as a child, but her mother would beat them
during the colonial period for speaking Cantonese and referred to it as a dog
language. Another participant even theorized the reason why the local Macau and
Portuguese population have peacefully co-existed for so long was the fact that
neither understood each others language.
Perceived help with understanding. The survey provided the perception
that the L1 helps with understanding, which is perhaps why students used it in the
class. Student Q explained that, It helps me can understand the meanings [sic].
Student O said that, It is good when you dont understand some questions or
words. In these cases, directly translated words could help with understanding;
hence, the language instructor would translate at times some difficult lexical words
from Portuguese into Cantonese. Additionally, students had gaps in their
understanding and the usage of the L1 served as a supporting tool. Studies in Slovak
found that students taught technical vocabulary in their L1 had better acquisition of
the words than when taught in English only (Gablasova, 2015). In these cases,
students feel they can better grasp Portuguese words if there is a Cantonese
translation. This could also explain the usage of Chinese in WeChat discussions while
trying to gain a better understanding of Portuguese.
Detrimental in the classroom toward the acquisition of Portuguese.
Despite the fact that many students viewed Cantonese in the Portuguese classroom
as positive, a few students viewed this negatively. Two students in the study felt that
the usage of Cantonese did not help in the acquisition of Portuguese. For example,
Student A wrote, No bom [it is not good], and Student N stated, I think that is
no good in learning foreign language [sic]. It should be noted the only student to
respond in Portuguese did not view the usage of Cantonese as positive for learning
Portuguese. The usage of Portuguese to respond to the English survey seemed to be
a very conscious choice for Student A. For Student N, it is not entirely clear why she
felt the usage of the Cantonese would not be good.
65
English and Cantonese usage on WeChat. Students mentioned they used

English to help with their Portuguese language study on the WeChat group. Student
N explained that he used Cantonese and a little bit English, because there are the
basic language in Macau society [sic]. This seems consistent with DSEC data (2011)
showing nearly 20% of people in Macau speak English and have achieved a certain
degree of proficiency in the language. Student Z mentioned, ,
[English or Guangdong]; Student C wrote Cantonese and English, because it was
easy to know. It should be noted that Student Z felt comfortable in English and
Cantonese. Student P stated they preferred English in the WeChat group because
typing English is faster than Chinese. This is not surprising due to the dominance
of QWERTY keyboards, designed with English in mind nearly 100 years ago. This
has become the international standard for most computers and mobile phone
systems (Noyes, 1983). This tends to demonstrate a certain degree of penetration of
the English language in Macau.
Conclusion
Overall, the findings of this study indicate the positive role of Cantonese in
participants development of identity. They were familiar with the language, and a
few found it useful in understanding Portuguese. A few students also felt English
was useful in terms of communication on classroom issues. Finally, two students felt
the usage of Cantonese did not assist in the acquisition of Portuguese.
Some limitations were identified in the study. The first one was the
researcher being unable to utilize the complete participant observation technique
as he was a student in the same course as those researched (Kawulich, 2005). Since
students were not aware that their classmate was making observations of the class,
they behaved more naturally before class and during breaks. Due to ethical
considerations, the complete participant observations were not used and personal
notes about the class discussions or interactions have not been included.
The researcher acknowledges not interviewing participants to flesh out their
responses, since no one in class agreed to be interviewed for the project. The
researcher would have wished having a local Macau person conduct interviews in
Cantonese in order to gain more insight as to the reasons for the usage of Cantonese
in the Portuguese class. The development of a questionnaire in English and Chinese
would have helped students better comprehend the questions being asked, as some
did not understand English. For example, Student Cs answer Seldom did not
make sense in terms of the context of the question he was asked. Additionally, the
survey form should have included a separate consent form as to avoid possible
confusion on the part of the subjects. Finally, instructions for completion of the
survey should have been presented in Cantonese or the L1 of the participants.
66
Future Research
Interesting insights could be gained from researching how other languages
impact the learning of a different L2. For instance, Cantonese and Mandarin.
Another example would be using English in assisting with the acquisition of
Portuguese. Additional research could explore the relationship between identity and
language. This has implications for the researcher himself as a language teacher, as he
is an English language instructor teaching mostly local Macau students who have
Cantonese as their L1. While he originally enrolled in the Portuguese course to learn
the language, he learned to reflect on his own language teaching. This has provided
him with a better understanding of the student population he examined.
References
Amaro, V. (2015). We, They and the spaces in-between: Hybridity in intercultural interactions
between Portuguese and Chinese residents in Macau. Multilingua, 34(3), 293-318.
Auerbach, E. R. (1993). Reexamining English only in the ESL classroom. Tesol Quarterly, 27(1), 9-32.
Botha, W. (2013). English-medium instruction at a university in Macau: Policy and realities. World
Englishes, 32(4), 461-475.
Breitung, W. (2009). Macau residents as border peopleA changing border regime from a
sociocultural perspective. Journal of Current Chinese Affairs, 38(1), 101-127.
Chan, B. H. S. (2009). English in Hong Kong cantopop: Language choice, codeswitching and genre.
World Englishes, 28(1), 107-129.
Chan, C. Y. M. (2007). Code-Switching in the Hong Kong content subject classroom: A building block or a
stumbling block to English language acquisition? (Doctoral dissertation, University of Leicester).
Chou, B. K. (2005). Interest group politics in Macau after handover. Journal of Contemporary China,
14(43), 191-206.
Cook, V. (2001). Using the first language in the classroom. Canadian Modern Language Review, 57 (3),
402-23.
Crampton, T. (2014). Bound together differently: Complexity marks Asias embrace of social media.
Global Asia, 9 (2), 8-15.
DSEC (Direco dos Servios de Estatstica e Censos), Macao, (2011), Global results of by-census 2011,
Retrieved June 8, 2016, http://www.dsec.gov.mo/Statistic.aspx?NodeGuid=8d4d5779-c0d3-
42f0-ae71-8b747bdc8d88
Flowerdew, J., Li, D., & Miller, L. (1998). Attitudes towards English and Cantonese among Hong
Kong Chinese university lecturers. TESOL Quarterly, 32(2), 201-231.
Fry, P. (2000). Cultures of difference. The aftermath of Portuguese and British colonial policies in
southern Africa. Social Anthropology, 8(2), 117-143.
Gablasova, D. (2015). Learning technical words through L1 and L2: Completeness and accuracy of
word meanings. English for Specific Purposes, 39, 62-74.
Han, X. (n.d.). Research on Emotion Recognition and the Usage of Emoticons in Social Media.
University of Birmingham.
Irvine, F., Roberts, G., & Bradbury-Jones, C. (2008). The researcher as insider versus the researcher as
outsider: Enhancing rigor through language and cultural sensitivity. In Doing cross-cultural research
(pp. 35-48). Springer Netherlands.
Kawulich, B. B. (2005, May). Participant observation as a data collection method. In Forum Qualitative
Sozialforschung/Forum: Qualitative Social Research (Vol. 6, No. 2).
Little, D. (2006). The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Content, purpose,
origin, reception and impact. Language Teaching, 39(03), 167-190.
67
Mendy, P. K. (2003). Portugal's civilizing mission in colonial Guinea-Bissau: Rhetoric and reality. The
International journal of African historical studies, 36(1), 35-58.
Moody, A. (2008). Macau English: Status, functions and forms. English Today, 24(03), 3-15.
Nazary, M. (2008). The role of L1 in L2 acquisition: Attitudes of Iranian university students. Novitas-
Royal, 2(2), 138-153.
Noyes, J. (1983). The QWERTY keyboard: A review. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 18(3),
265-281.
Perani, D., & Abutalebi, J. (2005). The neural basis of first and second language processing. Current
opinion in neurobiology, 15(2), 202-206.
San, H. K. (2009). Chinese-English code-switching in blogs by Macao young people. (Unpublished
doctoral dissertation). University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh.
Serle, J. (1993). Participant observation: A way of conducting research. Document Resume, 115.
Storch, N., & Wigglesworth, G. (2003). Is there a role for the use of the L1 in an L2 setting? TESOL
Quarterly, 37(4), 760-769.
Tong, Y. Y., Hong, Y. Y., Lee, S. L., & Chiu, C. Y. (1999). Language use as a carrier of social identity.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 23(2), 281-296.
Tsang, W. K., & Wong, M. (2004). Constructing a shared Hong Kong identity in comic discourses.
Discourse & Society, 15(6), 767-785.
Wang, L., & Ladegaard, H. J. (2008). Language attitudes and gender in China: Perceptions and
reported use of Putonghua and Cantonese in the southern province of Guangdong. Language
Awareness, 17(1), 57-77.
Yamashita, J. (2004). Reading attitudes in L1 and L2, and their influence on L2 extensive reading.
Reading in a Foreign Language, 16(1), 1.
Joshua Lee is a Senior Instructor of English at the English Language Centre, University of Macau.
Correspondence regarding this article can be sent to him at [email protected].
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Appendix
I hereby give my consent for written (i.e. Wechat) or oral work from this class to be
used for research, scholarly publication and/or conference presentations. I
understand that, if any of my work is used, acknowledgement will be given generally
to students in this class but real names will not be used. Photos may be used without
identifying me by name. Participation in research will in no way affect my grade in
this class. (i.e. Wechat)/
;
,,
Signed: _____________________
1. Why are you in this class?
2. Why do you or your classmates use Cantonese in class?
3. How do you feel when Cantonese is used in class?
4. What language do you use in the class WeChat?

___________________Why?
69
Impact of Immigration on Students
Impact of Immigration on Students, the PK-12 Perspective

Laura Guzmn-DuVernois
El Paso Independent School District
Undocumented students enrolling in American schools are scrutinized by policy and case law that
define their existence as part of a general student population. Through a historical review of legal
authority, the legal rights of this student population were defined as policy impacts their student life.
Immigrant students have the right to PK-12 public schooling under the law. However, access is often
barred as discriminatory practices affect their participation in programs available in the American
system of education. The impact of legal authority and policy action aimed at this marginalized
population was captured through qualitative research that highlights different aspects of immigration
effects on schooling.
Keywords: Legal authority, Plyler, undocumented students, public education
Los estudiantes indocumentados matriculados en escuelas pblicas de los Estados Unidos son
escrutinizados por reglas y leyes que definen su existencia como parte del cuerpo estudiantil. A travs
de una revisin histrica de la autoridad legal, los derechos de los estudiantes indocumentados se
definieron ya que la poltica impacta su vida estudiantil. De acuerdo a la ley, todo estudiante,
inmigrante tiene derecho a la matrcula desde pre-escolar hasta preparatoria. Sin embargo, el acceso
es frecuentemente prohibido debido a prcticas discriminatorias que afectan su participacin en
programas educativos disponibles en el sistema educativo americano. El impacto de la autoridad
legal y la accin poltica dirigida hacia esta poblacin marginada fue el objetivo de esta investigacin
cualitativa arroj el impacto autoritario que impone la ley, tanto como el impacto de la accin
poltica que realza varios aspectos de el efecto de la inmigracin sobre la escolarizacin.
Palabras clave: Autoridad legal, Plyler, estudiantes indocumentados, educacin

pblica
Undocumented Students in American Public Schools

Undocumented students attending American schools are scrutinized by
policy and case law that define their existence within any public campus. The
phenomenon of legal authority and policy action aimed at this marginalized student
population was captured through qualitative research that highlights different aspects
of immigration effects on schooling. While immigrant and undocumented students
have the right to a PK-12 public education under the law, access may be barred as
discriminatory practices negatively impact their participation in programs otherwise
available within the American system of education. Needless to say, immigrant
70
students and their families often encounter trouble and experience tribulations as
their immigration status and policy curtail their participation in public schooling.
Approximately 1.8 million students, under age eighteen, are classified as
undocumented (Perez, 2009). Building of a demographic context for this study
revealed a growing American public school population as the effect of a large influx
of students with immigrant origins.
Immigrant students enjoy the benefit of a free public education, as do their
citizen and legal resident counterparts. This study utilized a legal search and analysis
that produced a non-traditional format, historical review of case law, statutes, and
legal authority, which discuss the legal rights of undocumented immigrant students in
American public schools. Despite the existence of scholarly work on the topic, there
is no specific guide that corresponds to K-12 immigrant students. The thirty-year
chronology allowed for both a descriptive analysis of sequential legal authority and
the exhibited action by school districts regarding the rights of undocumented
students. Through the use of an analytic and historical framework based on the
Tyack and Cuban interpretation of political and institutional analysis (1995),
implications of immigration on students and families were analyzed as the result of
legal authority impact. Conclusions revealed a frequent disregard and refusal of
existing law by school personnel, which impacts immigrant students. The current
global climate and policy talk on immigration repress immigrant students in the
mainstream of public schools. This repression translates into experiences of
discrimination occurring at school, where students face a construct of legal
restrictions and battle public reaction, individual ethics, and moral principles.
Method
This study employed qualitative research methods to capture the
phenomenon embodied in legal authority and policy action impacting a marginalized
student population within the American public school system. Through the
construct of a thirty-year database of legal authority, the methodology yielded an
analysis of policy inclusive of original documents relevant to compulsory, public
education in a K-12 setting. Creswells (2009) defines qualitative research as inquiry
that explores social problems. Thus, the current global climate of unsettled
immigration provided a clear basis for inquiry on educational policy affecting this
segment of our student population. Moreover, generalizability (Maxwell, 1992) was
utilized to analyze legal authority impacting the education of undocumented
students. Generalizability, according to Maxwell (1992, p. 293) refers to the extent
to which one can extend the account of a particular population. In this study the
policies affecting a specific demographic context are easily extended to a general
student population. This research study was conducted through location and analysis
and the Tyack and Cuban framework structured the policy cycles that highlight the
undocumented student populations trials as policies implemented often aim at
curtailing their access to educational benefits. Mahoney & Rueschemeyer (2003)
71
describe historical analysis as a commitment to offering historically grounded

explanations to important outcomes. Historical analysis was used to develop a
narrative on the topic of undocumented students and the causal mechanisms that
govern their benefits of education, a pressing issue in our public schools. The data
collection took place during an epoch of international policy talk on immigration
reform and impending policy action.
Participants
A specific demographic context was set to represent the demography, past
and present, of undocumented immigrant children as encapsulated within the general
immigrant population of the United States. Immigration to the United States has
substantially increased from 14, 079, 906 million in 1980, to 39, 955, 854 million
immigrants in 2010 according to the Census (Migration Policy Institute, 2012).
Currently, this student population accounts for approximately 25 percent of enrolled
students. In 2050, immigrant students are projected to account for over one third of
100 million children (Haskins & Tienda, 2011). A large-scale immigration has had
implications on educational policy in addition to continuously diversifying the
American classroom. The rationale for selecting this demographic context was based
on the need to disclose existing legal authority that provides benefits of education to
immigrant students in our public school system.
Procedure
This study was initiated by constructing the demographic context of an
immigrant student population in American compulsory schooling as viewed from
within a student body that is projected to reach twenty-eight million enrollees by
2050 (Fry & Gonzalez, 2008). The influx of immigrant students to American schools
began in the 1970s, when this group comprised a mere six percent of our total
student population (Fix & Capps, 2005). Next, the public school systems
responsibility was highlighted in terms of their duty to protect the educational
benefits of approximately 1.8 million undocumented students present in our
classrooms (Perez, 2009). This was followed by a legal authority/literature review
beginning with Plyler v. Doe, 457 U.S. 202, (1982) (FindLaw, 1996), as the base
legislation inclusive of the Supreme Courts ruling, which extended the 14th
Amendments guarantee of Equal Protection to unsanctioned entry immigrant
students. Plyler provides a guarantee of equal and full access to benefits of
education. Prior to Plyer, a school district in Tyler, Texas drafted board policy that
attempted to charge undocumented immigrants $1000 annual tuition as a means to
compensate for the loss of state funding (OpenJurist, 2010). Post Plyler, school
districts can no longer adopt policies that exclude alien students.
Californias Proposition 187 Save Our State Initiative of 1994 provided the
study with public education implications on schooling practices. This initiative was a
state initiated statute that intended to deny all undocumented immigrants access to
72
state funded services, inclusive of public education (Eig, 1999). Moreover,

Proposition 187 required school personnel, to collaborate with the U.S. Immigration
and Naturalization Service in identifying and removing undocumented students and
their families (Eig, 1999). Californias 1994 Proposition 187 was a xenophobic
measure that also aimed at barring admission to all public state colleges and
universities (Yates, 2004).
The Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA)
of 1996 contained various sections that negatively impacted undocumented students.
In Section 505, higher education benefits were deemed unattainable for
undocumented students on the basis of residence within a state (Public Law 104-208,
1996). Section 506, called for reporting on eligibility for postsecondary federal
financial assistance and in section 507, verification of immigration status for
purposes of higher educational financial assistance, required institutions to provide
copies of documents to the INS for official verification (Public Law 104-208, 1996).
An extreme anti-immigrant law, Alabamas Immigration Law, H.B. 56 in
2011, attempted to obstruct access to public schooling as well as prevented
sanctioned-entry immigrants from attending public higher education campuses. H.B.
56 was an undisguised attempt at discrimination as lawful immigrants could have
been denied access to enrollment and benefits of financial aid by merely delaying
verification of their immigration status (American Civil Liberties Union, 2011). The
discriminatory purpose of H.B. 56 was reflected in comments made during one of
many public hearings on this bill, where White (2011) quotes an Alabamian stating
that "if we are a magnet to draw these people here, we're going to see the burdens on
our schools.
K-16 Guidance in the form of the Dear Colleague Letter from the United
States Department of Justice and Department of Education in 2011 outlined school
districts responsibility for the benefit of immigrant students and their families.
Moreover, this legal authority emphasized that immigration status is irrelevant to
access public education, which is a benefit within the parameters of the Constitution.
The literature review/legal authority collection concluded with the Executive Order
Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals, established in 2012. DACA is a step
towards educational access for undocumented students as it provides a gateway for
increased enrollment and removes the fear of deportation.
Research Design
This analysis of legal authority highlighted laws and policies impacting
undocumented students through scaffolding implications on the fabric of our
compulsory education system. The chronological timeline and subsequent public
policies disclosed the effect of precedents set forth by analogous cases, each in a turn
of events culminating with Obamas executive order, DACA. This qualitative analysis
of policy and practice issues included proposed law as well as established policy of
relief affecting undocumented student populations. Quantitative statistical data was
73
used to highlight the immigrant population in our educational system as well as

implications on school reform in an era of changing demographics within the
context of schooling practices. Rationale for utilizing a historical policy analysis
focused on the intent of providing a detailed overview of applicable policy action, in
reference to responsibilities impacting the education of immigrant students, with
unsanctioned entry.
The historical review began with a revision on the Texas Education Code
Section 21.031 that created policy changes during the early part of the 1970s and
instituted reform against a specific student population. Plyler v. Doe, as a catalyst for
further policy cycles of school reform benefitting the undocumented student
population, was studied in terms of its implications on the polity of compulsory
school. More specifically, the role of Plyler was examined in terms of student
participation, privacy issues that extend to parents, and its moral aspects that
mandate the inclusion of undocumented students within the context of public
education. Ballot initiatives and other attempts at policy action aimed at
circumventing Plyler were examined as failed efforts to bar undocumented students
from the public school system. The role of school districts and their staff in regards
to undocumented immigrant student populations presented policy action through
administrative mandates and educational implications. Deferred Action for
Childhood Arrivals, or DACA, provided the most current policy affecting
undocumented students who may be products of compulsory K-12 education.
DACA is policy that may potentially frame future reform and provide a basis for
research in educational implications residing on 20th century developments as steps
to promote educational access.
Reform in American compulsory educational system was noted as policy
processes were examined through the specific concept framework of policy talk,
policy action, and policy implementation (Tyack & Cuban, 1995). A personal,
professional and practitioners experience gained from over fifteen years in the
public education system was utilized throughout the research process. A
commitment to improving education for underserved populations guided the
development of this historical evaluation with the intent of providing a basis for
future policy advancement. Rationale for this study was also grounded on a policy
climate permeated by a continuity of immigration bills, aimed at curtailing education
benefits and introduced in thirty-seven state legislatures (National Conference of
State Legislatures, 2011).
Results
The tracking of legal authority affecting undocumented immigrants in our
school system was focused on implications in K-12 schooling policies that adhere to
policy cycles directly impacting immigrant students. The outcome yielded a
comprehensive analysis of federal and state cases, statutes, and school board policy,
which exposed derivative implications of policy talk and action aimed at school
74
reform with direct impact on undocumented students and their families. The data
collection and analysis also yielded information on policy for school reform that
seemingly aimed to change institutionalized discrimination but failed to eradicate
deep social injustice. A specific demographic context was utilized to represent the
demography, of undocumented immigrant students in our nation, as encapsulated
within the general immigrant population of the United States. The projected K-12
fall enrollment for public school year 2014 was 50,268,000 students (Institute for
Education Sciences, 2012). Within this pipeline, only 65,000 undocumented students
per school year will graduate high school and only ten to twenty percent within this
group will have the opportunity to access higher education. These figures represent
the demography of undocumented students in K-12 public school, a marginalized
student population in terms of access to higher education at the core of unsettled
immigration reform in the United States.
Case Law
This historical policy analysis commenced with the U.S. Supreme Court
ruling in Plyler v. Doe 457 U.S. 202 (1982). This law specifically impacted K-12
undocumented students in public school settings, as it rendered a ruling with many
implications for alien children, for border barriers, for the adoption of school
policies, and for federal program requirements. Between June 1982 and prior to
September 11, 2011, enrolling undocumented students entailed a clear set of duties
and responsibilities on behalf of school districts (Winograd, 2012). Enrollment and
educational access was carried out through policy implementation, which
incorporated protections for benefits of education impacting undocumented
students. Post 9/11, policy talk resurfaced through the expressed possibility of
allowing states to deny benefits of a public education to undocumented students.
The country seemingly forgot that, back in July of 1980, a Texas court,
specifically the District Court for the Southern District of Texas, determined that
the absolute deprivation of education should trigger strict judicial scrutiny,
particularly when the absolute deprivation is the result of complete inability to pay
for the desired benefit (p. 538). The court determined that undocumented students
are people and, therefore, their physical presence within the jurisdiction entitles them
to equal protection of the law. In 1982, the United States Supreme Court in Plyler v.
Doe, 457 U.S. 202, issued a historic ruling which, to this day, grants undocumented
immigrant students access to a free K-12 public education. In addition, Plyler was a
catalyst for other changes, such as emphasizing that all public schools adhere to
privacy issues on behalf of undocumented students and their families. In other
words, public school staff cannot request that students disclose their immigration
status nor can they request documentation that may expose a family at any time
(Hunter & Howley, 1990). Moreover, in order to preserve democracy of schooling,
undocumented students are not required to present a social security number for
registration.
75
Program Participation
As public school students, undocumented children may participate in
Bilingual Education as well as the Emergency Immigrant Education Program, and
the Transitional Program for Refugee Children (Hunter & Howley, 1990).
Undocumented immigrant students also have access to services in Special Education
and free or reduced meals through the National School Lunch Program (Hunter &
Howley, 1990). Under Plyler, undocumented students must be included in
extracurricular activities, such as academic and social clubs, as team building and
social skill evolve from participation and are fundamental values addressed under the
law (National School Boards Association, 2012). As a result of Plyler v. Does
educational policy implications through statute, regulation, and/or guidance,
immigrant students are guaranteed services such as transportation and access to
health centers at individual campuses. Other safeguarded benefits include breakfast
programs, school counseling, and any other service essential to receiving a public
education.
Attempted Exclusion
In 1996, the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act
included the Gallegly amendment, which sought the reversal of Plyler and would
have authorized public K-12 schools to verify the status of students enrolled within
the system. Estimated figures show this amendment would have negatively impacted
600, 000 to 700, 000 undocumented students as it aimed to exclude them from our
public school system (University of California, Davis, 1996). Noticeable was the
lapse in time of policy development between IIRIRA in l996 and the new
millennium, which brought about extreme changes in policy regarding the
undocumented population in general. A plausible explanation is that 9/11 promoted
the development of policy talk and action through later developments in the 21st
century. Post 9/11, the United States began a period characterized by increased
suspicion on foreigners in our country, which included undocumented students.
Under a new policy cycle in June 9th, 2011, and in a partial response to the
World Trade Center bombing by terrorists, Alabamas state legislature passed HB 56,
a controversial immigration bill that allowed public schools to check students and
parents immigration status. A particular provision of this bill required students to
disclose and/or register their immigration status, a violation of the 14th
Amendments Equal Protection clause. This anti-immigrant law also contained
language that would bar access to public schooling and prevented sanctioned-entry
immigrants from attending public colleges or universities in the state of Alabama.
DACA concluded the tracking of legal authority, as this executive order affects the
undocumented student population, who are products of our K-12 compulsory
educational system. Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals embodied the
76
demographic context of this study and created more policy talk for future policy
development. DACA in 2012 and the policy talk of comprehensive immigration
reform has impacted immigrants with relief and future educational implications on
behalf of thousands of undocumented students present in our country today. These
laws, policy, and statutes provide us with a list of explicit responsibility on behalf of
immigrant student populations and implicitly in the ethical duty of school districts
and their personnel. Current policy talk and action have made the compliance of
policy a difficult task, thus, localities and states have continued to make futile
attempts to circumvent Plyler. Through policy stratagem, school districts, governing
boards, and politicians have attempted instituting measures and enacting unofficial
policies that clearly violate the intent of the existing law. This study, probed on the
responsibility of schools and the right of the individual student through benefits
provided by specific programs. The results of this historical research study could
potentially be used as a guide of policy related to undocumented students in our
public school system.
Conclusion
It must be noted that as a nation, our school system provides a benefit of
education that is considered the most basic factor in achieving success. This study
heavily relied on the Tyack and Cuban policy cycle, which was applied to unsettled
immigration and its effects on the institution of American education. The study
revealed a cycle of policy with scaffolding implications on the structure of our
compulsory K-12 education system. Some of the policies included in the study may
be modified if substantive bipartisan immigration reform becomes policy action
during a future administration. However, in a parallel accordance with Tyack and
Cubans (1995) assertion on educational forecasting, this study may not reflect a
cycle of educational reform as the United States is undergoing a major political shift.
Nonetheless, a current and trending topic, policy talk on immigration reform will
continue to increase the demand for policy action, which will create further
confusion on behalf of school districts, while immigrant students, both will remain a
protected class within our student population.
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Laura Guzmn DuVernois is a K-12 Administrator in the El Paso Independent School District.
Correspondence regarding this article can be addressed to the author at [email protected].
79
Cultural and Linguistic Rights of Immigrant Pupils in Catalonia

Schools: The Role of School Principals
Patricia Silva
University of Lleida
Leslie Reese
California State University Long Beach
Serafn Antnez
University of Barcelona
Isabel del-Arco
University of Lleida
During the last decade, Catalan society has undergone a significant transformation, with structural
changes generated by international migrations. In this paper we discuss multicultural societies,
linguistic rights, and social cohesion. In order to construct a society that is cohesive and open, based
on democratic values, a model of schooling and education is needed that is inclusive, based on
convivencia (sharing and living together in harmony). Linguistic rights recognize the freedom of all
people to use their mother tongue in all social spaces. This implies not only the ability to carry out all
aspects of their lives and in their native language, but also that their language will be respected by
others. The study that we present takes place in four primary schools in Santa Coloma and Lleida
(Catalonia). The aim of the research is to describe, analyze, and interpret the teaching and learning
practices related to the cultural and linguistic rights of immigrant students and to focus on the role of
the school principal in creating environments in which these practices take place.
Keywords: Childrens rights, linguistic rights, immigrants, primary school; school

principals; good practices.
Durante la ltima dcada, la sociedad catalana ha sufrido una transformacin significativa con los
cambios estructurales generados por las migraciones internacionales. Con el fin de construir una
sociedad que sea coherente y abierta, basada en valores democrticos, se necesita un modelo inclusivo de
enseanza y educacin basado en la convivencia (compartir y vivir juntos en armona). Los derechos
lingsticos reconocen la libertad de todas las personas de utilizar su lengua materna en todos los
espacios sociales. Implica no slo la capacidad de llevar a cabo todos los aspectos de sus vidas y en su
lengua materna, sino tambin que su lengua sea respetada por los dems. El estudio que presentamos
se llev a cabo en cuatro escuelas primarias en Santa Coloma y Lleida (Catalua, Espaa). El
objetivo de la investigacin es describir, analizar e interpretar la enseanza y las prcticas de
aprendizaje relacionadas con los derechos culturales y lingsticos de los estudiantes inmigrantes y el
papel del director de la escuela a la hora de facilitar tales prcticas.
80
Palabras clave: Derechos de los nios, derechos lingsticos, inmigrantes, escuela

primaria, directores escolares, buenas prcticas.
Introduction
The establishment of majority-minority language hierarchies is not primarily a
linguistic process; rather, a historically, socially, and politically constructed process
that is imbued with wider, and unequal, power relations (May, 2006, p. 259). A
distinction is made between national minority groups and indigenous groups
historically associated with a particular territory, such as the historical languages of the
autonomous regions of Spain (e.g. Catalan, Galician, Basque) and ethnic minority
groups who are typically immigrants (May, 2006). At the European level, regional
languages have historically received greater protection and promotion than have
immigrant languages, despite the growing numbers of speakers of immigrant languages
(Extra & Gorter, 2001).
From a strictly academic perspective, research in a wide variety of international
contexts documents the advantages of instruction in the native language (L1) of
language minority students (Skutnabb-Kangas, Phillipson, Mohanty, & Panda, 2009).
The principle of linguistic interdependence posits that cognitive/academic skills and
concepts learned in the first language are available to be accessed in the second
language with instruction in that language (Cummins, 1986; 2001; 2009). Thus, the
concept of transfer of prior knowledge, concepts, and skills from the students stronger
language to his/her second language serves as a foundation of programs of bilingual
instruction. Linguistic interdependence can involve transfer from L1 to L2 of
conceptual elements, metacognitive strategies, specific linguistic elements, and
phonological awareness (August & Shanahan, 2006).
In countries such as the United States, with large populations of speakers of
varied immigrant languages and little recognition of regional languages, the outcome of
greatest interest to the state is the ability of minority language students to speak and
compete academically in the national language (their L2). The benefits of bilingual
instruction over monolingual instruction in the national language have been repeatedly
documented for this purpose (Vila, 1995; Francis, Lesaux, & August, 2006; Genesee et
al., 2006; Rolstad, Mahoney, & Glass, 2005; Slavin & Cheung, 2005).
Strong bilingual programs, or those in which the native language is used for
instruction over an extended period of time, have been shown to have superior
academic outcomes in comparison with weak programs, in which the L1 is used on a
short-term basis only as a transition into L2 instruction (Baker, 2006; Benson, 2009). In
addition to fostering academic outcomes, institutional support for L1 language and
culture is also necessary for students self-confidence and positive identity formation, to
combat marginalization, and to foster intercultural understanding (Cummins, 2001).
With respect to regional languages, however, the arguments in favor of bilingual
education rest less on the cognitive and academic advantages of home language
81
instruction and more on the rights that linguistic communities should be accorded.
Proponents of linguistic human rights argue that minority languages and speakers
should be accorded at least some of the protections and institutional support that
majority languages and speakers enjoy. In Catalonia, the Catalan Statute of Autonomy
of 2006 affirms the co-official status of Catalan in the region along with the national
language (Spanish). Policies in Catalonia protect and foster the use and maintenance of
its own language in school as well as in diverse public and private spheres in the
community and workplace (Roller, 2002).
The protection and promotion of the historical regional languages of Spain has
caused Spain to be cited as an example of a positive approach to creating respect and
appreciation for the many languages that coexists within a countrys borders (Miguliz,
2001, p. 348). However, others have questioned the extent to which respect for and the
fostering of the linguistic and cultural experiences of children of a variety of language
backgrounds is part of their educational experiences in Catalan schools, posing the
questions of what schooling will look like for an ever more multicultural Spain and who
will define its curricular content (Teasley, 2004).
Proponents of multilingual education, or the use of more than one language for
instruction, argue that increasing globalization and migration result in settings across
the world in which linguistic diversity is no longer seen as an irregularity in a normally
monolingual pattern but rather is viewed as normality (Busch, 2011, p. 544). In
Catalonia, active promotion of their own language has resulted in high levels of
bilingualism and of support for the equal use of both languages, Catalan and Spanish.
However, the principles of linguistic interdependence and transfer that support
bilingual instruction in two-language settings, for the national and regional languages,
are equally true for students in classrooms and schools in which multiple languages are
present.
An institutional use and recognition of students L1 is equally important to
foster self-confidence and combat marginalization of immigrant language speakers. As
May (2008) notes, The promotion of Catalan, while not necessarily problematic in
itself, does not as yet extend to the active recognition of other minority languages and
cultures within Catalonia (p. 250). Multilingual education advocates recognize the
difficulties in bridging theory and practice in ever more complex linguistic and cultural
contexts, asking us to consider how to take the principles of bilingual education and
move to the practicalities of multilingual education (Mohanty, 2009).
Catalan Society: Diverse and Bilingual

As suggested above, in recent years, Catalonia has become one of the
destinations of immigration from countries in southern Europe. In addition, the region
has historically been a magnet for emigration from other parts of Spain and other
countries. All of this results in a population that is an amalgamation of different
cultures, with what can be characterized as a small autochthonous (or indigenous)
minority.
82
If we focus on the immigrant population using IDESCAT data, we can see

that there was a peak in the arrival of emigrants in 2010, with 1,193,283 people or
15.9% of the total population.
Table 1. Migrant population in Catalonia. IDESCAT
However, this pattern has reversed itself in the last six years, with the number of
residents in Catalonia in 2015 dropping to 1,028,069. This figure represents 14.5% of
the total population of Catalonia, a percentage well above the 10.7% of foreign
residents in the Spanish population overall.
The foreign population of Catalonia consists of diverse elements. The
Moroccan community is the most numerous, making up 20.84% of the total
population of foreign residents. The Romanian community follows with 9.11%,
Chinese with 5.01%, Italians with 4.74% (including those with double nationality),
and Pakistanis with 4.26%. By continent, 33.37% of the population is of European
origin, 28.29% is of African origin (primarily from the north of Africa), 24.64% is
from the Americas (primarily South America), and 13.63% is of Asian origin. It is
necessary to add to these totals the Roma population. An estimated 100,000 must be
added, according to data from Roma organizations.
The cultural diversity of the population qualitatively affects convivencia, with
contact among groups separated by certain cultural distance and with different life
styles, languages, and beliefs. The result is a social distancing as a result of the waves
of migration from poor and marginal areas, who are socioeconomically
disadvantaged and who find themselves within the receiving society at marginal
levels as well.
In the face of this diversity, the challenge is the satisfactory integration of
these populations into a society that is already bilingual and bicultural, since there has
been the explicit intention in Catalonia to politically foster bilingualism. In the school
83
arena, interculturalism presents certain challenges. In terms of language, the model

designed in 1983 has pushed for an authentic linguistic immersion in educational
sites, and has placed the non-Catalan speaking student in an educational setting in
which the language of communication for the first years of schooling is Catalan.
Over the last few years, the discourse surrounding interculturalism cannot be
ignored in classroom settings. This has resulted in the concentration of segregated
foreign populations in specific areas and school sites, primarily public schools, that
has provoked an increased social pressure. The political will has been made manifest
in the National Pact for Education and in the same law in Catalan education (LEC,
2009) with respect to the distribution within the educational system of foreign origin
children and youth.
Given this complex and culturally diverse reality, it is necessary to refocus the
discourse surrounding intercultural education at the school sites. All schools without
exception accept the responsibility of educating students to live in harmony in a
diverse society, with the goal of forming future citizens for a multicultural society,
such as Catalonia. This broad intercultural goal is supported in spite of the fact that
the goal of cultural homogeneity may be more prevalent in their classrooms (del
Arco, 2000).
Language, School, and Social Cohesion in Catalonia

The language model for Catalan schools, ratified by the Estatuto de
Autonoma de 2006 and the Ley de Educacin de Catalua (2009), establishes
Catalan as the language of instruction and the key element for equity and social
cohesion. The system of linguistic immersion in Cataln, that has been extended and
perfected over the course of the last three decades, has sought to guarantee general
knowledge of the language, social cohesion, and equality of opportunities, while at
the same time avoiding segregation of students.
Results have been reported by different international organizations. For
example, the High Level Group on Multilingualism of the European Union
considers Catalonia and its educational model to be an example of multilingualism in
practice and as a model that is exportable to the rest of Europe in areas with
linguistic situations similar to that of Catalonia.
Knowledge of various languages represents cultural wealth as well as an
advantage for convivencia. In todays world, plurilingualism can also be considered a
necessity. The ability to speak several languages, to different degrees, contributes to
the ability to interact in global settings or in culturally and linguistically complex
contexts. Plurilingualism stands out as one of the international indicators of
employability, in which linguistic ability facilitates success in the labor market. It also
fosters the expansion and internationalization of economies globally; a multilingual
society is the most efficient in international relations.
84
Linguistic Plans at Local Sites

With the competitive focus and integrated nature of languages and academic
content, which constitute the common framework of the educational system, each
site needs to address the distinctive realities of the environment surrounding the
school as well as the linguistic background of each student. With this in mind, each
school site can define a curricular, methodological, and organizational plan to work
with the different languages that responds to the needs of their students and ensures
the best outcomes for them. This plan, which structures all of the actions related to
languages in each educational site, is formalized and systematized in the language
project.
The challenges facing our educational system today with the incorporation of
a wide spectrum of students belonging to immigrant families are significant and
require innovative planning. This is particularly true in light of findings from
numerous studies that demonstrate that linguistic proficiency involved in the
processes of teaching and learning is a decisive element in school success or failure.
The Plan for Language and Social Cohesion (LIC) of the Department of Education
of Catalonia was developed with the goal of modifying the educational system in
order to meet the needs of a growing and increasingly complex plurality that now
characterizes Catalan society. The objective is to strengthen and consolidate social
cohesion, intercultural education, and Catalan language within a plurilingual
framework.
This 2004 Plan forms part of the Plan Interdepartamental de Inmigracin,
with a more global vision than that of the Plan de Actuacin para el Alumnado de
Nacionalidad Extranjera 2003/2006 (PAANE) elaborated by the administration. The
2004 plan dealt primarily with aspects related to language learning and did not pay
sufficient attention to aspects related to acceptance such as emotional, interpersonal,
and relational factors, and to social cohesion that directly affect students. The new
Plan is, therefore, directed at the total student population of the country, regardless
of condition, situation, or origin, in order to strengthen the foundations of a
democratic culture based on justice, dialogue; coexistence, management and
leadership have an important role (Antnez, 2000).
Methods
This study is part of a larger project investigating teaching and learning
practices related to the cultural and linguistic rights of immigrant students in four
schools located in Santa Coloma and Lleida These locations have historically
experienced migration, first from other regions in the Spanish state and subsequently
abroad.
Our qualitative study addresses this complex issue, focusing on the following
research questions:
1. What do educators perceive as their primary responsibilities in the
teaching of immigrant students in Catalan immersion programs?
85
2. What instructional and organizational practices do they use to respond

to the needs of immigrant students?
In this study we focus on the role of the director of the school in fostering a
school climate favorable for the recognition of cultural and linguistic rights of
immigrant students and for promotion of interculturality amongst all students. The
answers to these questions are expected to yield a framework for the schools.
Sample
We intentionally selected schools for participation because they all received
the official designation of educational centers with maximum complexity. According
to school officials, these schools are characterized by high percentages of parents
with low levels of education and in low-skilled jobs or unemployed, as well as by
high percentages of foreign-born students. Additionally, the four schools each
reported 15-20 different languages. All schools were located in low-income urban
neighborhoods with high levels of diversity. We asked the Superintendent for
permission to access schools. Participation in the research was voluntary.
This study was carried out with four school principals. Three researchers
visited the schools to interview the principal over a 40-minute period. The interviews
were transcribed and sent to the directors for them to verify the content.
Instrument
The interview protocol included seven sections. First, the directors were
asked to describe how they were named as director of the school, including the time
just before they were appointed and in what capacity they worked at that time.
Subsequent sections explored their motives for becoming director, their
expectations, and challenges, as well as the context of the school organization, its
history, demographics, and the concerns of students, parents, and teachers. Within
this context, directors were asked to describe their most salient actions in school in
relation to linguistic rights.
Analysis
Data from the principals interviews were analyzed with the help of ATLAS-ti
software for qualitative data analysis (Burgess, 1995; Weitzman & Miles, 1995). The
researchers read the transcripts and separated the responses into meaningful units using
the constant comparative method of Glasser and Strauss (1967). Themes were
identified inductively.
Findings
Preliminary results from the study with respect to cultural and linguistic
rights indicate that immigrant students require an appropriate school environment.
In order to achieve this, it is necessary to create favorable conditions through a set of
actions related to organization and administration of the school.
86
In their responses to the first research question, principals were in agreement

that it is essential to ensure in the school a healthy and safe environment
characterized by respect, peace, and an accepting social climate. It is difficult to make
academic advances if a favorable environment is not created in which students,
teachers, and families feel comfortable and content. As one principal said, It is
necessary to train teachers in how to deal with emotions because [the students] live
in situations that are difficult and dramatic. So dealing with emotions permits a
complete and positive attention [to students]. More than [content] knowledge, it
would be necessary to prepare people for this new situation.
Principals placed relatively little emphasis on meeting the linguistic needs of
their immigrant students. They emphasized that students were picking up Catalan
very quickly, often pointing out students who were relatively new arrivals and were
already able to communicate in Catalan.
In response to the second research question, teachers carry out effective
actions addressing childrens emotional needs and the affective climate of the school.
If children are welcomed emotionally, they will feel secure and recognized. Teachers
feel that this is particularly important for children from disadvantaged backgrounds.
An activity they promote in this regard is holding traditional celebrations
(and their accompanying artistic and cultural manifestations) and special days, as well
as sharing legends and stories from the home countries of the immigrant children.
These are ideal occasions for fostering respect for linguistic and cultural rights. For
example, when we celebrate the Juegos Florales, some of the families participate.
They can read poems in their native language, and then translate them.
In addition, educators involve the immigrant families. This means opening
the doors of the school so that parents can participate collaboratively with teachers
in order to foster reciprocal knowledge. On the one hand, teachers understand and
learn about the cultures and personal and family situations of their students; on the
other, parents learn about the work of the teachers. As one director explained,
What we do is every year mothers and fathers come and they
explain a story in their language. We try to have these be
traditional stories that the children already know, because if
you already know the story it helps you understand. A man
also comes who speaks Urdu, and he explains what he did in
his country. Then he shares some words (in Urdu)] and he
translates them into Spanish. So we do this: one [parent
reads] in Romanian, another in Arabic, in Chinese, in English,
because we have children whose parents know some English
(mixed with their own language).
Principals recognize that it is necessary to ensure that there is a strong
commitment from the whole leadership team. The leadership team should be the
one to promote, energize, and support the processes that address the rights
described above. It is necessary, therefore, for the team to include this objective
87
among its priorities, and that the team is capable of exercising sustained and
distributed leadership in both academic and social areas to attain it.
Another director said that the teaching and learning environment itself is
essential for successful academic and social student outcomes, concluding that
additional professional development is one of the keys in this challenging task:
With respect to preparation, we need to develop other types of
professional competencies that we have not had before. One of
these would be regarding emotional needs. If you are seeing
complex situations on a daily basis, knowing how to deal with
them can be difficult.
Conclusions
Our data indicate that schools are in route to improvement in the area of
cultural and linguistic rights but are not able to make great advances on their own.
They need the help of support services - social workers, cultural mediators, school
supervisors, etc. - with whom they need to work in coordination. The resulting
synergy is a key factor in success.
Schools vary along many dimensions and chief among them are the culture
and make-up of the community. A linguistic rights perspective includes not only
respect for and inclusion of the native languages of the immigrant students, but also
respect for cultures and commitment to enhance the lives of people.
Linguistic rights are not only centered on the school site, but also related to
global issues. Daring leadership that goes beyond preserving the status quo requires
attention to macro issues beyond the school and community. It is necessary to
continue working with this wider perspective. This includes finding out not only how
community leaders feel about key issues but also how external services, such as
psychological and instructional support staff and school inspectors can work
together to address student needs.
References
Antnez, S. (2000). La accin directiva en las instituciones escolares. Barcelona: ICE- HORSORI
August, D. & Shanahan, T. (Eds.), (2006). Developing literacy in second-language learners: Report of the
National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Benson, C. (2009). Designing effective schooling in Multilingual contexts: Going beyond bilingual
models. In T. Skutnabb-Kangas, R. Phillipson, A. Mohanty, & M. Panda (Eds.), Social justice
through multilingual education, 63-84. Buffalo, NY: Multilingual Matters.
Busch, B. (2011). Trends and innovative practices in multilingual education in Europe: An overview.
International Review of Education, (57), 541-549.
Cummins, J. (1986). Empowering minority students: A framework for intervention. Harvard
Educational Review, (56), 18-36.
Cummins, J. (2001) Negotiating identities: Education for empowerment in a diverse society (2nd edition). Los
Angeles: California Association for Bilingual Education.
Cummins, J. (2009). Fundamental psycholinguistic and sociological principles underlying educational
success for linguistic minority students. In T. Skutnabb-Kangas, R. Phillipson, A. Mohanty, &
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M. Panda (Eds.), Social justice through multilingual education, 19-35. Buffalo, NY: Multilingual
Matters.
Del-Arco, I. (2000). Entre el estigma y la utopa. Hacia un desuso de la interculturalidad. Aula de
innovacin educativa, (97), 49-52.
Extra, G. & Gorter, D. (2001). Comparative perspectives on regional and immigrant minority
languages in multicultural Europe. In G. Extra & D. Gorter (Eds.). The other languages of Europe
(pp. 1-41). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Francis, D., Lesaux, N., & August, A. (2006). Language of instruction. In D. August & T. Shanahan
(eds.). Developing literacy in second-language learners: Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-
Minority Children and Youth, 365-41. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Genesee, F., Lindholm-Leary, K., Saunders, W., & Christian, D. (2006). Educating English Language
Learners. NY: Cambridge University Press.
IDESCAT (2016). Anuario de estadstica de Catalunya. Institut destadstica de Catalunya. Available
http://www.idescat.cat/es/
May, S. (2006). Language policy and minority rights. In T. Ricento (Ed.), An introduction to language
policy: Theory and method, 255-270. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing.
May, S. (2008). Language and minority rights: Ethnicity, nationalism and the politics of language. NY: Routledge.
Roller, E. (2002). When does language become exclusivist? Linguistic politics in Catalonia. National
Identities, 4 (3), 273-289.
Rolstad, K. Mahoney, K. & Glass, G. (2005). The big picture: A meta-analysis of program
effectiveness research on English Language Learners. Educational Policy, (19), 572-594.
Skutnabb-Kangas, T., (2009). Multilingual education for global justice: Issues, approaches,
opportunities. In T. Skutnabb-Kangas, R. Phillipson, A. Mohanty, & M. Panda (Eds.), Social
justice through multilingual education (pp. 36-62). Buffalo, NY: Multilingual Matters.
Skutnabb-Kangas, T., Phillipson, R., Mohanty, A. & Panda, M. (Eds.) (2009). Social justice through
multilingual education. Buffalo, NY: Multilingual Matters.
Slavin, R. & Cheung, A. (2005). A synthesis of research on language of reading instruction for English
Language Learners. Review of Educational Research, (75), 247-284.
Vila, I. (1995). El catal i el castell en el sistema educatiu de Catalunya. Barcelona: Horsori.
Patricia Silva is a Lecturer in the Pedagogy and Psychology Department, Faculty of Education,
Psychology, and Social Work, University of Lleida. Correspondence regarding this article can be sent to her
at [email protected].
Leslie Reese is a Professor in the Department of Teacher Education at California State University
Long Beach.
Serafn Antnez is a Professor in the Department of Teaching and Educational Organization at the
University of Barcelona.
Isabel del-Arco is a Professor in the Pedagogy and Psychology Department Faculty of Education,
Psychology, and Social Work, University of Lleida.
89
Understanding the Complexities of Transmigration Experiences

through Digital Storytelling
Elizabeth Paulsen Tonogbanua
Boston, MA
This qualitative interpretive study explored how digital storytelling might provide insights into the
complexities of transmigration experiences for students in U.S. schools. Specifically, this study
investigated the transmigration experiences of students from Haiti, within the context of an English-
only learning environment in Boston, Massachusetts, a city with a burgeoning immigrant student
population. Set in a community center in Boston and drawing on ethnographic methods, the study
invited participants to share their unique educational experiences of moving from Haiti to different
academic programs in Boston Public Schools. The overarching research question was: How do former
newcomer ELLs make sense of their transmigration experiences through a digital storytelling
project? A combination of methods was used: interviews, participant observations, photography,
digital storytelling to gather and analyze artifacts for themes. The findings suggest that language
development, technological skill development, opportunity to tell their stories, and meeting as a
Haitian student community with shared and unique experiences were outcomes that had implications
for research and teaching ELLs. Adding to the body of immigration literature on how newcomers
fare, the findings have implications for how teachers understand and plan for newcomers specific
needs and the utility of digital storytelling as a tool to engage in multiple content areas.
Keywords: Digital storytelling, ELLs, Haitian students, identity, transmigration
This interpretive study explored how former newcomer ELLs in Boston

Public Schools made sense of their transmigration experiences through a digital
storytelling project. The relationship between newcomer students transmigration
experiences and their future educational attainment has been established in the
literature on immigration and education (Gozdziak & Martin, 2005). Drawing on
qualitative and ethnographic methods, I facilitated a group of former newcomer
students at a community center in Boston as they engaged in a digital storytelling
project that captured their perceptions of how they adapted and adjusted to their
new academic and social life in the city.
Newcomers are students who have moved to the United States within the
last one to three years and represent a range of educational, linguistic, cultural, and
socioeconomic backgrounds. I worked with former newcomers because I wanted to
learn about students reflections on the numerous transitions they had made after
spending some time living in the United States.
Newcomer ELLs bring with them additional needs that go beyond those of
U.S.-born, monolingual students. Along with the pressures of taking large-scale
90
assessments in a relatively short amount of time, newcomers must also adjust to a

new school environment, and learn a second language and culture at an intense pace.
ELLs in Massachusetts are the state's fastest growing group of students and, as a
group, experience the largest proficiency gap when compared to their native
English speaking peers (MA DESE, 2014). The findings suggest that language
development, technological skill development, opportunity to tell their stories, and
meeting as a Haitian student community with shared and unique experiences were
outcomes that had implications for research and teaching ELLs.
Background: Boston Public Schools and Haitian Migration

Boston Public Schools, the oldest school district in the United States, has 134
schools with an enrollment of 56,650 students. Student demographics indicate that
learners within the district are 41% Hispanic, 35% Black, 15% White, 9% Asian, and
1% other/multiracial. ELL students in BPS speak 75 different languages, the most
widely spoken being Spanish, Haitian Creole, Cape Verdean Creole, Chinese,
Vietnamese, Portuguese, Somali, French, and Arabic. BPS has a sizable and diverse
ELL population of 24,757 (46% of the total BPS student body), with 15,503 (29%)
designated as limited English proficient (LEP) (BPS Communications Office, 2015).
Massachusetts has the third largest Haitian community in the United States
(Kitchen, 2010). According to recent data, there are an estimated 41,000 Haitian-
born immigrants living in the city of Boston, with Haitians comprising the second
largest share of immigrants in the city (8.5%), behind China (8.6%) and ahead of the
Dominican Republic (7.9%) (Boston Redevelopment Authority, 2009). This number
has increased dramatically in the aftermath of the devastating 2010 earthquake but
has not been accurately counted.
When Haiti was struck by the largest earthquake it had had in over two
hundred years in January 2010, the country was sent into crisis mode. According to
Eric Johnson, the Director of Newcomers Academy at that time, families in Boston
sought to have their extended and distant relatives join them (Nicas, 2010). Although
the exact total number for the years following is difficult to disaggregate, as Haitians
are classified as African American, Haitians entered schools throughout the school
year and most often with little notice to their new teachers that they were coming.
Upon arrival, students found established Haitian Creole SEI and SIFE programs
staffed with Haitian Creole speaking teachers (Merrigan, 2010).
Literature
In this section, research on identity, student voice, and social integration is
discussed as they pertain to this study. The relationship between language use and
identity has never been more relevant than it is today, as immigrant student
populations in urban areas continue to increase. Along these lines, as teachers create
spaces in their classrooms for all students to share their ideas, students can exercise
their voices regarding how they integrate to their new schools and engage in their
91
education. Lastly, successfully integrating newcomer students into the classroom is a

bi-directional process. In the section on Social Integration, I consider how teachers
and students can develop mutual respect and understanding of the others cultures,
values, and beliefs (Trueba & Bartolome, 2000).
Identity
Identity theory is significant to this study because how the participantsthat
is, newcomer ELLs-view themselves underpin how they made sense of their
transmigration experiences. At its core, identity theory is defined as the
categorization of the self as an occupant of a role, and the incorporation, into the
self, of the meanings and expectations associated with that role and its performance
(Stets & Burke, 2000, p. 225). Understanding how ones identity impacts his or her
educational experience and role in society is at the center of ones perception of how
a learner integrates socially. Identity is also a major factor in acquiring a second
language; this is directly relevant to my study, as participants made sense of who they
were as students before they left their home countries and how they have changed
during transmigration (Suarez-Orozco et al., 2011).
Childrens day-to-day lives span very different worlds-home and school life-
and through an immersion process in each, children form identities vis--vis their
experiences in those communities. Language is intimately bound with identity, and
whose language is used in the public sphere not only relates to political power, but
also to how much one belongs. The language one uses influences how a group
constructs its identity, while at the same time the identity of the group shapes the
patterns of attitudes and language uses (Liebkind, 1999, as cited in Garca &
Zakharia, 2010).
Migrants immerse themselves simultaneously in multiple sites and aspects of
the transnational social fields in which they live (Levitt & Jaworsky, 2007).
Navigation between two worlds-the homeland and the host country- is at the heart
of transnationalism, as both countries shape ones identity. Thus, a transnational
identity emerges when individuals hold themselves to be a reflection of two or more
cultures (Pedraza, 2006, as cited in Orbe & Drummond, p. 1692). Transnational
identity is pertinent to this study because it offers a means for understanding how
identity is viewed from the perspectives of immigrants within the receiving
communities.
Bryce-Laporte (1972) notes Haitians are seen as Blacks by Whites and as
foreigners by native-born Blacks (as cited in Cone et al., 2014, p. 54). This is
problematic because Haitian newcomers are more likely to enroll in urban schools
that have a large percentage of African American students and are located in high-
poverty neighborhoods. Facing prejudice from U.S. society at large and from staff
and classmates at school, Haitians are frequently subject to negative peer critiques of
their school identities, both by African American students and by other Haitians who
have been in the United States longer and have become more Americanized.
92
Student Voice
Understanding the significance of student voice and determining how to
draw on it were essential elements to this study. By building upon what has been
established in literature about student voice, students shared their thinking about
their unique transmigration experiences, empowering themselves and their peers in
the process. Student voice represents more than physical vocalizations. Researchers
and teachers alike consider student voice to be demonstrated in any activity in which
students exercise a degree of control as they communicate their feelings (Johnson,
1991). Over time, student voice has come to be associated with empowerment,
meaning that students have the opportunity to provide input into decisions affecting
their education. Participants had complete creative control over what aspects of their
transmigration experiences they chose to share.
Social Integration
Social integration and how students experience it comprise the heart of this
study. Social integration is the degree to which immigrants interact positively with
U.S.-born peers and the school community as a whole. Schools that implement social
integration policies and procedures support immigrants as they adjust to their new
environment. The reality, however, is that it is more common for schools not to
recognize the unique needs of immigrant students; schools have been shown to
disregard their unique emotional experiences, treating them instead in the same way
they would a monolingual, U.S.-born student who is new to the school. Newcomer
students are often left to themselves to negotiate the educational environment, which
only further contributes to their academic difficulties. When schools neglect to
establish a practice to integrate newcomers, they are at least partly responsible for the
problems that arise (Lasso & Soto, 2005).
Research Design
This interpretive, qualitative study, drew on ethnographic methods and
digital storytelling to investigate the following research question: How do former
newcomer ELLs make sense of their transmigration experiences through a digital
storytelling project? Former newcomers took pictures or used existing imagery to
add to a digital story, which expressed their views of how they adapted and adjusted
to their new environment. This paper is based on a larger study that examined
circumstances around participants move to Boston and the types of initial
interactions they recalled having in their schools, as well as their perception of social
integration at their schools in the context of an English-only education. This work
informs what an inclusive school setting-that is, one which values new students
languages, cultures, and identities-looks like in the context of an English-only
education.
In July 2014, I conducted my study at a community center in the Boston area.
The community center offers youth development programs and social responsibility
93
programs. My rationale for choosing this locale was because it yielded a wider sample
of diverse experiences than working with students from one high school. I recruited
six high school students who were able to commit to the 12-session timeframe. In
my convenience sample, participants who lived in the United States for one to three
years were selected based on their ability to attend all the sessions (Bryman, 2001).
All of the participants hailed from Haiti, and the majority had lived in the capital,
Port-au-Prince, before moving to Boston after the devastating earthquake that
leveled their home city in January 2010.
Data Collection Methods

I used a combination of methods to examine students transmigration
experiences: Interviews, participant observations, photography, digital storytelling,
and analysis of student work. Throughout the study, my intent was for student
participants to have a voice in the research as I conveyed the details about the data
collection.
Instruments
Interviews. I asked the questions from an interview guide to the whole group,
and the participants shared their experiences aloud and wrote their own responses in
the guide. As a qualitative researcher, I am interested not just in what people say but
also in the way that they say it (Bryman, 2001, p. 321). I developed questions that
honed newcomers ideas about how their prior educational experiences had affected
their identities as students.
Participant observation. I facilitated the sessions and used digital recorders
and a teaching assistant to help me spend the entire time engaged with the
participants. As the researcher, I needed to rely on my memory and write down my
observations as soon as each session ended. Writing down everything that was (or
could have been) significant to my study while at the same time engaging with and
observing participants was no small feat. Students worked on group-based activities
and I observed students engaging with their peers. This was another important
source of information in my research; as Hays (2004) held, case studies that involve
the interaction of individuals cannot be understood without observation.
Photography. I wanted students to capture moments that were important and
representative of social integration, adaptation, and adjustment in their new
surroundings according to them. Photovoice and its application stem from Paulo
Freires (1970) work that grew out of critical education, feminist theory, and a
participatory approach to documentary photography. Freires problem-posing
education starts with issues that people see as central to their lives and then enables
them to identify common themes through dialog (as cited in Paiewonsky, 2005). In
this sense, I guided participants as I explained that what they chose to photograph
would be a reflection of what they perceived a visual representation of social
integration to be, and that their ability to select images that expressed their
94
perceptions of particular issues was critical to their digital story.

Digital storytelling. Digital storytelling has come to be a vehicle for cultural
analysis. Digital storytelling creates space for former newcomer ELLs to affirm their
identity and become agents of social change, as it is a creative work and both
represents and invites the construction of meaning (Lambert, 2010). Images-either
still or moving-drive the story and explain the relationship between the narrator and
the audience. The storyteller carefully selects images as he or she refines the message
to be conveyed. Participants had the time and space to reflect on their experiences
and describe them in as much detail as possible. In my study, participants were
guided to each develop their own digital story. They wrote their own scripts
highlights aspects of their transmigration experiences and selected images to convey
their ideas. Each digital story was approximately three minutes long.
Data Analysis
I analyzed, memoed, categorized, and coded all of the data I collected. By conducting
a thematic content analysis, I was able to determine what participants focused on and
was able to connect their texts back to the thematic areas (Berg, 2001).
Findings/ Discussion
As students engaged in the digital storytelling process, it became clear that
they made sense of their move from Haiti to Boston Public Schools in different
ways. Furthermore, throughout the study, digital storytelling emerged as a
pedagogical process that serve as an effective tool for working with newcomer ELLs,
both as a means to facilitate meaning making and give significance to their
transmigration experiences. As such, digital storytelling may also offer a process by
which teachers may better understand the circumstances of students transmigration
and thus how better to support them. In this section, I describe some of the insights
provided by students regarding their transmigration experiences and the utility of the
digital storytelling process.
Participants in this project demonstrated an understanding of the
circumstances regarding their move in different ways. Participants also made sense of
their move in various ways. Some chose to reveal personal details, while others were
vague about what they knew about their moves and when they knew it. As
participants made sense of their move, some cross-cutting themes emerged. There
was a change in roles within families for all of the participants, and there was
separation and loss for all of them as well.
Participants changed roles within their families as they pertained to gender
and moved from living with extended families to partial nuclear families. Some of the
participants became the head female in their house, which meant taking on domestic
responsibilities for younger siblings and fathers. Other participants transitioned from
a two-parent household to a single parent home, as nearly every participant
experienced separation and loss from one parent. They spoke fondly of having the
95
freedom to visit extended family nearby during our discussions, as they lost the
ability to feel the support and connection to their extended families. They try to
utilize technology, to the extent that it is possible, but Skype cannot take the place of
stopping by ones grandmothers house for a home-cooked meal.
Participants had had little control over being uprooted and relocated; yet,
through the storytelling project, they were given an opportunity to make meaning of
their experiences, and in some sense, regain some control over their transmigration
story. Some challenged themselves to use more English, while others felt the
highlight was getting to collaborate with other former newcomers who are also
Haitian. Their parallel journeys were difficult to put into words for them at points,
for numerous reasons, but the bond that was created through doing so was
invaluable to creating a cohesive group. The implication is that teachers who capture
students interest by using digital stories would be able to link content matter to
aspects of students lives. Students sense of belonging and motivation to be part of
their school community would increase, as their affective filter is lowered.
Overall, participants recognized how much had changed for them since they
arrived. They expressed varying degrees of pride regarding the extent to which they
have integrated socially in their schools. They all acknowledged that it took time to
adjust during these major transitions, and many could cite teachers as having a direct
hand in helping to ease some of the isolation that was described. Over time, the
participants categorized themselves as students who fit in with the culture of their
high schools, and reflexively now refer to themselves as students, per Stets and
Burkes (2000) identity theory. Even though everyone could name ways in which
they have integrated, exploring this topic left me wondering how they each will grow
and adapt further.
Conclusion
As a pedagogical process, digital storytelling was shown to be an effective
tool for working with newcomer ELLs, both as a means to facilitate meaning making
and give significance to their transmigration experiences, as well as to support
language development. Student voice was exercised, as participants had the ability to
determine aspects of their products. The findings of this study suggest that teachers
may also utilize digital storytelling as a way to better understand the circumstances of
students transmigration and thus how better to support them.
Language development, technological skill development, opportunity to tell
their stories, and meeting as a Haitian student community with shared and unique
experiences were other outcomes that had implications for research and teaching
ELLs. The data showed that some participants challenged themselves to use more
English, while others held that a highlight for them was getting to collaborate with
Haitians. They demonstrated a great deal of empathy towards each other. The
findings suggest that teachers may benefit from taking the time to get to know each
of their students and become knowledgeable about their strengths as individuals and
96
learners in order to make authentic connections with them. By utilizing digital stories
in the classroom, students may be able to learn content matter as they engage in a
creative approach to mastering standards.
Furthermore, the findings suggest that community centers in urban areas,
such as the one where I did my study, may be able to organize and implement digital
story projects with great success. Being completely removed from the high-stakes
testing environment, community centers have the autonomy and resources to recruit
students during after school hours, intersessions, and summer breaks. Students may
be able to strengthen their voices in their own work by immersing themselves in a
topic of their choosing and then interpreting the visual images that they believe best
tell their stories.
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98
The Psychological and Educational Impact of Immigration on Maternal Separation
The Psychological and Educational Impact of Immigration-

Induced Maternal Separation on Children
Rochelle C. Cassells
Cornell University
Academic achievement among immigrant children is of concern to researchers, educators, and policy-
makers. A weakness identified in this research area is the assumption that childrens immigration
experiences (IE) are monolithic. My work highlights maternal separation as a source of diversity
among immigrant children. Some children migrate with their mothers, while others do not. The
present study assessed the educational and psychological outcomes of three IE using data from the
Children of Immigrants Longitudinal Study. Results suggest that IE may, in part, explain the
differential outcomes of immigrant children. Collaborative efforts between researchers and
practitioners are needed to develop interventions based on the awareness of childrens IE in order to
aptly address the needs of this vulnerable population.
Keywords: Academic success, children left-behind, maternal separation, parachute

kids, psychological adjustment
El rendimiento acadmico de los nios inmigrantes es motivo de preocupacin para investigadores,

educadores y dirigentes polticos. Uno de los puntos dbiles de este campo de investigacin es la
presuposicin de que las experiencias de inmigracin de los nios son monolticas. Nuestro trabajo
seala la separacin materna como origen de las diferencias entre nios inmigrantes: algunos nios
emigran con sus madres en tanto que otros no. El presente estudio ha evaluado los resultados
educativos y psicolgicos de tres tipos de experiencias de inmigracin utilizando datos procedentes del
Estudio Longitudinal de Hijos de Inmigrantes. Las conclusiones apuntan a que la experiencia de la
inmigracin puede explicar en parte las diferencias de resultados entre nios inmigrantes. Es preciso
potenciar la colaboracin entre investigadores y profesionales para desarrollar intervenciones basadas
en el conocimiento de las experiencias de inmigracin de los nios con el fin de atender
adecuadamente las necesidades de esta poblacin vulnerable.
Palabras clave: xito acadmico, nios dejados atrs, separacin materna, nios
paracadas, ajuste psicolgico
Introduction
Immigrant children in the United States represent the fastest growing
demographic (Tienda & Haskins, 2011). Their adaptation has consequences for the
nations social and economic fabric. Much of the literature compares immigrant
children to the native stock on academic achievement, health, and psychological well-
being (Portes & Rumbaut, 2001). Other scholarship discusses the diversity in socio-
99
economic background and origin countries of the new generation of immigration

children (Zhou, 1997). The rise in female- and child-led migrations, and their
potential for maternal separation has brought to the fore even more heterogeneity in
childrens immigration experiences.
The new economics of migration broadens our thinking on decision-making
within immigrant families. Many families from low-income countries pursue
migration in an effort to diversify risks and resources (Stark, Oded & Bloom, 1985),
as well as secure household economic stability (Massey et al., 1993). The global
demand for female labor (Federici, 1999) has meant that women are becoming the
first to migrate. As of 2013, 48% of international migrants were women (UN
Population Divison, 2013), typically from Latin America, the Caribbean (Morrison,
Schiff, & Sjblom, 2007), and some Asian countries like the Philippines (Samonte,
2003). These recent estimates point to a feminization of migration, which refers both
to the rapid increase of women in immigration and the near equivalency in male and
female migration rates (Donato, 1993). Paradoxically, women are employed in care
work while their children remain behind (Gndz, 2013).
An importantly unanswered research question relates to the outcomes of
immigration children who experience maternal separation in immigration compared
to those who do not. Children left behind are children from migrant household with
mothers overseas. Left-behind children have been documented in Mexico (Dreby,
2007, 2010), the Philippines (Parreas, 2005), Caribbean and Latin America
(Crawford-Brown, 1999; Surez-Orozco, Bang, & Kim, 2011). Research shows poor
school performance (Gindling & Poggio, 2012), anxiety and depressive symptoms
(Surez-Orozco et al., 2011), behavioral problems (Hewage, Bohlin, Wijewardena, &
Lindmark, 2011), and health problems (Rajan & Nair, 2013; Wen & Lin, 2012) as a
consequence of immigration-induced maternal separation.
Another type of maternal separation occurs when children initiate
immigration first (Adser & Tienda, 2012). Child-led migrations reasons are often
unclear or unstated (Orellana, Thorne, Chee, & Lam, 2001). However, some existing
work focuses on parachute kids, typically from affluent Asian families, who
immigrate to the U.S. in early life to enroll in American schools and later attend
American universities (Newman & Newman, 2009; Tsong & Liu, 2008). Parachute
kids experience a fair deal of autonomy and little supervision (Zhou, 1998),
potentially undermining the intent of their migration-achieving academic success and
later economic mobility. Binci (2012) argues that the benefits of migration do not
categorically outweigh the parental oversight and care needed for childrens
wellbeing and academic success.
Research in developmental psychology provides some reasonable
expectations of the impact of immigration-induced maternal separation on children.
Immigration brings many physical and social changes, in addition to cultural
differences, and sometimes language barriers. As a result, child migrants sustain
multiple disruptions, changes, and transitions, all of which have been linked to
100
adverse cognitive (Fomby & Cherlin, 2007) and socio-emotional (Evans & Wachs,
2010) development outcomes. Moreover, separation from one or both parents has
been linked to the development of psychiatric disorders, like suicidal behavior,
anxiety, and depression (reviewed in Bowlby, 1979). Therefore, a reasonable
hypothesis is that children who experience maternal separation in immigration may
have less academic success and greater psychological distress than children who
migrate with their mothers.
This paper uses data from Children of Immigrants Longitudinal Study (CILS)
to compare children of family, left-behind, and parachute, migration across three
sending regions, Asia, Caribbean, and Central America, on measures of behavioral
and emotional adjustment and academic performance and achievement. The main
hypotheses are that left-behind and parachute children will demonstrate poorer
psychological adjustment and educational outcomes than children of family
migration.
Method
Secondary data analyses are conducted using data from CILS (Portes &
Rumbaut, 2001). The original study followed 5,262 immigrant children from
adolescence (M = 14 years old) to emerging adulthood (M = 24 years old). In the
present study, 2,294 mother-child dyads were excluded from analyses based on the
following criteria: (1) missing information on birth country, (2) birth country listed as
U.S. (3) Child not living with mother at time 1, (4) mothers years in U.S. is greater
than child's age. Information on mother and child arrival year was needed to create
the main independent variable. Children provided their year of arrival at time two.
Mothers and children provided information on mothers arrival year at different time
points. Given slight discrepancies, mothers responses were given preference where
necessary. Another 740 cases were excluded for missing information on arrival year.
The current sample (N = 1554) consists of slightly more girls (55%), with an average
age of 14.41 (SD = .864).
The arrival year for mothers and children was subtracted from 1992 to
indicate time in the U.S. Childrens time in U.S. was then subtracted from mothers.
A positive result indicated the child came to the U.S. before the mother (parachute
children; n = 299). A negative result indicated the child came to the U.S. after the
mother (children left behind; n = 319). A zero result indicated mother and child
migrated together (family migration; n = 936). These three groups create the main
independent variable, immigration experience (IM). Length of separation was
calculated for children who endured separation by taking the absolute value of the
difference between mother and child time in U.S. Age of separation was calculated
by subtracting mothers arrival year from childs birth year. Sending region (SR) was
determined using childrens birth country. Although, seven regions were identified,
this paper focuses on children from Asia (n = 647), the Caribbean (n = 367), and
Central America (n = 389).
101
Scores on Stanford Math and Reading Achievement tests, and grade point
average in 1992 (time 1) and 1995 (time 2) provided data on childrens academic
abilities. Dropped out of high school, high school diploma and bachelors degree
variables provided information on childrens academic achievement.
Behavioral adjustment was informed by childrens responses to the following
questions: (1) I am seen as a trouble maker by other students and I got into a
physical fight at school. Question one was measured on a four-point agreement
scale, Agree a lot, Agree a little, Disagree a little, Disagree a lot. Question
two was measured as never, once or twice, or more than twice.
Depression symptoms were measured by four items from the Center for
Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale: I felt sad, I could not get going, I did
not feel like eating, I felt depressed. Children reported how often they felt the
way described in each question as rarely, (1 point) some of the time, (2 points)
occasionally, (3 points) and most of the time (4 points). Respondents points
were averaged. High averages indicated high levels of depression
Results
The mean length of separation for mother-child dyads was 2.25 years (SD =
2.05) or roughly 19 months. Children left behind (M = 2.54, SD = 2.17) had higher
separation lengths than parachute children (M = 1.95, SD = 1.87); t(611.498)= 3.660,
p < .001. The length of separation was significantly different across SR, F(2, 541) =
4.426, p = .012 Post-hoc pairwise comparisons determined that Caribbean children
(M = 2.72, SD = 2.27) had longer maternal separations than Asian children (M =
2.03, SD = 1.95), p = .014. On average, children were separated at age six (M = 5.68,
SD = 3.39). Left-behind children (M = 4.98, SD= 3.11) were separated significantly
longer than parachute children (M = 6.42, SD =3.51), t(-5.377) = 595.187, p < .001).
The mean age at separation for children left behind was almost 15 months lower
than the mean age of separation for parachute children.
Education outcomes. A two-way ANOVA was conducted that examined the effect
of IE and SR on time 1 GPA while controlling for gender. Figure 1 shows the
significant interaction between IE and SR, F(4, 1384) = 2.756, p = .027 on time 1
GPA. Analysis of simple main effects showed that time 1 GPA was significantly
higher for Caribbean left-behind children than Caribbean children of family
migration, p = .043. This interaction disappeared at time 2, F(4, 1384) = 2.250, ns.
102
Figure 1. Mean grade point average (time 1) by IE and SR
Figure 2 illustrates the interaction effect of IE and SR on Stanford Math

scores, F(4, 1209) = 3.739, p = .005. Simple main effects analyses revealed that
Caribbean family migration and parachute children had significantly higher Stanford
Math scores than Caribbean left-behind children, p = .024 and p = 024, respectively.
Central American children of family migration had higher scores than left-behind, p
= .009, and parachute children, p < .001. Though there was a non-significant
interaction between independent variables on Stanford Reading scores, analyses of
simple main effects revealed a significant effect of IE on Stanford Reading scores
across SR, F(2, 1204) = 4.003, p = .018. Caribbean family migration and parachute
children had higher Stanford Reading scores than Caribbean left-behind children, p
= .007 and p = .023, respectively (see Figure 3).
Figure 2. Mean Stanford Math scores by IE and SR.
103
A chi-square test found a significant association between IE and dropping

out of high school, 2(2) = 9.334, p = .009, Cramers V = .080. Left-behind (6%) and
parachute children (6%) were two times more likely to drop out compared to family
migration children (3%). No association was found between IE and attaining a high
school diploma or bachelors degree, both ps > .05.
Figure 3. Mean Stanford Reading scores by IE and SR.
Psychological adjustment. A significant association between IE and fighting in

school was found, 2(4) = 11.644, p = .020, Cramers V = .061. Roughly a fifth (21%)
of parachute children and 16% of children left behind reported fighting in school
whereas only 13% of family migration reported doing so. A significant association
between IE and perceived troublemaker, 2(6) = 21.113, p = .002, Cramers V = .083
was also found. Roughly 21% of parachute children agreed that others perceived
them as troublemakers. Only 12% of family migration and 13% left-behind children
reported the same.
A two-way ANOVA examined the effect of IE and SR on time 1 depression
symptoms while controlling for gender. A significant interaction was found, F(4,
1382) = 2.554, p = .037. Figure 4 shows Caribbean left-behind children had higher
time 1 depressive symptoms than Caribbean children of family migration, p = .008.
This interaction disappeared at time 2, F(2, 1387) = 1.368, ns.
104
Figure 4. Mean Depressive symptoms (time 1) by IE and SR.
Discussion
Recent immigrant children are more likely to have experienced maternal
separation than immigrant children of the past. Approximately 30% of children who
participated in Children of Immigrants Longitudinal Study endured maternal
separation. This figure is on par with other estimates on parental separation in
immigration (Surez-Orozco & Surez-Orozco, 2001), but adds a level of specificity
by examining maternal separation and separating left-behind from parachute
children.
Left-behind children were separated at younger ages and for longer periods
than parachute children. Separation in immigration is driven by a combination of
structural and personal factors (Dreby, 2010). The nature of American immigration
policies is such that families remain separated longer than anticipated (Dreby, 2015).
Dreby (2010) found in her sample of Mexican transnational families that parents
expectations for family reunification were thwarted by the realities of employment
and economic instability. Relationships among parents and caregivers also impact
separation lengths (Dreby, 2010). When support for migration is high, parents may
prolong separation in order to meet their goals.
This paper contributed to the existing body of research on immigrant
children by exploring the influence of childrens immigration experience, as well as
their regional origins, in order to better understand their outcomes. In terms of
academic performance, children left-behind tend to do worse than their counterparts
on achievement tests. However, in terms of grade point averages, children left-
behind perform similarly, if not better. What this suggests is the need to depart from
conventional measures of academic performance. Test scores may not capture the
effects of maternal separation because they depend on both internal and external
factors, and may be less sensitive to internal factors. Perhaps what is necessary are
measures of cognitive ability, like executive function, which influence school
105
readiness and outcomes, but that are also susceptible to environmental input (Blair,
2010).
Separated children did not differ from children of family migration in
academic achievement; however, they were more likely to drop out of high school.
Others have found that when mothers are away, children are more likely to be truant
(Gamburd, 2008). Additionally, for every month a child is left behind, the probability
of dropping out increases by 50% (Giannelli & Mangiavacchi, 2010). More research
is needed to better understand this relationship, but lack of oversight may be a
contributing factor.
Psychological distress due to immigration-induced maternal separation has
been documented (Surez-Orozco, Todorova, & Louie, 2002). This study
corroborates and extends those findings. Most strikingly, left-behind Caribbean
children had higher depressive symptoms than Caribbean children of family
migration. Given they are separated for the longest periods, it is unsurprising that
this group would show such symptoms. In fact, some scholars have written on the
negative outcomes of mother migration in the Caribbean (Crawford-Brown &
Rattray, 2001; Pottinger & Brown, 2006). Caribbean countries are matriarchal
(Chamberlain, 2003) and show a strong tradition of female-headed households
(Barrow, 1996), potentially increasing the risk of psychological distress for these
children.
Maternal separation is associated with both internalizing and externalizing
behavior. Some found that teachers report children with migrant mothers as having
more problem behavior than children with non-migrant mothers (Hewage et al.,
2011). Children may act out in order to express dissatisfaction with parental
migration (Dreby, 2007). In this sample, separated children demonstrated more
fighting behavior and were more likely to report that others perceive them as
troublemakers than children of family migration. Parachute children showed the
most behavioral problems.
Future Directions
Though some strides have been made, more questions remain, especially in
regards to children left behind. Future research may seek to investigate the etiology
of left-behind childrens psychological distress, and the role of attachment in that
process. Many have used attachment theory as a theoretical basis for examining left-
behind children (Crawford-Brown, 1999), yet none have explicitly tested the
attachment patterns of these children, and how they compare to children of family
migration or their U.S. counterparts. Although children are left with relatives that
may be in the childs attachment hierarchy, the loss of primary figure may be
overwhelming. On the other hand, caregivers may provide adequate support.
However, at reunification, children experience another loss, this time of the
surrogate mother figure. Research in this area may help inform the way reunification
policies are structured. Caution is taken when suggesting policy recommendations
106
given immigration policies involve bi-lateral state agreements. Nevertheless, what is

clear is that more consideration of the family is needed when discussing immigration
reform.
This work aimed to show another dimension of heterogeneity among
immigrant children. It is important that immigrant children not be treated with the
same broad brush, whether by policy-makers, researchers, or educators. The more
work that is done to better understand the experiences of immigrant children, and its
influence on their outcomes, the better able we will be to support their needs.
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Rochelle C. Cassells, Department of Human Development, Cornell University. Correspondence

regarding this article can be addressed to the author at [email protected].
This research is supported by the National Science Foundation. Grant number

DGE-1650441.
109
Francisco A. Marcos Marn

University of Texas at San Antonio
RIUSS, el Research Institute of United States Spanish, es un centro de investigacin especialmente

dedicado al estudio del espaol escrito en los Estados Unidos, lo que implica una atencin constante
a la traduccin. Para conseguir que la traduccin, en las especiales circunstancias de los EUA, sea
comunicativa, hay que prestar atencin a una serie de parmetros y disponer de varios recursos de
investigacin. El espaol en la traduccin de textos y documentos pblicos tiene que adecuarse a la
poltica de lenguaje llano exigida por la administracin norteamericana. Para ello debe tener en
cuenta aspectos que se detallarn en esta ponencia.
Palabras clave: Estndar, gramtica, lxico, norma, traduccin
The Research Institute of United States Spanish (RIUSS) is a research center and a non-profit
institution devoted to the study of the written Spanish of the USA. This implies paying particular
regard to translation. In order to achieve communicative translations in the particular framework of
the United States analysts must pay attention to a series of parameters and employ a set of specific
research resources. The use of Spanish in the translation of public texts and documents must be
tailored to the plain language policy demanded by the Federal Government. This presentation will
focus on the necessary aspects required to achieve that goal.
Keywords: Grammar, lexicon, norm, standard, translation
Dos Mitos
Desde el siglo XIX, la Lingstica ha sido condicionada por dos mitos, sin
ms base que una ptina de pseudo-cientifismo o de metodologa novedosa. Con ello
me refiero al mito biologicista, por un lado, y al mito de que el verdadero estudio
lingstico era el que tena por objetivo la lengua oral. El mito o metfora
biologicista, segn el cual las lenguas naturales son organismos vivos, y por lo tanto
se puede hablar de su vida, de su muerte, e incluso de su resurreccin, fue provocado
por el entusiasmo por el desarrollo de la Biologa y la fuerza de las tesis darwinistas.
Las lenguas no renen ninguna de las caractersticas de los organismos vivos, son
simples constructos mentales, que los usuarios emplean para categorizar el universo
que perciben y comunicarse. Esos usuarios son seres humanos, puesto que la
facultad de lenguaje es especficamente humana.
Una consecuencia de la fiebre biologicista fue la consideracin de que lo ms
natural de las lenguas era su empleo oral. El escrito pas a considerarse un cdigo
secundario y dependiente, que slo se poda estudiar dentro de esa dependencia,
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subordinado al estudio de la lengua oral. Como suele ocurrir, las consecuencias de

estos dos supuestos falsos fueron beneficiosas en algunos casos y no aportaron gran
cosa, si no perjudicaron, en otros. Curiosamente, una de las ms tempranas
actividades lingsticas, parte esencial de la historia de la cultura, la traduccin, qued
aprisionada en esta trampa y ocup durante mucho tiempo un lugar secundario,
inversamente proporcional, paradjicamente, a su progresiva importancia en el
desarrollo social y la creciente inversin demandada, en el econmico.
Traduccin por Computadora

Esta condicin subsidiaria se reflej incluso en el desarrollo de la Lingstica
Computacional y su aplicacin a la traduccin por computadora o automtica
(Moreno Sandoval, 1998). Lo que importaba ms, en los grandes proyectos
dedicados a este fin eran las teoras lingsticas. As se fueron desarrollando diversas
corrientes, divididas en torno a dos ejes conformados por el modelo de transicin
interlingstica, la trasferencia o transfer y la interlengua o interlingua.
El desarrollo de sistemas de almacenamiento virtualmente ilimitados y de
programas de acceso muy rpidos, apoyados en la evolucin del hardware, dio paso a
la tecnologa de traduccin estadstica, que se apoya en una gigantesca cantidad de
datos, proporcionados en buena medida por los propios usuarios. El proceso se
desarrolla sobre todo a partir de corpus (Marcos Marn, 1994, pp. 79-178)
progresivamente crecientes que, adems, en muchas ocasiones, son tambin corpus
paralelos (Vargas, 2016). En un corpus paralelo se accede al texto en una lengua y su
equivalente en otra, o en otras, tal como existen en la realidad; es decir, desde
ejemplos reales, concretos. Google Translator puede ser un buen ejemplo de este
cambio, pero hay otros.
La conclusin ms notable para los estudios de traduccin pudiera ser que el
tipo de texto y su destino final, es decir, el usuario, tienen una influencia directa en el
proceso de traduccin y deben ser tenidos en cuenta. Dicho de otra manera, no
conviene traducir igual un libro de medicina o de qumica que unas instrucciones
para el uso de un medicamento, para el prospecto correspondiente, o para su ingesta
por el paciente en un hospital, aunque frecuentemente haya elementos lingsticos
comunes en estos tres campos.
El Research Institute of United States Spanish

Ha parecido necesario presentar esas diferentes aproximaciones a la realidad
de la traduccin para pasar inmediatamente a considerar otros aspectos de su
aplicacin en un territorio tan preciso como los Estados Unidos, con usuarios y
selecciones lingsticas que no coinciden con otros lugares donde se traduce al
espaol. Precisamente por esas discrepancias el trabajo de instituciones como RIUSS
es necesario. RIUSS, el Research Institute of United States Spanish, es un centro de
investigacin especialmente dedicado al estudio del espaol escrito en los Estados
Unidos, lo que implica una atencin constante a la traduccin. Si lo que se pretende
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no es simplemente realizar una buena traduccin, desde el punto de vista normativo

o estndar, sino que esa traduccin efectivamente comunique, es decir, que el
destinatario acceda gracias a ella a la informacin cuyo objetivo sirvi de causa para
iniciar el proceso traductor, hay que prestar atencin a una serie de parmetros y
disponer de varios recursos de investigacin. Adems, el espaol en la traduccin de
textos y documentos pblicos tiene que adecuarse a la poltica de lenguaje llano
(plain language) exigida por la administracin norteamericana.
La relacin entre la administracin y los ciudadanos se realiza, sobre todo,
por escrito. Cuando se aceptaba que la poblacin era en su mayora analfabeta,
existan unos funcionarios especiales, los pregoneros, encargados de ir leyendo por
calles y plazas las leyes, bandos y ordenanzas de necesario conocimiento y obligado
cumplimiento. No hace tantos aos, en el bar del pueblo siempre haba una persona
que se encargaba de leer el peridico en voz alta. El cura, el mdico y el boticario
ayudaban al maestro a explicar los trminos y vericuetos legales menos claros, se
convertan de alguna manera en traductores a la lengua del hombre de la calle, algo
necesario en materia impositiva o en lo relacionado con el servicio militar
obligatorio, especialmente.
En los pases de lengua alemana, se da por sabido que existe un alemn
administrativo (Amt Deutsch), que slo entienden las personas especializadas, que un
Kraftfahrzeug es un Auto, por ejemplo, y as sucesivamente. En otros, como el mundo
rabe, donde se vive una situacin en la que conviven la lengua A o culta, de la
escritura y la lengua B o domstica, que no se escribe (lo que los lingistas llaman
diglosia), el nico modo de salir de la situacin es mediante el aprendizaje de ese
modelo de lengua A.
En los Estados Unidos la situacin se complica por varios factores, tanto en
lo que se refiere al ingls como al espaol. Las diferencias entre el ingls escrito y el
hablado son grandes, de manera que el aprendizaje de la lectura y la escritura es un
proceso complejo que dura toda la vida y que incluso produce dobletes por la
diferencia de lecturas posibles de una misma palabra escrita, las terminadas en -ile,
como missile, mobile, volatile, pronunciadas unas veces como [l] y otras como [il], por
ejemplo. En el caso del espaol, es preciso realizar un estudio para determinar el
grado de uso y dominio de la lengua escrita por parte de los que hablan espaol
habitualmente. sa es una de las misiones de RIUSS. La impresin, corroborada por
encuestas parciales (Covarrubias, 2016), es que el porcentaje de hispanos que leen en
espaol no llega al 40%.
Los Estados Unidos no tienen una lengua oficial. La Constitucin y una serie
de leyes y decretos garantizan que los ciudadanos y residentes pueden usar otra
lengua, para defender mejor sus derechos (Marcos Marn, 2006; 2008). Sin embargo,
tampoco cabe duda de que el medio lingstico norteamericano se apoya en el uso y
prestigio de la lengua inglesa. El espaol ha sufrido un gran crecimiento demogrfico
y econmico, se impone incluso como lengua de uso en algunos lugares; pero no es
una lengua que se imponga por razones de prestigio social, cientfico, cultural. Por
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eso los errores en los textos supuestamente redactados en espaol son frecuentes y,
tambin frecuentemente, groseros, porque no hay una conciencia en la poblacin de
que el espaol tiene una norma que se debe respetar para garantizar la comunicacin
entre sus usuarios. La cosa se complica, adems, en un mundo tan dependiente del
ingls, con las traducciones o adaptaciones de los trminos en ese idioma.
Plain Language, Lenguaje Llano

Las dificultades de comprensin de los hablantes del ingls en los Estados
Unidos han llevado a los polticos y administradores de servicios a proponer el
desarrollo de una jerga mostrenca que se supone al alcance de cualquiera y en la que
se recomienda escribir al ciudadano. Se llama en ingls plain language. El ingls, como
se sabe, es el resultado de mil aos de intentar hablar francs y en pocos lugares se ve
con tanta claridad como en esa frase (o sintagma). Language es una palabra latina, a
travs del francs, como demuestra su terminacin en -age (fr. langage) y plain es otro
latinismo, procede del latn planum, igualmente introducido a travs del francs,
lengua que los normandos llevaron a Inglaterra tras la conquista posterior a la batalla
de Hastings (14 de octubre de 1066), con el limitado xito que la historia del ingls
muestra. Ese plain, como se ha dicho, procede de planum, de donde el espaol
obtiene dos soluciones, el prstamo latino directo, plano, y la evolucin regular del
grupo pl-inicial latino, llano, lo mismo que ocurre, por ejemplo, en plenum, pleno y lleno.
En el ao 1942, en su Historia de la lengua espaola, el maestro Rafael Lapesa utiliz
tres veces habla llana para referirse a la regida por el juicio prudente. En 1589, Juan
de Pineda, en sus Dilogos familiares de la agricultura cristiana, haba usado lenguaje llano,
que tambin us entre 1604 y 1621 Bartolom Jimnez Patn, en su Elocuencia
espaola en arte. Esa expresin se recoge en autores del siglo XIX como Jos Mara de
Pereda o Prez Galds, en Espaa, o Fernndez y Medina y Carlos Federico Mora en
Amrica, a los que se puede unir Marco Fidel Surez en 1911, siempre referida a la
forma sencilla e inteligible de hablar el espaol. Tambin Lapesa usa esa frase, como
otros muchos autores. Expresin llana tambin est atestiguada en el siglo XIX. No
hay ejemplos de habla plana o lenguaje plano, como era de esperar. Lenguaje llano, en ese
sentido preciso de comprensible o inteligible, es frecuente en la prensa de Espaa y
Amrica en el siglo XX.
En el caso del espaol, como ya se ha dicho que es frecuente, si no habitual,
en los Estados Unidos, toda comunicacin al pblico pasa por dos tamices, el del
ingls, con su plain language, y el del espaol, que conviene, por lo tanto, expresar en
lenguaje llano. Leticia Molinero (2010) seal en su momento que La comunicacin
en espaol en los Estados Unidos se dirige a un universo heterogneo de
hispanohablantes que abarca diversos grados de expresin verbal y comprensin
lectora del espaol (p. 6), para puntualizar inmediatamente despus, tras sealar que
la enorme mayora de la informacin que se publica en espaol en Estados Unidos,
sea en la esfera privada o en la gubernamental, es producto de traduccin, que la
colegialidad no es requisito para ejercer la profesin de traduccin en Estados
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Unidos. Esta situacin permite entonces que persista todava un gran volumen de
traduccin inepta, generalmente ajena al sector formal de servicios de traduccin
profesional. Y esto tambin contribuye a la mala percepcin del espaol de Estados
Unidos en el universo hispanohablante (p. 7). Esta percepcin y la conciencia de las
circunstancias complejas (Molinero, 2014) es lo que la llev a proponer a un grupo
de acadmicos, educadores e investigadores la fundacin de RIUSS, en 2014,
iniciando un lento proceso que se complet administrativamente el ao siguiente y
que se espera poner a disposicin del pblico en las redes sociales en 2016.
Algunos Ejemplos Localizados

La bibliografa sobre el espaol de los Estados Unidos, la interferencia
lingstica y otras cuestiones es enorme (Lipski, 2008), por lo que slo se har una
rpida referencia a cuatro aspectos, uno general, el de la norma y la comprensin
(Marcos Marn, 2012a; 1012b) y tres especficos, el de los medios hispanos y su
reflexin sobre el uso de la lengua (Covarrubias, 2016), el de la traduccin aplicada a
cierto tipo de textos (Calvo Armijo, 2016) y el de la relacin de lengua, cultura y
poblacin, en una ubicacin concreta (Marcos Marn, 2014). Se proceder de lo
particular a lo general.
En el espaol de Tejas, as en San Antonio, como en muchos otros lugares
del estado, el abandono del espaol en el sistema escolar tradicional, los castigos
impuestos a los escolares que hablaran espaol en la escuela y el temor paterno a las
futuras dificultades laborales de quienes no dominaran el ingls han causado un
abandono del espaol que es notable incluso en un nivel cultural medio alto, como el
que representan los sujetos de la encuesta realizada para el estudio de la poblacin y
su reaccin ante el espaol (Marcos Marn, 2014b, pp. 119-123). Es el flujo constante
de la inmigracin el que actualiza el espaol en los Estados Unidos. Unido a los altos
porcentajes de la inmigracin ilegal, ha contribuido a dar al espaol un carcter de
lengua de gueto, que incide en el rechazo de muchos padres hispanos a su uso en la
escuela, e incluso en la casa. En el rea de San Antonio queda por ver qu incidencia
podr tener el crecimiento de inmigrantes con niveles culturales ms altos, sobre
todo, aunque no slo, mexicanos, y su ubicacin en los mejores distritos escolares.
La tendencia documentada en 2014 a favor de un espaol normativo, frente a las
interferencias que se meten en el cajn de sastre llamado Spanglish, ms propiamente
Tex-mex en este caso, es una apreciacin que coincide con las observaciones
realizadas dos aos despus, el 10 de mayo de 2016, por Louis Nevaer en New
America Media. Por un lado, una encuesta del Pew Hispanic Center sealaba hace
aos que el 71% de los hispanos norteamericanos consideraban que hablar espaol
no era necesario para preservar su identidad latina. Por otro, la evolucin del
mercado laboral, que apoya un espaol normativo y la llegada de inmigrantes de ms
alto nivel cultural, hacen que la percepcin del bilingismo vaya cambiando y que las
jergas mixtas vayan quedando como un recurso a veces meramente cmico, como
sucede en la obra de literatos hispanos que escriben en ingls, como Kristiana Rae
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Coln, Christopher Soto (alias Loma), y David Toms Martnez. La publicidad

tambin ha adquirido conciencia de la conveniencia de usar un espaol que no
resulte ridculo y, aunque todava aparezcan traducciones de Google sin corregir en
lugares diversos, no es as en los grandes anunciantes, que a veces logran xitos
estilsticos tan notables como la campaa Influencer de Target Style enfocada a las
quinceaeras durante los Premios Billboard de Msica Latina, en la que Show off your
way, fue traducido brillantemente como: Lcete a tu manera. Tampoco se olvide
que los anunciantes son los que condicionan la produccin de los diarios y revistas
en espaol, que no se sostendran sin ellos, porque su pblico es muy limitado.
Los Medios Hispanos y el Idioma Espaol

El estudio de Covarrubias, en lo que se refiere a Los medios hispanos y el
idioma espaol (2016: 30) proporciona algunos datos que muestran bien las
tensiones por las que pasa la lengua en su complicada convivencia con el ingls. Ms
del 60% de los periodistas consultados consideraron que los medios en espaol en
Estados Unidos contribuyen al mantenimiento del idioma; pero tambin opinan que
el lenguaje utilizado no es demasiado correcto, tiene una calidad discutible y una
ortografa apenas pasable. En la seccin relativa al idioma, las respuestas indicaron
que la calidad del espaol en los medios para un 5% es excelente y para otro 5%
psima, mientras que un 42,5% la consider regular y un 30% buena.
Predomina la consideracin positiva; pero el hecho de que los encuestados fueran en
gran medida responsables de los medios periodsticos y todos ellos vivieran de esa
profesin introduce ciertas dudas. Un nmero pequeo, slo diez de los consultados,
se quej del uso del Spanglish, lo que hay que interpretar, en la lnea de lo anterior,
como una disminucin del temor a esa interferencia. En su alabanza de la calidad del
espaol por considerarla excelente (en contraste con seis encuestados que la ven
psima) Rafael Prieto Zartha, director editorial del semanario Qu Pasa-Mi Gente,
prensa y digital, de Latino Communications, Carolina del Norte, explica que lo hace
porque refleja la forma de hablar y escribir el espaol en Estados Unidos, incluso la
incorporacin de los estadounidismos, que son un factor de unidad del idioma en
este pas. (Covarrubias, 2016, p. 37). Romn Pedraza Prez, director general de la
revista Expresin, mensual, prensa y digital, de Texas incide en el problema ms grave
del estado, la mala gestin de la educacin, y seala: La revolucin social/digital que
vivimos nos ha metido en una vorgine sumamente difcil de escapar, y con todo
esto nadie, absolutamente nadie, est haciendo nada para reglamentar o preservar la
pureza del idioma escrito en las redes sociales. No hay guas, maestros, escuelas,
universidades; nadie en el rea pedaggica que tenga establecida una estrategia para la
preservacin del idioma. Por eso encontramos tantos barbarismos escritos. Ojal
alguna entidad educativa se pudiera interesar por desarrollar coaliciones, estrategias o
campaas que nos ayuden a mantener la pureza del idioma (Covarrubias, 2016, p.
50).
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Los dos campos de mayor exigencia social de la traduccin son, muy

probablemente, el legal y el de la salud. La tesis de Calvo Armijo (2016) arranca de
varias preocupaciones sociales y lingsticas: la traduccin de textos del campo de la
salud ha sido siempre una de las preocupaciones de trujamanes de pocas muy
distintas, porque responde a una necesidad. La sociedad contempornea pone al
alcance de muchas personas toda suerte de remedios, tratamientos y recursos, que
conllevan una necesidad de informacin a la que se aade el aspecto publicitario.
Aunque el estudio incluye una encuesta a traductores mdicos, de los 116 a los que se
envi slo la respondieron completa 14 y parcialmente 4. Estas encuestas, que
interesan mucho a RIUSS, son ms difciles de llevar a buen puerto de lo que se
piensa, porque una encuesta, para proporcionar informacin completa, tiene que ser
detallada, y a veces los encuestados no quieren responder a preguntas muy
especializadas, porque tienen miedo de no hacerlo satisfactoriamente. Las
conclusiones destacan que las variantes lectales, como se sabe por otros estudios,
tienen un porcentaje muy pequeo en los textos, pese a los diversos orgenes de los
traductores, lo que refuerza el carcter homogneo de la lengua espaola. Aunque
entre las variantes lxicas predominen las latinoamericanas y no las del espaol
europeo, no son las mexicanas las dominantes, aunque se sea el segmento mayor de
la poblacin latina norteamericana. Contra lo que se afirma con ligereza, la
diferenciacin de variantes en el lxico, aunque tenga un porcentaje pequeo del
total, se extiende a todas las reas, no hay una uniformidad lxica latinoamericana. El
contacto con el ingls, como ocurre en otros tipos de textos, se manifiesta en el
lxico, a veces como prstamos y a veces como variantes meramente grficas,
anglicadas y, en la semntica, por el mayor nmero de calcos, especialmente los
innecesarios, como traducir feeding bottle como botella para alimentar y no por
bibern. Se deben a la actividad del traductor y afectan al 25,6% de las variantes
encontradas; es decir, a un porcentaje muy elevado. Gran inters para el trabajo de
RIUSS tiene el hecho de que las publicaciones de mayor difusin, especialmente las
oficiales, son las que menos variantes idiolectales o dialectales ofrecen. Estos
organismos estn en contacto con instituciones como la Academia Norteamericana
de la Lengua Espaola (ANLE) y RIUSS y son conscientes de la necesidad de
atenerse a la norma hispnica. En lo que concierne a la Morfologa y Sintaxis, se
encuentran muchas alteraciones; pero no son especficas. Corresponden a los
fenmenos bien conocidos (Molinero, 2010) de falta de concordancia de adjetivo y
sustantivo o sujeto y verbo, omisin de artculo en plural, posesivo por artculo,
indicativo por subjuntivo, preposiciones correspondientes a la construccin inglesa
en vez de a la espaola, abuso del gerundio, entre otros. Lo que importa destacar es
que un 42% se deben a la influencia del ingls y slo un 5,15% a variantes
latinoamericanas, tambin en este caso de orgenes areales diversos (Calvo Armijo,
2016). Las conclusiones apoyan la necesidad de un trabajo cientfico sobre la lengua
escrita, y especialmente la traduccin, como el que propone RIUSS, porque muchas
de las soluciones divergentes (incluso entre s) que se encuentran en los textos
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obedecen a decisiones personales de los traductores. La ANLE tiene acuerdos

parciales con el gobierno de los EUA (para el portal gubernativo en internet, por
ejemplo) o con asociaciones docentes poderosas, como la American Association of
Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese (AATSP). La administracin federal en otros
sectores, las estatales, locales, las iglesias o los medios de comunicacin, es decir, la
mayor parte de lo que constituye el entramado social norteamericano, sigue o no la
norma acadmica, ahora norma hispnica, en funcin de circunstancias que, como se
ha dicho, pueden obedecer a preferencias personales o de formacin lingstica del
individuo.
Evolucin, Planificacin y Norma

En la administracin de las lenguas han de combinarse dos factores: la
evolucin natural, que depende de los hablantes y de circunstancias cuyo control no
es deseable, y la planificacin, entendida como un intento ordenado de mantener la
cohesin social mediante el estndar lingstico. RIUSS entiende que, sin necesidad
de que ello implique una norma coercitiva, la investigacin para llegar a decisiones
consensuadas es parte de su tarea. Cuando se habla de la igualdad, por ejemplo, surge
la pregunta de si, en el caso de los Estados Unidos, esto llevara a la prohibicin del
espaol en el territorio estadounidense. Est claro que, si solo funcionara la igualdad,
sin la libertad, la respuesta sera s. Afortunadamente, el ideal liberal incluye tres
conceptos bsicos y no uno. Quizs se margina demasiado el concepto de
fraternidad, que ha pasado a la inefectividad retrica. Habra que rescatarlo. Una
sociedad liberal, igualitaria y fraterna reconocera la necesidad de un estndar
lingstico al mismo tiempo que el derecho a la variacin; pero limitado,
fraternalmente, por la necesidad de mantener una comunicacin que beneficie a
todos. Se puede objetar (Zimmermann: 2008; 2009; 2010; 2014) que la norma es til;
pero no necesaria. Sera un buen argumento a favor de la norma en una sociedad
utilitaria, como la norteamericana.
Otra pregunta sera la que se refiriera a la posibilidad de convivencia de varias
normas en un territorio. Tiene mucho que ver con el concepto de norma. Podra
distinguirse, por ejemplo, entre norma legal y norma social. Solo puede haber una
norma legal; pero caben varias normas sociales. En los Estados Unidos es fcil
entender la convivencia entre ambas, porque estamos habituados a la ley comn: la
jurisprudencia matiza la norma legal. De nuevo puede intervenir el concepto de
fraternidad. El traductor necesita una norma legal, tiene que saber cmo se traduce
una palabra o, si se prefiere, un segmento lingstico, de manera igual para todos.
Tambin necesita saber cul es su pblico: para traducir de manera fraternal tiene
que elegir la variante ms cercana a su pblico, la que mejor comunique. Es libre de
hacerlo de un modo u otro y por ello ser responsable de su traduccin.
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Norma y Poder
Cualquier discusin sobre la norma, sea lingstica o de ferrocarriles, implica
un ejercicio de poder. As lo han sealado insistentemente muchos de los analistas
del discurso, con la peculiaridad de que ahora tambin se insiste en deturpaciones
como la transformacin de la voz indgena (Graham, 2011), que en este caso sera la
hispana, para satisfacer intereses personales y profesionales, sin preocuparse de las
graves consecuencias derivadas de la marginalizacin en el gueto de los hablantes que
no alcanzan un dominio satisfactorio de una lengua normalizada. En el caso del
espaol en los Estados Unidos, la caracterstica especial de la poblacin hace la
discusin ms compleja, porque inciden problemas sociales, familiares, econmicos y
de vertebracin de esa comunidad en el conjunto de la nacin. Estos problemas, a su
vez, se acrecientan porque la revisin histrica demuestra que el uso del espaol est
ms que justificado en muchos estados de la Unin y que la frontera es algo que se
movi sobre las cabezas de pobladores que siguieron teniendo su vida y sus
relaciones humanas orientadas hacia el sur: nosotros no nos movimos, nos
movieron la frontera. La polmica sobre la inmigracin es uno de los caballos de
batalla de la vida norteamericana. Las elecciones presidenciales de 2016 darn una
respuesta y en la campaa electoral se ha apreciado desde el inicio la importancia del
voto hispano y del debate sobre la oportunidad del espaol para alcanzar a esos
votantes y atraerlos a una u otra candidatura. Desde la perspectiva cientfica a la
improvisacin y al impresionismo se opone la investigacin. se es uno de los
propsitos de RIUSS y lo que explica que se hayan dedicado estas pginas al estudio
de la traduccin del ingls al espaol en los Estados Unidos, desde su propuesta.
Referencias
Calvo Armijo, M. (2016). Variedades y caractersticas del espaol empleado en la traduccin de textos mdico-
sanitarios divulgativos destinados a hispanohablantes en Estados Unidos. Tesis doctoral, Universidad de
Valladolid. Retrieved from http://uvadoc.uva.es/handle/10324/16955
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Francisco Marcos Marn es Profesor de Lingstica en la Universidad de Texas en San Antonio.

Pueden dirigirle correspondencia relacionada con este artculo a [email protected].
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Anna Nencioni
Universidad de Salamanca
Paula Cristina Pessanha-Isidoro

Universidad de Salamanca
El proyecto Las palabras que cuentan: El relato de la actualidad desde una perspectiva plurilinge,
realizado en la USAL, nos ha permitido, profundizando en el anlisis del valor
emocional y pragmtico de la palabra y de la imagen, reflexionar sobre la imprecisin
de los medios de comunicacin en el uso de trminos que designen a las personas que
abandonan a la fuerza sus pases, escenarios de guerras y conflictos, y buscan acogida
en el territorio europeo y sobre la dificultad de representar una realidad compleja en
distintas lenguas y culturas.
Palabras clave: Refugiados, complejidad, proyecto, intercomprensin
Introduccin
En el primer cuatrimestre del curso acadmico 2015-2016 hemos participado
en un proyecto de innovacin docente en la Universidad de Salamanca con el ttulo
Las palabras que cuentan: El relato de la actualidad desde una perspectiva plurilinge. El proyecto1
naca de una constatacin: la crisis humanitaria de los grandes flujos de emigracin
relatada por los medios de comunicacin era, paralelamente, una crisis de
comunicacin y una observacin plural en lenguas y culturas podra contribuir a definir
con ms matices el fenmeno. El proyecto se enmarcaba dentro de la asignatura
Intercomprensin de lenguas romnicas y completara el programa de anlisis de equivalencias
lingsticas, textuales y discursivas previsto.
Fijamos desde el inicio un reparto de tareas y actividades divididas en cuatro
mdulos que, sin agotar el argumento, permitan trazar un mapa de la complejidad del
mismo:
Voces crticas desde el mundo de la informacin en varias lenguas,
matizaciones sobre la opacidad y la transparencia del lxico ms frecuente
en la descripcin del fenmeno refugiados.
Graphic Novel y cmics para jvenes y adultos para hablar de migraciones,
conflictos y complejidad.
1En el proyecto participan tambin como coordinadora Isabel Uzcanga Vivar y como otro miembro
del equipo Elena Diego Hernndez, profesoras del Departamento de Filologa Francesa de la USAL
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Narraciones para la infancia y recursos didcticos (in)formativos para los

nios.
Seleccin de documentos institucionales en un contexto plurilinge. Se
estableci una secuencia para el desarrollo eficaz de los encuentros:
o Presentacin de una seleccin de material en distintos idiomas
(cataln, espaol, francs, italiano, portugus).
o Anlisis del material a travs de una ficha/gua de lectura,
preparada por las profesoras, en pequeos grupos de 3/4 personas.
o Discusin colectiva en clase, en espaol, sobre los documentos.
o Organizacin, por parte de cada grupo, de una sntesis en espaol
del punto/mdulo en cuestin con las aportaciones de los alumnos
Nos interesa destacar la dimensin de proceso del proyecto que emprendimos,
creando en nosotras mismas, y tambin en el alumnado, con un alto porcentaje de
estudiantes procedentes del programas Erasmus, expectativas e inters por aprovechar
la oportunidad de reflexionar como ciudadanos, lectores, espectadores y estudiosos de
lenguas, con distinta procedencia, formacin educativa e imaginarios colectivos, pero
con anloga preocupacin y curiosidad por la actualidad que vivimos y que nos
cuentan.
En un proyecto de innovacin didctica haba que sealar, en nuestra
propuesta a la institucin, las competencias en juego que se veran mejoradas con la
realizacin del mismo. La asignatura de Intercomprensin de lenguas romnicas ya prev una
aproximacin al anlisis de textos en una perspectiva multicultural y multidiscursiva y
los alumnos viven un entrenamiento al anlisis comparativo, a la deteccin de analogas
y diferencias significativas que perfeccionan la capacidad de comprensin.
En esta lnea, el Marco de Referencia para los Enfoques Plurales de las Lenguas y de las
Culturas nos proporcionaba provechosas sugerencias y planteamos que nuestro
proyecto se instalaba en el terreno de la promocin de la capacidad de identificar las
especificidades y variaciones comunicativas producidas por diferencias culturales, de
comparar los gneros discursivos entre lenguas diferentes y de sobrepasar las
limitaciones de la propia visin del mundo abrindose a otras maneras de conocer, de
pensar y de actuar.
Optamos por la presentacin de materiales en distintas lenguas romnicas,
siendo el espaol la lengua de trabajo en clase, as como en la produccin escrita de
los alumnos, gracias a que incluso el nivel de los no nativos era avanzado. Pensamos
que los trabajos de sntesis tenan que elaborarse en una lengua cmoda para los
autores, sin perder de vista que la produccin del documento se converta, a partir la
publicacin en la plataforma digital Studium, en patrimonio comn.
Descartamos fuentes en ingls, aunque fuera la lengua materna de algn
participante, para seguir creando un espacio compartido de lenguas romnicas, con
rasgos individuales y tendencias discursivas comunes.
Procuramos cuidar la dinmica de preparacin de los encuentros como si de
un continuum comunicativo se tratara: un entrenamiento a la constante puesta en comn
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de opiniones y contenidos, a la exposicin en pblico fundamentada en el respeto y el

esmero por la claridad de lo expuesto.
El debate en clase, abierto a todos los participantes, se conduca por los
portavoces de cada grupo, distintos en cada sesin, responsabilidad aadida a la
habitual exposicin de contenidos.
Para cada mdulo habamos previsto un cuestionario que guiara el anlisis de
los textos: tarea laboriosa, la nuestra en fijar tems significativos y la de los alumnos, al
darse cuenta de que la atencin a los detalles requera varias re-visiones y la dimensin
comunicativa de los textos y su interpretacin planteaban mayores dificultades de las
previstas. Pero precisamente la disparidad de criterios de interpretacin y el
reconocimiento de recursos discursivos menos evidentes, aadan matices y riqueza a
nuestros encuentros.
En la preparacin de cada mdulo nos dimos cuenta de la dificultad de
proporcionar un material que, sin ser totalmente rompedor, constituyera un recorrido
no excesivamente transitado por los alumnos y pudiera ser el punto de partida para
formular preguntas y cuestionarse certezas.
Desarrollo del Proyecto

A la hora de elaborar nuestro proyecto, nos situamos a finales de verano de
2015, cuando la canciller alemana Angela Merkel mencionaba programas de acogida
de nmeros ingentes de refugiados, invitando a los dems pases a realizar iniciativas
anlogas, mientras la foto de Aylan, el nio muerto en la playa de Bodrum, y el vdeo
de la periodista hngara poniendo la zancadilla a un padre sirio parecan las imgenes
lmite. Todo lo que precede los ltimos acontecimientos, mientras cierre de fronteras,
bloques navales y deportaciones empiezan a ser expresiones cada vez ms frecuentes y
menos contestadas.
Mdulo 1: Voces crticas

El tema planteado por los 5 textos analizados era el peso de las palabras que
definen los procesos de migracin y los actores principales de este fenmeno: seres
humanos en dificultad, cuyos destinos dependen tambin de las palabras con las cuales
se les define. Denominamos Voces crticas a quien hace informacin y alerta al lector
sobre la necesidad de procesar el lenguaje y sopesar los trminos a la hora de interpretar
los hechos, a menudo desde el discurso redaccional no oficial, en una seccin
determinada de un blog del mismo peridico.
En todos los artculos se tenan en cuenta las consideraciones de
organizaciones como ACNUR (Alto Comisionado de las Naciones Unidas para los
Refugiados) sobre el tratamiento lxico del fenmeno y las ONG (Organizaciones No
Gubernamentales) se configuran como generadoras de un discurso argumentado y
documentado, necesario para completar nuestra preparacin como usuarios de la
informacin.
El cuestionario propuesto recoga los siguientes aspectos:
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Mdulo 2: Graphic novel y cmics para jvenes y adultos

En lo que concierne al Mdulo 2, pensamos que esta modalidad narrativa era
un producto de consumo cultural ms cercano y popular entre estudiantes
universitarios.
Encontramos unas dificultades que temamos pudieran afectar a la coherencia
del corpus de textos propuesto: localizar fuentes en los cinco idiomas (de hecho, no
incluimos ninguna propuesta en portugus) y la imposibilidad de garantizar una
completa equivalencia de contenidos. Pero estbamos siempre, con enfoques distintos,
ante narraciones funcionales a un ms amplio marco argumental: una escritura que
dialoga con imgenes, cuando no es sustituida por ellas, un relato que toma partido.
Otro rasgo comn era la pertenencia de todas las narraciones analizadas a un
proyecto comunicativo ms amplio, lo que resultaba muy significativo a la hora de
interpretar lo narrado, no tanto por lo contenido, sino por el tono de lo que se presenta
al lector. As en Blanca Rosita Barcelona (Crespo et al., 2015), enmarcado en una campaa
institucional, del Ayuntamiento de Barcelona2, la historia muestra, de forma didctica
y amena, el encuentro entre una seora mayor y su entorno con una diversa geografa
humana (inicialmente representada por la figura de su cuidadora) a la que llega a
comprender comparando sus vicisitudes actuales con las vividas en pocas anteriores,
igualmente complicadas por la sociedad catalana.
Breidjing - La vie suspendue (Glez, 2015), forma parte de un proyecto de ARTE3
sobre distintas formas de contar conflictos y recuerda el drama de las guerras en
Darfour y situaciones difciles, paradjicas y absurdas de la burocracia en los campos
de acogida, que aaden dificultades a la conciencia identitaria del refugiado.
2 La Red Barcelona Anti-rumores nace en el mes de julio del 2010 para favorecer la interaccin positiva,
a travs de la lucha contra los rumores, los estereotipos y los prejuicios existentes sobre la diversidad
cultural en Barcelona.
3 En 2014 Arte enva a la cineasta Claire Denis, al fotgrafo Laurent Van Der Stockt, al escritor Uwe
Timm y al dibujante Damien Glez al este de Chad, cerca de la frontera con Sudan, en el campo Breidjing
donde viven ms de cuarenta mil refugiados de Darfour para elaborar un relato con diversidad de
miradas.
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En Les Mohammed, mmoires d'immigr (Ruillier, 2011), la primera emigracin

argelina hacia Francia aparece como descripcin ejemplar de todas las discriminaciones
y limitaciones sufridas y, en pocas remotas, asumidas y aceptadas, pero que dejan un
poso de insatisfaccin y falta de justicia, legado a las generaciones ms jvenes. La obra
es parte de un discurso ms amplio, porque el trazo estilizado de Jerme Ruillier
reproduce las voces fuertemente connotadas del documental de Yamina Benguigui
(1997) Mmoires d'immigrs, l'hritage maghrbin y el hilo conductor es la gran leccin de
historia que los mayores proporcionan a los jvenes.
En As es la vida, el relato autobiogrfico de Tresor Londja (2013), un refugiado
del Congo, forma parte de una recopilacin de cmics promovida por la Asociacin
Comisin Catlica Espaola de Migracin 4, la voz de seres humanos concretos que, a
travs de una narracin teraputica, encuentran nuevas ocasiones de dignidad y
definicin.
La publicacin de Abdel (2015) es el premio final de un certamen de cmic, en
el programa Desencaja de la Junta de Andaluca5. Entre hechos violentos y un arrollador
universo onrico del protagonista, la obra transmite principalmente la atmosfera de
miedo, angustia, continuos sobresaltos de quien no viaja, sino que huye
permanentemente.
El relato en lengua italiana, Un giorno andr in Europa (2015), est publicado en
Graphic news6, revista digital que quiere promocionar informacin sobre los grandes
temas de la actualidad desde una visin crtica y formalmente ms accesible. En blanco
y negro, con imgenes que recuerdan el relato periodstico ya ampliamente conocido,
se nos cuenta la historia de un chico, Nordine, huido de Marruecos, temporalmente
en Melilla, que suea con marcharse mientras construye una mnima cotidianeidad,
compartiendo sueos de una vida mejor con improvisados amigos
En todas estas obras, habra que fijarse en los siguientes aspectos:
4 Refugiados en el Cmic es un proyecto de Accem dedicado a acercar a la sociedad la realidad de las

personas refugiadas en el mundo y de hacerlo utilizando el cmic como herramienta, financiado por el
Ministerio de Empleo y Seguridad Social (MEYSS) y el Fondo Europeo para los Refugiados (FER).
5 El Programa Desencaja de la Junta de Andaluca tiene como objetivo promocionar y difundir la obra
artstica de la juventud andaluza y apoyar el lanzamiento profesional de estos creadores.

6Graphic News, Il Mondo Raccontato a Fumetti, con las secciones news, cultura, economa ciencias
deportes.
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En los encuentros con la clase, como con la lectura de las posteriores sntesis,
averiguamos que aunque la novela grfica y el cmic sean un consumo popular entre
los jvenes, su anlisis planteaba ms dificultades por falta de prctica: aspectos como
la consideracin de la autora, la responsabilidad del escritor y del dibujante o el papel
del color como descriptor de situaciones y estados de nimo o la misma pertenencia a
un proyecto creativo ms amplio en el cual se insertaba el texto, resultaron menos
fciles de identificar por parte de los alumnos.
Mdulo 3: Narraciones para la infancia y recursos didcticos

Con el mdulo 3, Narraciones para la infancia y recursos didcticos nos
propusimos reflexionar sobre un reto comunicativo: adaptar el discurso general de la
informacin, que los mismos nios han recibido de los medios de comunicacin, y
llenarlo de significado, a su medida, para crear empata y fomentar el aprendizaje de
valores. No encontramos una anloga oferta de materiales en todas las lenguas de
trabajo previstas y optamos por documentos que ilustraran de forma prototpica los
mecanismos claves de la divulgacin para un pblico infantil: el acercamiento a un
tema complejo reconducindolo a la experiencia cotidiana del destinatario, mediante
un esquema narrativo simple para, en un segundo momento, propiciar consideraciones
ms amplias sobre la actualidad.
En unos casos el afn protector del adulto llevaba a endulzar la narracin:
como ejemplo, un corto de animacin en lengua italiana, Muhad e Amir in fuga dalla
guerra (Corva, 2015), donde la historia del nio refugiado tiene un final feliz en el
reencuentro con su mascota, que suaviza la experiencia trgica de bombardeos,
naufragios y perdida de seres queridos, y un cuento escrito, La zattera (la balsa) (Salemi,
2014) donde los protagonistas, bajo el aspecto de simpticos animales, representan a
unos nios solidarios que comparten una arriesgada travesa pero que llegarn al nuevo
territorio de acogida protegidos por los valores de amistad que comparten.
En las actividades promovidas por el Proyecto de ACNUR, Ponte en sus zapatos
(2012), sin embargo, la vertiente pedaggica es la instancia comunicativa ms
importante para explicar de forma sencilla realidades incomodas y experimentar una
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suerte de simulacro de experiencias anlogas a las vividas por los supervivientes de

calamidades, que concienciarn a los nios sobre lo real y lo posible. Con analoga de
esquema comunicativo, estaba pensado tambin el proyecto de ACNUR No solo
nmeros (2009) que examinamos en lengua portuguesa, en la parte referida a la
formacin de personas que acten con nios.
Un informativo infantil de la televisin catalana, Info K, dedicado a los
refugiados conciliaba la reflexin sobre las definiciones de trminos con el relato de
experiencias de personas de la misma edad de los nios asistentes al programa y del
pblico infantil habitual, encaminados hacia la solidaridad y la empata entre coetneos
con nombres y apellidos concretos.
Nos sorprendi la cantidad de proyectos de divulgacin existentes para el
pblico escolar, y la elaboracin sistemtica de documentos que encontramos en
lengua francesa, en los portales Bayard Jeunesse y 1jour1actu, con una atencin esmerada
al tratamiento de la informacin para distintas franjas de edad.
Lo que nos pareca impulsar las distintas narraciones para la infancia era el
propsito comn de elaborar un relato compartido con el destinatario, una inversin
educativa que perdure en el tiempo y fomente la construccin de una mentalidad
solidaria.
Para cada texto los alumnos deban prestar atencin a los siguientes datos:
Mdulo 4: Documentacin de la Unin Europea

En el ltimo mdulo, propusimos el anlisis comparativo de una seleccin de
documentos oficiales de la UE: el Proyecto de texto relativo al pacto europeo sobre inmigracin
y asilo (2008) y Una agenda europea de migracin (2015)7. Los siete aos trascurridos
permiten apreciar el cambio de percepcin de las migraciones en Europa y valorar lo
que se ha hecho desde las instituciones europeas.
En los textos, los alumnos deberan prestar atencin a los siguientes datos:
7 Hemos analizado la redaccin de estos dos documentos en espaol, francs, italiano y portugus
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Comparando los aspectos descritos, los alumnos han concluido que existe una
fisura significativa entre las propuestas de 2008 y la realidad de 2015. En el documento
de 2008 se nombran las causas de las migraciones, sus ventajas e inconvenientes. Se
mencionan los aspectos positivos, en funcin del declive demogrfico europeo y se
asumen compromisos esenciales en materia de inmigracin legal, capacidad de acogida,
integracin, controles fronterizos, cooperacin global con los pases de origen y de
trnsito. En cambio, en 2015, respondiendo a la tragedia humanitaria que se abata
sobre el Mediterrneo, la Comisin Europea elabora un documento para fortalecer la
poltica comn de asilo admitiendo el fracaso total de las medidas de los ltimos siete
aos: la Comisin concluye que ningn Estado miembro puede abordar la migracin
individualmente y reubicar, reasentar, relocalizar pasan a ser las prioridades de la UE.
De 2008 a 2015 cambia el modo de abordar el tema, centrndose en el
imperativo inmediato de adoptar medidas de emergencia para gestionar la crisis, pero
el nmero exiguo de refugiados reubicados en territorio europeo, pese a las promesas
de acogida, representa un escaso resultado. Se puede concluir que las medidas
propuestas en los documentos, que con una correcta gestin y ejecucin podran
atenuar los efectos de esta crisis, carecen de vinculacin ejecutiva: se invita a los estados
miembros, se sugiere, pero jams se impone nada, lo cual deja bastante margen para
que los estados miembros puedan demostrar, o no, su solidaridad.
Conclusiones
Nuestro proyecto ha sido una experiencia de complejidad tanto en la propuesta
temtica inicial como en su desarrollo. La crisis de los refugiados es una situacin
compleja: es difcil definir exactamente todas las partes del problema, el contexto es
inestable y los resultados impredecibles, es necesaria una constante adaptacin a los
cambios imprevistos que afectan el equilibrio de la situacin en su globalidad. Incluso
la configuracin de la unin europea como territorio es fruto de decisiones cambiantes
sobre el concepto y la construccin efectiva de fronteras.
A partir de la crisis comunicativa surgida alrededor del tema, las palabras
utilizadas para designar a los protagonistas de la actualidad (refugiados, inmigrantes,
desplazados, migranti, emigrati e immigrati, rifugiati profughi, migrant, rfugi) desde nuestro
punto de vista se haban convertido en etiquetas de referencia, a menudo imprecisas y
127
falsamente equivalentes, que determinan y condicionan la recepcin del relato de la

actualidad.
El desarrollo del proyecto nos plante algunas dificultades: la seleccin de las
fuentes, la bsqueda de homogeneidad de los materiales propuestos, la gestin del
tiempo para debatir y compartir ideas a lo largo de encuentros cada vez ms ricos en
preguntas. Al hablar de complejidad no podemos olvidar la labor paradigmtica del
pensador Edgar Morin, que, desde hace dcadas, ilustra lo complejo como punto de
partida y de llegada, en nuestra realidad cotidiana como en los espacios educativos.
Principalmente nos referiremos a dos obras: Los 7 saberes necesarios para la educacin del
futuro (Morin, 1999) y la ms reciente Ensear a vivir. Manifiesto para cambiar la educacin
(Morin, 2015) en una secuencia temporal que plantea, cuando el futuro se vuelve
presente, anlogas inquietudes. Morin considera la incertidumbre como caracterstica
distintiva de la poca actual, fracaso de certezas absolutas, pero, a la vez, estmulo para
fomentar el espritu crtico que promueve la constatacin de la copresencia de
contradicciones, la observacin permanente de argumentaciones contrapuestas.
En nuestro proyecto hemos insistido en la recopilacin de distintos puntos de
vista, en la percepcin de matices de diferencia en mensajes anlogos, en la
interpretacin de lo verbal y lo icnico, sin pretender soluciones tajantes, afirmaciones
definitivas, dejando espacio para la construccin de lo mltiple con la prctica del
trabajo en equipo. Nos hemos aproximado a un tema complejo con un corpus textual
de referencia que queramos ejemplar en diversidad de gneros textuales, registros y
estrategias comunicativas, conscientes en todo momento de que para tener sentido la
palabra necesita del texto que es su propio contexto y el texto necesita del contexto
donde se enuncia (Morn, 1999, p. 22). Por otra parte, la realizacin de este proyecto
nos ha permitido sobrepasar los lmites acadmicos habituales de la distribucin de
contenidos por materia, porque la actualidad nos pide transversalidad para entenderla.
Encontramos en la asignatura de Intercomprensin y en la diversidad cultural del
alumnado el marco ideal para nuestra aportacin a una cultura que de enseante debe
volverse una cultura que aprenda (Morn, 1999, p. 62), en la cual la nueva sabidura
comporta la comprensin de que toda vida personal es una aventura inserta en una
aventura social, a su vez inserta en la aventura de la humanidad (Morin, 2014, p. 29).
Todos los participantes en el proyecto llegamos a la conclusin de que nos
haban faltado palabras para describir una situacin tan compleja: palabras para
representar de forma eficaz los matices de las contradicciones, las voces de los
protagonistas y de quienes viven con ellos y el relato de quien les obliga a salir de su
pas. El tiempo nos ensea que las palabras que cuentan, en cada poca, son otras
respecto a la anterior. Sabemos que, en este sentido, nuestro proyecto es efmero, pero
seguimos con la conviccin de que las palabras, reproducidas y repetidas, no solo
hablan de la realidad, sino que la crean. Y los silencios tambin.
128
Referencias
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http://www.ensuszapatos.es/
ACNUR (n.d.). Ponte en los zapatos de un refugiado y da el primer paso para entender su situacin. Recuperado de
http://www.ensuszapatos.es/
Bourboun, M. (29 de agosto de 2015). Migrantes ou Refugiados? As palavras importam, avisa ACNUR.
Expresso. Recuperado de http://expresso.sapo.pt/internacional/2015-08-29-Migrantes-ou-
refugiados--A-distincao-e-importante-porque-as-palavras-importam
Comisin Europea (2015) Una agenda europea de migracin (COM 2015/240 final). Bruselas, Oficina de
Publicaciones Oficiales de la Unin Europea. Recuperado de http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-
affairs/what-we-do/policies/european-agenda-migration/background-
information/docs/communication_on_the_european_agenda_on_migration_es.pdf
Consejo de la UE (2008). Proyecto de texto relativo al pacto europeo sobre inmigracin y asilo (13440/08 ASIM
72). Bruselas, Registro Pblico de Documentos del Consejo de la Unin Europea. Recuperado de
http://register.consilium.europa.eu/doc/srv?l=ES&f=ST%2013440%202008%20INIT
Corbolante, L. (3 de septiembre de 2015). Le differenze tra rifugiati e migranti. Terminologia etc.
Recuperado de http://blog.terminologiaetc.it/2015/09/03/significato-migrante-rifugiato-ue-vs-
unhcr/
Corva, P., (2015). Muhad e Amir in fuga dalla guerra. Giunti Progetti Educativi. Recuperado de
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o8NM7zF_r_8
Crespo, R., Mateu, M. y Gallardo, M., (2015). Blanca Rosita Barcelona: Ajuntament de Barcelona.
Creta. S., Abastanotti. C.(2015). Un giorno andr in Europa. Graphic News. Recuperado de
http://graphic-news.com/stories/un-giorno-andro-in-europa/
Fontaine, F. y Azam, J. (20 junio 2014). Cest quoi un rfugi. 1 jour 1actu. Millan Presse. Recuperado de
http://www.1jour1actu.com/?s=refugie
Glez, D. (29 julio 2015). Breidjing - La vie suspendue. Arte Tv. Recuperado de
http://info.arte.tv/fr/breidjing-la-vie-suspendue-le-bd-reportage-de-damien-glez
Koniecki, S. (11 de septiembre de 2015). Refugiados, migrantes y manipulacin meditica. El Pais.
Recuperado de http://blogs.elpais.com/migrados/2015/09/refugiados-migrantes-y-
manipulacion-mediatica.html
Le Cain, B. (26 de agosto de 2015). Migrants ou rfugis : quels mots pour rendre compte de ces
drames humains ? Le Figaro. Recuperado
de http://www.lefigaro.fr/international/2015/08/26/01003-20150826ARTFIG00246-
migrants-ou-refugies-quels-mots-pour-rendre-compte-de-ces-drames-humains.php
Londja, T., (2013). As es la vida. Madrid: Accem.
Morin, E., (1999). Sept savoirs ncessaires l'ducation du futur. Paris: Unesco, (Traduccin castellana: Los
siete saberes necesarios para la educacin del futuro. Paris: Unesco, 1983)
Morin, E., (2014). Enseigner vivre : Manifeste pour changer l'ducation. Paris: Actes Sud Editions (Traduccin
castellana: Ensear a vivir. Manifiesto para cambiar la educacin. Ciudad Autnoma de Buenos
Aires: Nueva Visin, 2014)
Moy, G. (3 de enero de 2015). Refugiat o immigrants? Laltra mirada. Recuperado de
http://laltramirada.cat/l-altra-mirada/l-altra-mirada-35-gener-2015/refugiat-o-immigrants.html
n.d. (11 septembre 2015). Crise des migrants: des documents pour comprendre lactualit. Bayard
Magazine. Recuperado de http://www.bayard-jeunesse.com/Archives-des-actualites/Crise-des-
migrants-des-documents-pour-comprendre-l-actualite
Ramrez, C., Vlchez, P., (2015). Abdel. Madrid: Dibbuks.\
Ruillier, J., (2011). Les Mohammed, mmoires d'immigrs. Paris: ditions Sarbacane
Salemi, L., (2014). La zattera. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform
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Servera, L. (Directora) (2015). Especial refugiats [Episodio de programa de Televisin]. En Televisi de

Catalunya, Info K, informatiu per a nens. Barcelona: Corporaci Catalana de Mitjans Audiovisuals, S.A.
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Zarour, M. y Kazma, D. (2009) No So Apenas Nmeros: Jogo de Ferramentas Educacional sobre Migrao e
Asilo na Europa. Bruselas, ACNUR y OIM. Recuperado de http://www.unhcr.org/numbers-
toolkit/Manuals/NJN-FINAL-PT.pdf
Anna Nencioni and Paula Cristina Pessanha-Isidoro are Associate Professors at the Universidad
de Salamanca. Correspondence regarding this article can be addressed to the first author at
[email protected].
130
Discovering English[es]
Discovering English[es]: The Experience of Otherness through

Literature
Irene Pagola
Escuela Oficial de Idiomas de Tudela, Navarra
At its very beginning, the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
[CEFRL] states that foreign language teaching should help develop the learners sense of identity
through the experience of otherness. Students of English as a foreign language seem to associate
that experience with learning a restrictive language carrying either British or American values.
However, they fail to realise learning English goes beyond that. English conveys the patchwork
reality of emigration, multiculturalism and hybridity. As an English teacher in an Escuela
Oficial de Idiomas, it is my responsibility to teach the language from this broad-minded
perspective. Consequently, I would like to share how my B2 level students were encouraged to
rethink their concept of English by reading two stories of The Thing Around Your Neck by
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, a Nigerian writer telling about immigrants in the USA.
Keywords: Cultural identity, feminism, hybridity, immigration, language learning,

World English[es]
Introduction
Ngg Wa Thiongo states that [l]anguage carries culture, and culture
carries . . . the entire body of values by which we come to perceive ourselves and
our place in the world (1986, p. 16). Therefore, language is a crucial part of our
identity. Learning a foreign language is widely believed to involve the
development of a series of linguistic skills that allows students to understand and
produce both written and oral texts in a new code. However, this is an incomplete
perception of the process since it fails to consider that foreign language learning
also means an initiation into another culture, which is definitely transforming and
will prevent learners from being the same anymore. After all, language defines and
conveys our individual and collective essence.
As foreign language learners, not only do we interact in a borrowed
language, but we also discover difference, identify the other and realise who we are
and who we may become by being in contact with other cultures and their
corresponding native tongues (Hall, 2000). What is more, this cross-cultural
awareness helps interpret new communicative situations and develop the suitable
linguistic strategies to participate in specific contexts without much strain.
Consequently, language learning is a source of linguistic exchange and adaptation
as well as of identity creation and constant renovation.
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In order for foreign language teaching to be highly effective, teachers

should include both linguistic and cultural concerns in syllabi for students to
succeed in both getting communication in different circumstances and creating
bridges, not gaps, between their interlocutors and them. Needless to say, if
foreign language teaching fosters critical thinking and makes students call their
beliefs and principles into question, the learning challenge will prove to be even
more rewarding for both students and teachers.
From my experience as an English teacher of B2 level in a Spanish Escuela
Oficial de Idiomas, the use of literature in the classroom allows to make foreign
language learning an enriching thought-provoking process, as above described.
Reading The Thing around your Neck and The Arrangers of Marriage, by Chimamanda
Ngozi Adichie, let my students debunk English as the global language, while
paradoxically using it as the language of communication they aim to improve. It
also contributed to raise consciousness about the importance of cultural
sensitivity and diversity, and the necessity to be cautious about the dangers of the
single story (Adichie, 2009b). In sum, what seemed not to be a too ambitious task
at first held the key to what language lessons should provide and encourage:
language education, cultural curiosity and social commitment.
Language Learning: A Cumulative Process of Revealing Meaningful

Experiences
In Europe, the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
(CEFRL) sets guidelines for foreign language learning and establishes the specific
levels of achievement at each stage of progress [from A1 to C2 level]. It
champions a communicative and plurilingual approach to language learning,
which involves the development of a repertory of linguistic and cultural
competences and abilities that, as a result of constant interaction, may be
modified or deconstructed. Then, languages are not kept in strictly separated
mental compartments (CEFRL, 2001, p. 4); they are rather complementary,
influencing each other. This conception of language learning contributes to
intercultural awareness, skills and know-how. It also enables the individual to
develop an enriched, more complex personality and an enhanced capacity for
further language learning and greater openness to new intercultural experiences
(CEFRL, 2001, p. 43). Hence, according to the CEFRL, there is not a model of
mastery to aspire to or a unique culture to imitate; and although language form
deserves attention, developing useful tools for effective communication is the
ultimate goal.
Spanish Escuelas Oficiales de Idiomas are state-funded institutions that
are dependent on the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports. Adults from the
age of sixteen and very different backgrounds can learn a foreign language,
improve their knowledge and skills and/or obtain certification of their levels of
proficiency [A2, B1, B2 and C1] as defined in CEFRL. Multilingualism is fostered
132
in these schools, since there is a wide range of languages to choose from and
many students learn more than one, nevertheless, as stated in CEFR,
plurilingualism should the target to achieve, so teaching is approached from a
communicative and culture-conscious perspective.
From the basic to the intermediate levels [A1, A2, B1], learning in the
Official Schools of Languages is encouraged by textbooks, real language tasks,
realia and classroom interaction. Students tend to be mainly exposed to a standard
variety of English [British or American]. Despite the institutions plurilingual
teaching philosophy, this apparently contradictory emphasis on standard at the
early stages of learning is for the sake of providing students with a much-needed
benchmark so that they feel more confident about their communicative and
understanding abilities. However, this tendency is temporarily referential due to
two reasons. First, self-learning and learner autonomy are supported and students
are advised to practise their English with external resources which are often far
from standard (films, series, blogs, articles, songs, literature, etc.). Second,
students start having their first language experiences out of the classroom and
come into contact with other foreign or native speakers of English hopefully
abroad. They then realise that academic language not always matches real
language, that there are different varieties of English, and that other extra-
linguistic elements play a vital part in successful communication, namely body
language, facial expressions, cross-cultural awareness, mimics, proxemics, kinesics,
or code-switching. Therefore, not until students live the previous revealing
experiences first-hand do they become aware of the fact that English as a world
language is not as normative or constrained as presented so far.
The above mentioned eye-opener marks a turning point for students not
only in the learning process but also in the development of their personality
and sense of identity in response to the enriching experience of otherness in
language and culture. (CEFRL, 2001, p. 1) What is more, it usually comes at the
time they reach advanced levels [B2 and C1], which lets teachers disclose English
from a more open-minded perspective, be more creative and innovative in
methodology, use a broader range of materials which can be controversial and
demand more abstraction and critical analysis from students.
The Virtues of Reading Literature for Language Learning

Extensive reading, reading out of the classroom for pleasure, it is widely
known and accepted to bring plenty of benefits to language learners. According to
Harmer (2007), it allows learners to skim and scan texts as well as to aim at
detailed comprehension. It also helps expand and consolidate vocabulary,
improve spelling and writing skills and create subsequent interactional contexts
where to explore the topics dealt with in the texts. Needless to say, it also boosts
self-learning.
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In this respect, reading literature is an even more valuable experience,

mainly if texts are original, unabridged and wisely chosen. After all, students react
not only to form and construction but also to content in such a way that their
feelings usually become engaged by plots, characters or settings. Literature may
then be extremely motivating to the extent of becoming cathartic. Furthermore,
owing to their artistic merit and intellectual value, literary texts can be used at
advanced levels to pose challenging but accessible tasks. Reading is a receptive
skill which generally means higher mastery than the one expected from learners at
the level they actually are. For instance, B2 students, as indicated in the CEFRL,
are assumed to be able to read, understand and work on texts concerned with
contemporary problems in which the writers adopt particular attitudes or
viewpoints, [as well as] contemporary literary prose without problem but they
are also likely to appreciate distinction of style although this is a can do
descriptor of C1 level (2001, p. 27).
Reading, then, should undoubtedly be regarded as a key source of both
language improvement and critical reflection, as well as a confidence booster.
Literary tasks can certainly be appealing and inspiring for students, because they
prompt satisfying progress outside the comfort zone. According to Brown (2008),
challenge with a degree of manageable difficulty is one the most favourable
conditions for learning to take place, whereas unattainable undertakings may lead
students to a destructive and traumatic feeling of incompetence.
The Thing around Your Neck, by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie

As an English teacher of B2 level in an Escuela Oficial de Idiomas,
multiculturalism is one of the topics that I have to work on as part of the
curriculum of the institution. The famous TED Talk The Dangers of the Single Story,
delivered by Nigerian writer Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, was one of the
resources I selected for listening comprehension for this academic year. It
revolves around the risks of approving whatever is presented to us as definitive
without reservation, and not questioning its assumed uniqueness. She uses
revealing examples of her personal life to illustrate how biased and distorted our
perception of Africa is, as a result of social prejudices and misconceptions often
spread on purpose. She starts her speech by describing herself as a storyteller,
which unexpectedly gave me the clue about my choice of literature for this year.
The Thing around your Neck, her 2009 collection of short stories would become my
students reading challenge. It entailed an opportunity to both introduce African
literature, heritage and concerns into the classroom, and expose students to a
critical perception of socially-constructed categories such as culture, language,
class and gender.
Adichies self-definition as a storyteller is a straightforward assertion of
her identity as an African woman. Although relegated to the household, orature
has been womens daily struggle to communicate, converse, and pass on values
134
since pre-colonial times (Wilentz, 1992, p. xvi). Luckily, this tradition still survives
in the form of written short stories nowadays, and authors like Fatima Dike
bluntly warn against romanticising their creations as they have a totally critical
nature: We dont tell bedtime stories to put people to sleep; we want to scare the
shit out of them and wake them up (as cited in Gilbert and Tompkins, 1996, p.
137). In addition, contrary to what some sociologists believe, literature can be a
reliable mirror of social concerns. Short stories are used by African women
writers to voice their truth for the empowerment and dignification of their sisters.
In her TED Talk We Should All Be Feminists, Adichie describes herself as a
feminist, a significant statement to interpret her literary work. She publicly
condemns both the deprecation of the term and the sometimes fruitless
disagreements among feminisms on issues such as motherhood, leadership,
priorities, designation or the role of men. These series of controversial issues
should be approached in different ways. However, what seems clear to Adichie is
that sexism is another single story that affects all women without exception.
Therefore, another powerful reason to make students read her stories was their
disclosure of storytelling as a female tool to express cultural identity and feminist
commitment. In fact, The Thing around your Neck and The Arrangers of Marriage
portray the different experiences of two Nigerian women moving to the USA
because of a male character. This allows to explore the multiple effects of
diaspora on immigrant people, mainly women.
As a teacher of English, the language used in Adichies stories was another
appealing factor to consider. English is generally accepted as the universal means
of communication, the so-called Globish by Nerriere. As such, it brings a sense of
standardisation at both linguistic and cultural levels worryingly equated with
neocolonisation of minds and identities. From this viewpoint, the universal
references are either British or American. Hence, many postcolonial writers using
English in their literary work have been worried about their decision. For
instance, Nigerian writer Chinua Achebe regarded English as one of the most
important vehicles for imperialism, but, at the same time, anticipated it as a
malleable artefact contributing to interculturalism. That is why he warned . . . let
no one be fooled by the fact that we may write in English for we intend to do
unheard of things with it (1975, p. 7) and he also added that, by using English,
he wanted to [infiltrate] the ranks of the enemy and [destroy] him from within
(as cited in Talib, 2002, p. 91). Indian writer Shashi Deshpande admits that
English as her language in literature has allowed her to reach an international
audience. However, she also regrets it, because she has somehow fostered the
amalgamation of the different Indian literatures, and her writings have turned to
be inaccessible to her fellow countrywomen, the audience she depicts through her
characters and really longs for (Navarro-Tejero, 2005). In this respect, English as
presented in The Thing around your Neck is a non-standard variety and relies on
code-switching at times. It supports the stance of hybridity and encourages
135
combinations of elements of different languages for task accomplishment

(CEFRL, 2001, p. 134). This kind of English is not deemed to be global, but to
represent the world. The term World English[es] was coined by Braj Kachru and is
embraced by other linguists such as David Crystal. It is an inclusive indignised
language that incorporates the different varieties of English resulting from the
heterogeneity of local features and cross-cultural diversity (Crystal, 2014; 2015)
and embodies the spirit of the communicative and intercultural approach to
learning instilled in the Spanish Escuelas Oficiales de Idiomas.
From a pedagogical point of view, choosing short stories as Adichies as
the starting point for language practice and reflection was not coincidental. As
they are naturally brief, they can be read in a single sitting and, consequently, their
intensity and impact are high, immediate, and far from gradual. Although they
might be difficult to interpret, the feeling of achieving a whole after a few pages
deceives students into making the effort to read them more carefully and analyse
them more in depth without having a quick feeling of exhaustion. This is very
positive for students leading hectic lives, as they perceive this kind of compulsory
reading as not so time-consuming or demanding.
The Thing around your Neck and The Arrangers of Marriage:

Towards a Literary Meeting in the Classroom
One of the goals of the B2 level in the Escuelas Oficiales de Idiomas is
that students learn to write a thorough literary review; in fact, they might be
required to do so in the end-of-the-year test so that they prove their degree of
achievement in writing. As this task is common to all levels, it turns to be quite
repetitive and off-putting for students. Thus, when I presented The Thing around
your Neck and The Arrangers of Marriage as mandatory reading, I omitted that
writing that type of text would be one of the final goals of the activity. Besides,
the titles of the stories were removed and the writers name was not revealed
either. This not only awakened students interest in the unknown texts, but also
prevented them from looking up external information that might have corrupted
their personal opinions and conclusions. Needless to say, critical thinking is
desirable when learning a language, since it boosts both written and oral
participation and helps students find inspiration for the tasks to be developed in
their future examinations.
To provide students with guidance on how to approach the stories, I
created a worksheet with seven questions. The questions were applicable to both
stories, so students were asked to answer and use them as a reference for a
comparative analysis. Since multiculturalism as a topic had already been addressed
in class, I also reminded them that retrieving their already learnt vocabulary would
be helpful when using the sheet as a reference for group discussion in a future
literary meeting. Students were given a month and a half to respond to the
following questions:
136
1. Who do you think has written the stories?

2. Anxiety and disappointment are obvious feelings in the stories.
3. What circumstances do you associate them with?
4. Why is language a characteristic feature and motif in the stories?
5. Food and hair. What do they stand for?
6. What part do African men play in the stories?
7. Have the endings lived up to your expectations?
The day of the literary meeting, groups of four students were formed. I
wanted the lesson to be learner-centered so that they became the main providers
of knowledge. They reflected on the questions in their notes and wrote down the
viewpoints of their partners. I acted as a facilitator, an observer, and a resource,
and only intervened to provide some feedback when necessary. After the group
debate, a whole class discussion started, and I turned into a prompter and
participant at times. I rephrased some of their reflections in order for everyone to
understand them properly, asked questions to help students be more accurate in
their interpretations, and added facts on post-colonial theory so that they rounded
off their conclusions. Overall, it was a very rewarding cooperative task. When
they were later asked to write a review on the story they had liked best, they
showed strong argumentations and justifications for their ideas.
Feelings and Ideas in the Literary Meeting

The following are both the ideas shared and conclusions reached during
the literary meeting.
Students did not have any difficulty creating the writers profile. As for
nationality, in both stories there were references to Nigeria and, in The Thing
around your Neck, to the different ethnic groups in the country [Igbo, Yoruba and
Fulani]. Besides, students spotted the Nigerian words interspersed in the texts.
Regarding sex, both protagonists were women and, although they showed
concern about the general consequences of migration, a feminist perspective of
the experience pervaded. No student knew the name of the author and it was not
until they saw The Dangers of the Single Story that they discovered her identity. All of
them confessed they were not familiar with any other names of African women
writers either.
Students agreed on the fact that disappointment was the result of the fake
American Dream, which was not as promising as depicted, only deceived into
renouncing the African identity and it took more than gave in The Arrangers of
Marriage. They also pointed out that anxiety derived from the protagonists
unpleasant experience with her uncle in The Thing around your Neck but, above all
and as I helped them realise, from her hybridity. When the protagonist started a
new life and became more receptive to the American experience, she felt an
unhomed in-betweener. Bhabha (1994) explains the condition as: [U]nhomeliness
is the condition of extra-territorial and cross-cultural initiations . . . In that
137
displacement, the borders between home and the world become confused; and,
forcing upon us a vision that is divided as it is disorienting (9). The main
character has to cope not only with the conflicting opposition between African
and American values, but also with the social antagonism created by gender
(female and male). Therefore, she has to doubly endure the consequences of a
delicate position that entails much isolation as a result of a dualism that pervades
the two main pillars sustaining identity, that is, culture and gender.
Students identified code-switching and found it easy to realise that most
of the Nigerian words used corresponded with typical dishes or food and, as a
consequence, were cultural references that could not be translated into English.
They were non-existent realities in the USA [garri, dawadawa, onugbu, egusi,
uziza, etc.]. Code-switching was also considered to be both a kind of mood
language expressing feelings, mainly solidarity and distance, and a sign of identity
assertion. In the case of The Arrangers of Marriage, the conflict between American
and British terminology was not clearly understood by students at first. They were
let to know that it represented a fight between the traditional static poles of
language identification as portrayed by American and British cultures and the
globalising values they transmitted. Their power was overrated and needed to be
debunked by the kind of English used in Adichies stories, a World English, as
defined in the previous section.
Students became aware that food revealed identity conflict and
deprecation in different respects. In The Thing around your Neck, Africana were said
to eat squirrels as a sign of their savagery (Adichie, 2009a). The protagonist also
remarked that food established a different interpretation of beauty between the
USA and Africa. In Africa, being overweight is still associated with prosperity;
however, in the former, rich Americans were thin and poor Americans were fat
(Adichie, 2009a, p.119). In The Arrangers of Marriage, American food involved
Ofodiles will to assimilate and leave behind his African heritage.
As for hair, students did not manage to find a clear interpretation, so I
pointed at Nias description as a clue: It was not just her hair a natural Afro
puff, that I found beautiful it was her skin the color of roasted groundnuts, her
mysterious and heavy-lidded eyes, her curved lips (Adichie, 2009a, p.181). It was
evident that hair, similarly to other features previously highlighted, depicted
African beauty and a celebration of its essence. Adichie has confessed in different
interviews that her constant reference to African hairstyles in her literary work is
an identity act.
Students indicated that African men were portrayed as abusers and as an
important source of mental and physical subjugation for women. In addition, they
showed more willingness than women to assimilate. The African women in the
stories were the victims of a double oppression due to both their sex and race and
so they represented the other twice over. However, I told my students that
138
American men were not painted in a really better light, since the protagonists
boyfriend in The Thing around your Neck was patronising.
Students agreed that both stories seemed to be open-ended, something
some of them did not like. They also added they were not sure whether stories
finished on a hopeful note. In The Thing around your Neck, it was only the
protagonist who made the decision to leave, thus proving she had gained some
independence. However, it was not totally clear if she was coming back home
because she really wanted to, or out of guilt or indebtedness feelings toward her
family and nation. It could not be predicted either whether she would return to
the USA to work or to continue her uncertain relationship with her
condescending white boyfriend. In The Arrangers of Marriage, Chinazas need of the
green card made her stay with her husband, but it was not clear if it would be
forever or until she obtained the necessary permit to work, become independent
and create a new future for herself. The author might have decided to write open-
ended stories with the intention of claiming that it is about time African women
were allowed to write their own stories and destinies. They have the right to be
emancipated individuals, free from the sometimes suffocating burden of their
collective identity as Africans and the oppression of sexism.
Follow-up: The Dangers of the Single Story

Adichies speech The Dangers of the Single Story was used as a starting point
for two listening tasks following up to the literary meeting on The Thing around your
Neck and The Arrangers of Marriage. A shortened version of the video played in
class gave students the chance to see the writer for the first time.
Watching the TED Talk by Adichie helped students confirm that she had
transferred her own experiences and concerns as an immigrant, an in-betweener or
hybrid to the stories they had read. In fact, her final words conveyed the message
she wanted readers to draw from her literature: When we reject the single story,
when we realise that there is never a single story about any place, we regain a kind
of paradise (Adichie, 2009b). That statement allowed me to finish the lesson by
revealing the idea behind my choice of literature for the academic year. I wished
to warn them against the manipulated version of life and people presented by
racism, sexism, capitalism and imperialism. As Kramsch (1998) explains: Group
identity is not a natural fact, but a cultural perception . What we perceive about
a persons culture and language is what we have been conditioned by our own
culture to see, and the stereotypical models already built around our own. (p. 67).
Therefore, I tried to make students become aware that English transmits at times
the values of the single story and neocolonialism. However, fortunately enough,
English also encodes an ever-changing world and celebrates difference. Learning
English from an open-minded perspective broadens horizons, contributes to
embracing new realities and fosters solidarity.
139
References
Achebe, C. (1975). Colonialist Criticism. Morning Yet on Creation Day. London: Heinemann.
Adichie, C. N. (2009a). The Thing around your Neck. London: Fourth Estate.
Adichie, C. N. (2009b). The Dangers of the Single Story. Retrieved from
https://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story?language=
en
Adichie, C. N. (2013). We Should All Be Feminists. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hg3umXU_qWc
Bhabha, H. (1994). The Location of Culture. London: Routledge.
Brown, M. (2008). Comfort Zone: Model or Metaphor? Australian Journal of Outdoor Education, 12
(1), 3-12.
Common European Framework for Reference for Languages (2001). Retrieved from
http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/source/framework_en.pdf
Crystal, D. (2014). The Future of Englishes: Going Local 21st Century Teaching: Always on the Move-
New Routes in ELT: From Inspiring to Empowering. TESOL SPAIN: Madrid & Salamanca, 11-18.
Gilbert, H., & Tompkins, J. (1996). Post-colonial Drama: Theory, Practice, Politics. London & New
York: Routledge.
Hall, S. (2000). Cultural Identity and Diaspora. Diaspora and Visual Culture. Representing Africans and
Jews. In Nicholas Mirzoeff (ed.) (pp. 21-33.) London & New York: Routledge
Harmer, J. (2001). The Practice of Teaching English. Harlow: Longman ELT.
Harmer, J. (2007). How to Teach English. Harlow: Longman ELT.
Kramsch, Claire (1998). Language and Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Navarro-Tejero, A. (2005). Modern Indian Women Writers in English. The Essentials of Literature in
English Post-1914. In Ian Mackean (ed.). Retrieved from http://www.literature-study-
online.com/essays/indian-women-book.html
Talib, I. S. (2002). The Language of Postcolonial Literatures. London & New York: Routledge.
Ngg, W. T. (1986). Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature. Oxford: James
Currey.
Wilentz, Gay (1992). Binding Cultures: Black Women Writers in Africa and the Diaspora. Bloomington:
Indiana University Press.
Irene Pagola is an instructor at the Escuela Oficial de Idiomas de Tudela, Navarra.

Correspondence regarding this article can be addressed to the author at
[email protected].
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La Animacin como Herramienta Multicultural
La Animacin como Herramienta Multicultural y su Impacto

Social
Carolina Delamorclaz Ruiz

Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha
Desde la dcada de los cincuenta, la animacin televisiva ha ido evolucionando. Con la llegada de Los
Picapiedra al prime time, muchas series se convirtieron en un reflejo social. Al principio hubo una
hegemona de la familia anglosajona de clase media y luego se crearon comedias especficas para cada
etnia y clase social. Ha habido cambios, pero sigue existiendo una percepcin de cuotas raciales y un
tab que dificulta el debate. Por ello, se propone abrir un dilogo para conocer esos contenidos de
humor polticamente incorrecto y su positivo impacto social.
Palabras clave: Animacin, televisin, multiculturalismo, series.
Since the fifties, television animation has been evolving. When The Flintstones came to prime time,
many tv shows reflected the social reality. While at the beginning there was a hegemony of Anglo-
Saxon middle class families, specific comedies for each ethnicity and social class were later created.
There have been changes, but there is still a perception o racial quotas and a taboo that hinders the
debate. Therefore, it is suggested to open a dialogue to find out those politically incorrect humorous
contents and their positive social impact.
Keywords: Animation, television, multiculturalism, series.
Precedentes Televisivos de Los Picapiedra

Para poder hablar sobre el panorama multicultural en el medio audiovisual,
resulta necesario tomar como punto de partida los Estados Unidos de la dcada de los
sesenta, por su heterognea composicin social y su fuerte industria audiovisual. En
este texto se centra la atencin en la televisin, en su papel y su funcin en la difusin
del multiculturalismo. Deca el clebre terico Marshall McLuhan que el medio es el
mensaje (1996, p. 29). Desde esta investigacin se reivindica un uso positivo de la
televisin, con la finalidad de que la pequea pantalla represente una realidad cultural
diversa. Para ello, se realiza un anlisis de las series animadas que han contribuido a
desarrollar una televisin ms multicultural. Por este motivo, es necesario observar y
analizar cuidadosamente las series seleccionadas para la ocasin, pues constituyen un
gran reflejo de la sociedad de su momento. Las obras elegidas abarcan desde 1960 a la
dcada de los 2010.
Antes de entrar a analizar en profundidad las series clave, es oportuno hacer
un esbozo del panorama televisivo estadounidense en la dcada de los cincuenta, unos
pocos aos antes del estreno de Los Picapiedra, la primera comedia de situacin animada
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y uno de los principales pilares sobre los que se sustentan, directa o indirectamente,
multitud de producciones posteriores. En estos aos, irrumpan dos sitcoms de accin
real, I Love Lucy y The Honeymooners. De la primera se destaca un formato novedoso
que presenta a un matrimonio de etnia mixta (anglosajona y cubano); la segunda, por
su parte, representaba por primera vez el retrato de dos parejas de clase obrera en
situaciones cotidianas. Este hecho sirve para enmarcar el otro problema con el que se
encuentra a menudo el multiculturalismo, la brecha econmica entre las clases. Ambas
series marcaron pautas determinantes del retrato norteamericano, importantes a la
hora de contextualizar Los Picapiedra, de Hanna-Barbera.
Los Picapiedra , la Primera Familia de Clase Media Americana. Irrupcin y

Hegemona Caucsica.
Los Picapiedra representa, por primera vez, a una familia blanca de clase media
de los Estados Unidos de la dcada de los sesenta. Aunque no se puede considerar un
ejemplo cultural o tnico diverso, es pionera en el trato de distintas temticas nunca
antes vistas en una produccin animada, como por ejemplo la manera en la que afectan
en una pareja situaciones como la infertilidad o la decisin de adoptar a un nio. Vilma
Picapiedra, ama de casa, representa una versin temprana de la mujer moderna de la
dcada de los sesenta, momento en que se vivi una importante revolucin feminista
y sexual. De origen adinerado, fue desheredada por casarse con Pedro, de clase obrera.
En la serie es representada como una mujer joven y relativamente independiente, que
compagina su tiempo entre las labores domsticas y la filantropa. Pedro, por su parte,
representa un arquetipo de trabajador de clase obrera, bebedor, fumador y algo
preocupado por la vida activa y social que tiene su mujer fuera del entorno familiar.
El resto de personajes (vecinos y familiares) siguen una pauta similar.
En 1962, Hanna-Barbera estren Los Supersnicos, las aventuras de una familia
en un hipottico 2062. De clase media alta, dicho ncleo est formado por Sper
Snico, padre y trabajador altamente cualificado, Ultra Snica, madre, ama de casa y
filntropa, y sus dos hijos (un nio y una la adolescente). Si Los Picapiedra representan
a las clases populares de la sociedad estadounidense, esta peculiar familia, en cambio,
muestra a un sector ms privilegiado de la poblacin. Por ejemplo, Ultra Snica tiene
una vida social ms desarrollada que Vilma, su nivel econmico le permite delegar las
tareas domsticas a terceros, en este caso la robot de la familia, y dedicarse a la vida
social. Dicha androide, parece representar en la serie una versin amable del trabajador
del sector servicios.
Pero qu ocurra con el trabajo domstico en los sesenta? Si se analiza el
contexto social de la poca, se observa que era tradicionalmente desempeado por
mujeres de clase obrera y de etnias afrodescendientes o hispanas, mientras que, en las
calles, paralelamente, se viva una lucha por acabar con la segregacin. Por su parte,
Los Supersnicos no se hizo eco de esta realidad, ms bien evadi el asunto. Se
entiende que as fue al percatarnos de varios hechos llamativos, como que no se ven
otras etnias conviviendo con la adinerada familia, o que el trabajo domstico est
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realizado por robots y avanzados sistemas domticos. Parece ser que se opt por
incluir la imagen amable de un sector servicios robtico en una casa rica en lugar de
representar la realidad social del momento. Es reprobable, en este sentido, que las
comedias decidiesen sencillamente inhibirse en representar cualquier tipo de diversidad
tnica. Hubo que esperar hasta la dcada de los setenta para que se comenzase a ver a
minoras tnicas en series animadas (eso s, vctimas de la llamada segregacin
televisiva, de la que hablaremos ms adelante).
Primeras Representaciones tnicas. De la Segregacin a la Representacin

Multicultural en la Animacin.
Llegan los setenta y se dan por finalizados tanto el Movimiento por los
derechos civiles como la Segunda Gran Migracin Negra (entre 1940 y 1970). Estos
acontecimientos desembocan en la aparicin de las primeras producciones
protagonizadas por afroamericanos, con series como The Jackson 5ive (1971) y Fat Albert
and the Cosby Kids (1972). Termina el monopolio televisivo de los personajes caucsicos,
pero comienza otra tendencia que permanecer en vigencia en el medio audiovisual
por mucho tiempo, las producciones especficas para cada etnia (segregacin
televisiva). The Jackson 5ive nace como respuesta al fenmeno musical de la banda pop
de nombre homnimo, en la que debut el clebre Michael Jackson. La serie surgi en
un intento por captar como pblico a los seguidores del grupo, aunque no tuvo
grandes ndices de audiencia y finalmente fue cancelada despus de 23 episodios. Fat
Albert and the Cosby Kids, en cambio, permaneci en emisin hasta 1985. Para su
creacin, el cmico Bill Cosby se inspir en sus propias experiencias de juventud. La
obra, aunque cmica y orientada a un pblico juvenil, trata temas como el racismo, el
tabaquismo o la violencia.
Con la llegada de los ochenta, comienza a verse algo de diversidad en la
animacin televisiva (como por ejemplo ocurre con Dragones y Mazmorras, estrenada en
1983). Pero es con el surgimiento de Los Simpson en 1987 (creada por Matt Groening
y producida por la cadena FOX cuando comienza un cambio significativo en la
animacin televisiva. Y es que, aunque en la serie los protagonistas son una arquetpica
familia blanca y de clase media, esta comedia contribuy desde su origen a cambiar el
concepto de sitcom animada para adultos. Su visin crtica con la sociedad americana
abri un amplio abanico de debates, en los que se incluyen temas como la diferencia
de clases, el racismo o la sexualidad. Adems, se introdujo paulatinamente a personajes
de distintas etnias, culturas o religiones.
En la dcada de los noventa se abre el camino hacia lo multicultural con obras
como Rugrats y Oye Arnold! (ambas de Nickelodeon). La primera es una sitcom familiar
desde el punto de vista de un grupo de bebs (creada por Arlene Klasky y Gbor
Csup en 1991). Su perspectiva permite ver la diversa sociedad estadounidense desde
la mirada curiosa y natural de un nio pequeo. El heterogneo grupo est
protagonizado por Tommy, un beb de una familia blanca, de madre juda y padre
cristiano, algo que da mucho juego en la serie para representar de manera amena y
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simptica la convivencia entre religiones, su cultura y contrastes. El mejor amigo de

Tommy es Chuckie, un nio de dos aos procedente de un hogar monoparental,
aunque, ms adelante, su padre contrae matrimonio con Kira, de origen japons, hecho
que tambin permite aadir otros elementos culturales a la trama. Parte del elenco
principal tambin son los mellizos Phil y Lil, los cuales pertenecen a una familia que
rompe con los estereotipos de rol de gnero tradicional y comportamiento
heteronormativo. Los padres de stos son representados en la serie como una pareja
activamente feminista; su padre se encarga del hogar y su madre trabaja fuera. El grupo
lo cierra Angelica, prima de Tommy, hija nica de una familia adinerada. La nia de 3
aos juega un papel bastante efectivo para plasmar las diferencias de clase. En la serie
es comn que Drew, su padre y un exitoso abogado, utilice su privilegiado estatus social
para presionar a su hermano (Stu, el padre de Tommy) por su condicin humilde,
instndolo a convertirse en un triunfador. Y es que, para Drew, los logros se miden
exclusivamente en torno al baremo que establece la condicin social. Como resultado,
Angelica imita este trato despectivo y trata con el mismo desprecio a los bebs, a
quienes considera inferiores. Ms adelante, y como personaje recurrente, se introdujo
a la adinerada familia Carmichael, a la cual pertenece Susie, una nia afroamericana de
3 aos. El objetivo era aadir diversidad y tambin poder contrastar la actitud dspota
y esnob de Angelica y sus padres. En resumen, la obra presenta una comunidad diversa,
pero el hecho de que la trama transcurra en una urbanizacin acomodada priva a la
serie de poder desarrollar mejor los conflictos por las desigualdades econmicas
(aspecto fundamental a la hora de tratar lo multicultural). Por ello, para tratar este
problema, es preciso continuar con Oye Arnold!
En 1996 se estrena esta creacin de Craig Bartlett, ambientada en un suburbio
estadounidense inspirado en varias ciudades del pas (Seattle, Portland y Brooklyn). El
programa est protagonizado por Arnold, un nio preadolescente de etnia blanca y
hurfano que vive con sus abuelos de manera modesta. A lo largo de sus cinco
temporadas, se muestra en profundidad la vida de la variopinta pandilla que
protagoniza la serie, lo que da pie a que queden representadas una amplia amalgama
de etnias y clases sociales en Hillwood City, la ciudad ficticia de Washington en la que
se desarrolla la trama. Esta variedad cultural da mucho juego, pues podemos ver cmo
los acontecimientos sociales afectan de manera diferente a cada grupo. Un ejemplo de
esto lo podemos ver con los conflictos blicos; Martin Johanssen, de etnia
afroamericana y padre de Gerald (el mejor amigo de Arnold), es un veterano de guerra
que, en el captulo Veterans Day, muestra su experiencia en la guerra de Vietnam, al
mismo tiempo que el abuelo de Arnold habla de la suya durante la Segunda Guerra
Mundial. Desde el punto de vista opuesto, el Seor Hyunh, otro personaje del
vecindario, es un inmigrante vietnamita que tuvo que entregar a su hija para librarla de
los horrores de este conflicto y que ms tarde se traslad a Estados Unidos para
encontrarla. Otro elemento muy interesante de la serie es la convivencia entre clases
sociales y el hecho de ver cmo el factor econmico influye mucho en la infancia. Por
ejemplo, mientras Rhonda, hija de una familia rica y materialista, disfruta de una vida
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privilegiada, Lila (compaera en el colegio), proviene de un entorno rural y vive con

su padre en paro en una situacin precaria, algo por lo que incluso llega a sufrir acoso
en la escuela. En resumen, la serie es un claro alegato a la infancia, en el que muchas
veces los nios son vctimas colaterales de las circunstancias de los padres, quienes a
su vez e inevitablemente estn condicionados por la sociedad en la que viven.
Hasta ahora, las series infantiles y las adultas mencionadas han mantenido un
elemento comn, la sutileza, bien por el contexto histrico en el que fueron concebidas
o por estar destinadas para un pblico infantil o juvenil. Una vez entendido el impacto
positivo y educativo que puedan ejercer estas obras en los nios, es preciso volver a la
animacin para adultos.
En la dcada de los noventa se desarrolla un cambio de las sitcom para adultos
hacia una comedia ms satrica y transgresora. Esta tendencia, iniciada por Los Simpson,
constituy un nuevo concepto de animacin en televisin. Con el estreno de Padre de
Familia, de Seth Macfarlane, en 1999 (tambin en la cadena FOX), surge un tipo de
crtica social en las series como nunca antes se haba dado. Mucho ms cida y directa
que la obra de Groening, lleg incluso a ser cancelada. Su vuelta a la parrilla televisiva
se debi, mayoritariamente, a la masiva demanda por parte del pblico. Y es que, esta
controvertida obra tiene en su haber una coleccin de polmicas en torno a diversos
temas como, por ejemplo, las religiones, los estereotipos tnicos y culturales, el sexo,
las drogas o la violencia. Para tratar y criticar problemas sociales como el racismo o la
intolerancia, se utiliza el punto de vista de una tpica familia blanca de clase media
(que tantas veces ha sido plasmada en el medio audiovisual), y acenta sin miramientos
la hipocresa sobre la aceptacin social de la intolerancia. Dentro de nuestra seleccin
de series, Padre de Familia destaca por su capacidad para abrir el debate incmodo y
rerse de los tabs sociales y tnicos. Con Padre de Familia, se marca as una ruta a seguir
hacia el humor ms polticamente incorrecto.
Rick y Morty , el Multiculturalismo Extraterrestre

Antes de empezar a hablar de esta serie, creada por Dan Harmon y Justin
Roiland en 2013 y emitida por Adult Swim, es imprescindible reflexionar sobre lo que
significa lo polticamente correcto. Para ello, ha de hacerse una parada en un referente
fundamental, los Monty Python, el clebre grupo humorstico britnico. John Cleese,
uno de sus fundadores, se lamenta por el camino que ha tomado el humor: No se
puede hacer comedia y ser polticamente correcto al mismo tiempo. En su opinin,
en este gnero no se puede impedir que el espectador se ofenda. Recuerda la denuncia
de George Orwell en 1984, donde la vigilancia extrema de los medios sobre la sociedad
lleva al mundo a una censura total. Entendiendo esta premisa, seremos capaces de
comprender Rick y Morty, una de las series ms transgresoras de la dcada de los 2010.
La trama de esta obra gira en torno a los viajes interdimensionales de un
cientfico irreverente y su nieto, un adolescente asustadizo. La idea surge a raz de un
cortometraje animado creado por el productor estadounidense Justin Roiland, en el
que se vale de la entraable relacin entre Doc y Marty de Regreso al Futuro (propia de
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un abuelo y su nieto) y la pervierte completamente, obligndolos a mantener relaciones

sexuales para salvar a la humanidad. Roiland, que saba que esta pareja est en el
imaginario colectivo de toda una generacin, utiliza esta situacin como herramienta
para provocar reacciones enfrentadas. Dan Harmon, un productor que se encontraba
entre el pblico cuando se proyect el corto y que ya tena experiencia en comedia
televisiva, le propuso, posteriormente, realizar un proyecto de animacin conjunto, que
dio como resultado la sardnica Rick y Morty.
Para poder contextualizar la importancia de Rick y Morty en el
multiculturalismo, es importante detenerse en algunos de sus captulos. Por ejemplo,
en el segundo episodio de la primera temporada (inspirado en la saga Terminator), Jerry,
padre de Morty y yerno de Rick, le pide a su suegro un aparato para volver a la mascota
de la familia (un perro) lo suficientemente inteligente como para que sta tenga cierta
autonoma y as Jerry no tenga que responsabilizarse del animal. Rick le comenta con
sorna que no tiene sentido dar inteligencia a un ser cuya funcin es ser servil, pero
Jerry insiste y el cientfico crea para el perro un mecanismo que lo dota de inteligencia.
El animal comienza a tener conciencia de s mismo (como la I.A. Skynet en Terminator)
y mejora el artilugio. Las consecuencias son que, al adquirir mayor capacidad, el perro
se rebela junto a los de su especie contra a la raza humana, una analoga directa al
control de las masas al privarlas de conocimiento y del uso de la razn. En otro
captulo, mientras Rick y sus nietos (Summer y Morty) estn en otro universo
alternativo tomando unos helados, al cientfico se le estropea la fuente de energa de
su nave. Para arreglarlo, viaja con Morty al interior de la batera, donde el nieto
descubre estupefacto que su abuelo ha engaado y esclavizado a toda una civilizacin
para que generen energa para l, hacindoles creer que es para otro fin.
En la segunda temporada, abuelo y nietos se encuentran en un viaje con una
vieja amiga de Rick, Unidad, la cual se dedica a colonizar civilizaciones y a convertirlas
en una mente colmena. Summer y Morty, inicialmente, rechazan el control de Unidad
sobre toda una poblacin por considerarlo una tirana. Ms tarde, cambian de idea al
descubrir que la sociedad colonizada por la aliengena antes era violenta y supremacista
y, ahora, en cambio, es prspera y ordenada. El mensaje que manda la serie aqu es
que, si de verdad se quiere luchar por una sociedad justa, debe existir un verdadero
sentimiento y compromiso social de cambio. En resumen, tras el humor cido y
sinvergenza de esta serie, se incluye un alegato a la democracia como base de una
sociedad plural y diversa, y advierte que, ms all de una visin romntica, se requieren
sacrificios.
De Los Picapiedra a Rick y Morty: Camino hacia el Multiculturalismo con

Mucho Humor
Qu puede ofrecer una sitcom de ciencia ficcin con elementos de pera
espacial y distopa al multiculturalismo? Anteriormente se exponan los peligros de la
censura en la comedia, con la excusa de que no hay que cruzar ciertos lmites y que lo
ms seguro es moverse en una zona de confort dentro del llamado humor blanco,
146
creado para agradar a todos los rangos de edad y grupos tnicos y sociales. En un
vistazo rpido a la historia de la animacin televisiva, se aprecia el paso de una
televisin dedicada al estilo de vida desenfadado de la poblacin blanca de clase media
que deriv en un largo proceso de segregacin televisiva y que, finalmente, termin
con producciones en las que era ms evidente la diversidad. Sin embargo, no fue hasta
la llegada de la comedia satrica cuando se hicieron avances reales en la inclusin del
multiculturalismo en la televisin. Ah fue cuando comenzaron a eliminarse tabs y a
abrir un debate verdaderamente productivo. Paradjicamente, en los ltimos aos se
ha observado un intento por parte de los medios de implantar un modelo de humor
polticamente correcto, con la supuesta intencin de proteger los sentimientos
religiosos y culturales y de las minoras. En realidad, y a la vista de las circunstancias,
el efecto es ms bien el contrario; si, como avisa Cleese, no se quiere caer en un
universo orwelliano, deben incluirse las herramientas necesarias para evitarlo. Teniendo
en cuenta que la influencia de los medios es indiscutiblemente fuerte sobre la
poblacin, quiz deba optarse por la estrategia que tiene Rick y Morty que, desde su
particular distopa, consigue tratar toda clase de temas sensibles haciendo uso de la
metfora y la irona. Y es que, este tipo de series puede favorecer un cambio de
mentalidad e impulsar la capacidad crtica del pblico, ayudando a producir un material
multicultural y sin tabs.
El motivo por el que se ha optado por tratar la animacin en televisin para
hablar del multiculturalismo son las posibilidades que ofrece este medio para hablar de
temas sensibles socialmente y que seran ms censurables en productos audiovisuales
de accin real. El motivo es, posiblemente, que la animacin utiliza las mismas
herramientas de las que las fbulas se valan antao, como el uso de animales con
capacidades humanas. Por medio de lo figurativo se logra introducir en el inconsciente
de manera ms sutil valores, reflexiones o crticas que pueden resultar demasiado
explcitas y duras si se cuentan con escenas reales. De este modo, la animacin tiene la
capacidad de aprovechar esa creencia popular de que se trata de un producto infantil
e inofensivo, factor que utiliza en su propio beneficio para as poder abrir debate. De
una manera u otra, todas las series aqu mencionadas han conseguido este efecto; desde
Los Picapiedra o Los Simpson, que presentaron a familias de clase media (con las que era
fcil empatizar), hasta las sociedades aliengenas de Rick y Morty y su particular parecido
con los problemas de la sociedad actual, aprovechando al mximo las posibilidades que
ofrece el medio.
References
El Pas (1981). Falleci el autor de "El medio es el mensaje" Recuperado de

http://elpais.com/diario/1981/01/02/cultura/347238003_850215.html (06/2016)
Gregory. J. N. (2009). The Second Great Migration: A Historical Overview. Recuperado de
http://faculty.washington.edu/gregoryj/second_great_migration.htm (06/2016)
Hurd, G.A., (productor), Cameron,J. 1984. Termninator. Estados Unidos: Hemdale Film Corporation.
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IGN. Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids. Recuperado de http://www.ign.com/top/animated-tv series/82.html
(06/2016)
McLuhan, M., (1994), Comprender los medios de comunicacin. Las extensiones del ser humano, Barcelona,
Espaa: Paids.
Nadasen, P. (2015). Domestic Workers Rights, the Politics of Social Reproduction, and New Models of Labor
Organizing. Recuperado de https://viewpointmag.com/2015/10/31/domestic-workers-rights-the-
politics-of-social-reproduction-and-new-models-of-labor-organizing/ (06/2016)
Tenorio Snchez, P.J.(Ed.). (2014). La Libertad de expresin. Su posicin preferente en un entorno
multicultural. Madrid, Espaa: Fundacin Wolters Kluwer.
Carolina Delamorclaz is currently a Ph.D. student at the Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha.

Correspondence regarding this article can be addressed to the author at
[email protected].
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Tres Relatos Contemporneos para la Enseanza del Espaol

Lengua Extranjera
Ana M Navarrete Curbelo
Universidad Autnoma de Madrid
En primer lugar, este trabajo consta de un breve panorama histrico sobre la necesidad de aprender
idiomas, vinculada normalmente a las transacciones comerciales y relaciones entre los pueblos. En
segundo lugar, se refiere a la enseanza del espaol para extranjeros, cuyos datos se remontan al
siglo XVII. Como ilustracin de la enseanza del Espaol Lengua Extranjera en la actualidad, se
muestra la aplicacin prctica de tres cuentos contemporneos en el aula, siguiendo los niveles
establecidos por el Marco Europeo de las Lenguas.
Palabras clave: Ambrosio de Salazar, aprendizaje, cultura, enseanza, idiomas,

traduccin
This workshop presents a historic overview of the need to learn languages, bound to commercial
transactions and relationships among countries. Secondly, it makes reference to the teaching of
Spanish as a Foreign Language, a field dating back to the seventeenth century. As a practical
example of the teaching of Spanish as a Foreign Language, the article includes the practical
application of three short stories to the classroom, according to the levels of the Common European
Framework.
Keywords: Ambrosio de Salazar, learning, culture, teaching, languages, translation
Breve Panorama Histrico

La enseanza de idiomas sin duda alguna tiene que ver con el deseo de
comunicacin de los seres humanos. Dicho de otra manera, podra estar cercana a la
historia de la traduccin.
Todos conocemos el mito de Babel, que explica ingenuamente la diversidad
lingstica y uno de los fenmenos que se desprenden de ella, la incomprensin. Al
nacimiento del lenguaje articulado, imposible de datar en la historia de la humanidad,
sigue la necesidad de aprender la lengua del otro y la de utilizar un traductor o
intrprete con la finalidad de comprenderse y establecer vnculos entre los pueblos.
La figura del traductor-intrprete exista ya en culturas antiguas y normalmente se
desarrollaba al hilo de transacciones comerciales. Posteriormente este inters y
necesidad se ampla con el desarrollo no solo del intercambio comercial, sino
tambin del cultural, poltico y diplomtico.
En la Edad Media la lengua de cultura era el latn, ya que las universidades se
crearon en el siglo XIII a la sombra de las catedrales. Anteriormente los nicos que
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saban leer y escribir eran los clrigos y a travs de sus bibliotecas monacales, en las
que se copiaban los manuscritos de la Antigedad grecolatina y se traducan a las
lenguas denominadas vulgares, llega hasta nosotros el saber de los griegos y los
romanos, cuya cultura, junto al cristianismo, es la base de la cultura occidental.
Qu tiene que ver esto con la enseanza del idioma? Todo en realidad, ya
que este breve recorrido lleva inevitablemente al siglo XVII, momento en el que
queda consignado por escrito lo que posteriormente se denominar Didctica de la
Lengua.
Uno de los primeros impulsores de la enseanza del espaol como lengua
extranjera fue Ambrosio de Salazar (1575-1643), que desarroll su labor en Francia.
Salazar fue secretario-intrprete del rey Luis XIII de Francia. Lleg a la Corte
despus de ensear espaol durante muchos aos en Rouen. Anteriormente haba
sido soldado de Felipe II y cuando termin este cometido, se estableci en el pas
vecino con el objetivo de ensear espaol a los nobles y burgueses. El cercano
puerto de El Havre, abra a las relaciones comerciales con Amrica. Aquella era la
poca del rey Enrique IV, al que sucedi en el trono su hijo Luis XIII, que se casara
aos despus con una princesa espaola.
El espaol cobr ms fuerza an, no slo porque era la lengua del Imperio,
sino porque se convirti en la lengua de la mitad de la Corte. Ana de Austria, hija del
rey Felipe III, se haba convertido en reina de Francia, madre del futuro Luis XIV, el
Rey Sol.
Salazar, atrevido en todo, incluso en la enseanza del espaol, aporta
novedades en la enseanza del idioma, que traigo aqu por su modernidad. La
primera de ellas es que consideraba que lo ms importante en la enseanza de un
idioma es su uso, o sea, que quien aprende, tiene que adquirir cuanto antes la
habilidad de comunicarse, al margen del aprendizaje gramatical, que considera
secundario. Esto, dicho en la poca de los gramticos, era toda una innovacin.
La otra novedad es que, para no aburrir a sus estudiantes, ilustraba sus
enseanzas con cuentos, con la finalidad de que se hicieran con las estructuras
gramaticales al uso y de que conocieran la mentalidad y la cultura espaolas. Nos
encontramos, por tanto, ante un profesor y gramtico, que improvisa y juega con el
lenguaje con la finalidad de ensear (Navarrete, 2014, p. 14).
Cabe destacar que los franceses tenan el mximo inters en aprender
espaol, no as los espaoles de la Corte, que no manifestaron ningn inters por
aprender el idioma del pas que los acoga, situacin descrita ya en el siglo XVII, a
travs del dilogo de los personajes, por Ambrosio de Salazar en el Da Tercero de su
Espexo de Gramtica, (Salazar, 1614, pp. 62-78).
Me he remontado en la historia, sencillamente para decir que en realidad est
todo inventado y que siglos despus perfeccionamos, ahondamos, tenemos recursos
que facilitan nuestro trabajo en la enseanza de un segundo idioma, pero inventar,
no sabra decir si realmente hemos inventado algo.
Mi experiencia en la enseanza del espaol lengua extranjera es larga y,
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siguiendo las huellas de Ambrosio de Salazar, yo tambin empleo cuentos en la

enseanza del idioma para que el estudiante de espaol pueda desenvolverse cuanto
antes en esta lengua. Simultneamente se darn los elementos gramaticales necesarios
para su correcto uso. Normalmente no se pueden disociar las habilidades
comunicativas del uso de la gramtica, ya que, por ejemplo, si invito a hacer una frase
sobre el tiempo que hace hoy, habr que seleccionar palabras y colocarlas de forma
adecuada para entablar una comunicacin eficaz con el interlocutor; sin embargo,
somos conscientes de que no es necesario esperar a saberse de memoria todos los
verbos para usarlos.
Tres Relatos Contemporneos para la Enseanza del Espaol como Lengua

Extranjera
Niveles A1 A2
El hombrecito vestido de gris, de Fernando Alonso, es un cuento sencillo y
repetitivo, en lo que a estructuras gramaticales se refiere, lo cual viene muy bien para
abordar la enseanza del idioma desde ah: Haba una vez un hombre que siempre
iba vestido de gris. Tena un traje gris, tena un sombrero gris, tena una corbata gris
y un bigotito gris (Alonso, 1978, p. 11). En estas dos frases se ve una forma fcil de
hacer una descripcin y el uso del verbo tener.
Frmula de trabajo.
1- Lectura en voz alta del cuento. En primer lugar, la lectura la realizar el
profesor. As los alumnos conservarn en la memoria el ritmo y la
entonacin del texto.
2- Cambiar una sola palabra en la primera frase para que sea negativa.
Haba una vez un hombre que siempre iba vestido de gris (Alonso,
1978, p.11): Haba una vez un hombre que nunca iba vestido de gris.
3- Cambiar las palabras que tienen que ver con el atuendo y el fsico de un
hombre por las de una mujer.
Tena un traje gris, tena un sombrero gris, tena una corbata gris y
un bigotito gris (Alonso, 1978, p.11): Tena un traje gris, tena un
sombrero gris, tena una bufanda gris y el pelo gris.
Ahora cambiamos todos los nombres de la oracin, como si
describiramos a una mujer: Tena una falda gris, tena una boina gris, tena
una bufanda gris y el pelo gris. Se preguntara Qu se observa en el
adjetivo gris? Pongamos ejemplos con nombres en plural: Tena unos
trajes grises, unos sombreros grises, unas corbatas grises y unos bigotes grises.
Esto sera el primer paso: cambios fciles.
4- Ahora sealar las estructuras gramaticales que se aprenden
inconscientemente con la lectura del cuento:
- Uso de los verbos tomar y estar y construcciones fciles con
oraciones de relativo:
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Tomaba una ducha que siempre estaba bastante fra, tomaba el

desayuno, que siempre estaba bastante caliente, tomaba el autobs,
que siempre estaba bastante lleno, y lea el peridico, que siempre
deca las mismas cosas (Alonso, 1978, p. 11).
Convertir la serie de relativas afirmativas en oraciones negativas y
cambiar los adjetivos por su contrario: Tomaba una ducha que nunca
estaba bastante caliente: tomaba el desayuno que nunca estaba bastante fro;
tomaba el autobs, que nunca estaba bastante vaco; y lea el peridico, que nunca
deca diferentes cosas.
- Comparativas:
Y esto le anunciaba que el da que amaneca era exactamente
igual que el anterior (Alonso, 1978, p. 12) o El director de
orquesta estaba tan entusiasmado que lo contrat para
inaugurar la temporada del Teatro de la pera (Alonso,
1978, p.18).
En esta oracin adems de trabajar las comparativas, se tiene
la posibilidad de ver la construccin de la finalidad, con
para + infinitivo, que tambin supone un escollo para los
extranjeros, por la confusin que suele producir el uso de
por y para.
- Se impersonal:
Se prohbe cantar y bailar. (Alonso, 1978, p. 15).
Se invitar a los estudiantes a observar carteles que vean por la
calle con esta construccin y se trabajar posteriormente con
ese material en clase.
- Uso de la conjuncin copulativa y:
El autor inicia prrafos con dicha conjuncin, emplendola
como suele hacerse en el lenguaje oral.
Y, todos los das, a la misma hora, se sentaba en su mesa de
la oficina (Alonso, 1980, p. 11).
Y esto le anunciaba que (Alonso, 1978, p.12).
Y lo ech (Alonso, 1978, p.15).
Y asistieron (Alonso, 1978, p. 18).
Y el hombrecito (Alonso, 1978, p.19).
Es aconsejable hacer estos ejercicios de cambios de palabras despus de
comprobar que se ha entendido el texto. Para los alumnos A1 y A2 es muy
satisfactorio poder leer un cuento, entenderlo y lograr hacer textos similares a partir
de este modelo.
Niveles B1 B2
En este nivel los estudiantes ya han odo suficiente espaol como para
reconocer expresiones o palabras que en Espaa no son de uso frecuente o que se
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emplean de diferente manera que en Amrica. Hay que tener en cuenta que hablo
desde mi experiencia, y que enseo espaol a extranjeros en Espaa, en concreto en
Madrid. De ah que emplee el cuento La composicin, de Antonio Skrmeta para
trabajar el espaol de Amrica.
El texto se leer en voz alta y una vez comentado, se invitar a los estudiantes
a que reconozcan palabras, expresiones o estructuras gramaticales, incluidos usos
verbales que no son los habituales aqu. La comprensin del texto vendr
indudablemente por el contexto. El trabajo se realizar en grupos de tres estudiantes.
Existe la posibilidad de que un profesor que ensee espaol de Amrica haga el
trabajo a la inversa.
Frmula de trabajo. Actividad: En busca de americanismos

1- Expresiones
Patear la pelota en lugar de dar patadas al baln. En Espaa la pelota
es ms pequea que el baln. Llamamos pelota a la de tenis, por ejemplo, y
baln al de ftbol o baloncesto. Del mismo modo, se usa pelota para
nombrar el objeto con el que juegan los nios, y que aunque sea grande, es
ligera de peso. La accin correspondiente se expresa con el verbo dar en
infinitivo + el sustantivo. No voy a sealar aqu todas las diferencias
porque excedera la extensin de este artculo, pero valga este ejemplo
como muestra de lo que dar de s el texto de Skrmeta.
Con el uso de los adjetivos puede trabajarse igual. Por ejemplo:
Parece pjaro por la liviana (Skrmeta, 2000, p. 2), en lugar de ligera, o
Pedro era pequeo y liviano (Skrmeta, 2000, p. 4), por ligero, menudo o
menudito, de poco peso. Liviano tiene en Espaa una connotacin culta que
en el cuento estara fuera de lugar.
Puso las manos tras la espalda, (Skrmeta, 2000, p. 18), en lugar de
se puso las manos a la espalda. Igualito mi mam (Skrmeta, 2000, p. 25), en
vez de igual que mi mam.
Est en la casa (Skrmeta, 2000, p.33), en lugar de est en casa.
Juegan ajedrez (Skrmeta, 2000, p.33), en lugar de juegan al ajedrez.
2- Empleo del artculo determinado o del posesivo
- Algunos casos de supresin del posesivo en el espaol de Espaa:
No ha vuelto an tu mam? (Skrmeta, 2000, p. 12), por No ha
vuelto an mam? La cuestin es que aqu no emplearamos el determinante
posesivo porque el que habla es el pap de Pedro. Se empleara el posesivo si
el hablante fuera ajeno a la familia.
Por qu est llorando mi mam? (Skrmeta, 2000, p. 14), aqu se
dira por qu est llorando mam?
- Empleo del posesivo frente al artculo determinado:
Pedro fue a ponerse su pijama (Skrmeta, 2000, p. 14), aqu sera
ponerse el pijama.
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3- Uso del Pretrito Indefinido

En el espaol de Amrica domina el uso del Pretrito Indefinido o
Pretrito Perfecto Simple, frente al uso del Pretrito Perfecto Compuesto. En
Espaa depende de la zona geogrfica. En el norte de Espaa se emplea
igual que en Amrica, pero en el resto de la Pennsula no. Este uso es uno de
los problemas que tienen los estudiantes. El profesor deber explicar las
diferencias en los lugares de doble uso y procurar dejar claro que empleen
un tiempo u otro, la frase se entender, pero que hay que elegir una de las dos
opciones al hablar o escribir.
Por qu se lo llevaron? (Skrmeta, 2000, p.10), Por qu se lo han
llevado? Si ya ha sucedido o Por qu se lo llevan?, si est sucediendo, como es el
caso del relato.
Jugaste mucho? (Skrmeta, 2000, p.12); el que la accin se refiera
a un pasado reciente, casi inmediato, hace que en la mayor parte de Espaa se
emplee el Pretrito Perfecto Compuesto: Has jugado mucho?
5- Vocabulario
- Verbos
Empleo del verbo tomar por coger: los espaoles tenemos que
aprender a usar el verbo tomar si queremos trabajar en Amrica, con el
significado de asir o tomar un objeto, un transporte, un camino o una
direccin. Este uso es importante porque la mayora de personas que aprende
espaol lo hace para tener abierto el mundo del trabajo y de los negocios en
Amrica; hay que tener en cuenta que es la lengua ms hablada en aquel
continente y la segunda ms hablada en el mundo como lengua materna,
despus del chino.
- Sustantivos
T me traes buena suerte, chico y Acustate, chico, (Skrmeta,
2000, p.16), por hijo.
Anteojos y lentes, por gafas y escribir una composicin por
redaccin. (Skrmeta, 2000, p. 18).
El texto es muy rico para trabajar cualquier aspecto del vocabulario y
establecer los usos a un lado y otro del Atlntico. Otras palabras seran:
almacenero por tendero, pizarrn, por pizarra, bombillo por bombilla, torta por
tarta y prcer, por lder, por ejemplo.
- Uso de usted
Saquen sus cuadernos // saquen lpiz // lo que hacen ustedes
y sus padres // cualquier cosa que a ustedes se les ocurra (Skrmeta,
2000, p. 20).
El uso generalizado de usted en Amrica, frente al igualmente
generalizado uso del t en Espaa es otra de las cuestiones en las que se hace
hincapi en la enseanza del espaol para extranjeros, sobre todo si los
alumnos vienen de Estados Unidos, donde el espaol que aprenden es el de
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Amrica y el uso del t les resulta chocante.

Es evidente que para explicar las semejanzas y diferencias ms llamativas del
espaol de Espaa y Amrica, podra utilizarse un texto ms complejo, pero el texto
de Skrmeta rene lo que pueden considerarse elementos fundamentales. Un texto
con mayor dificultad podra suponer una grave dificultad para los estudiantes y
producir desnimo en el aprendizaje.
Niveles C1 C2
Para este nivel utilizo el cuento de Francisco Ayala, Dulces Recuerdos, con el
que trabajo especialmente los elementos de la narrativa y las referencias culturales.
Frmula de trabajo.
Los estudiantes leen el texto por su cuenta, ya que es ms largo que los
anteriores; en clase plantean todo lo que les ha llamado la atencin y trabajamos
sobre eso.
Primero me interesa que vean los elementos de la narracin, con lo cual
pregunto: Quin es el narrador? (1 persona) Desde dnde narra? (texto
retrospectivo, evoca, recuerda). Quin es el protagonista? (Coincide con el narrador,
que no necesariamente tiene que ser el autor, aunque podra ser de carcter
autobiogrfico. Cul es el personaje principal, que no el protagonista? Barbin, el
perro. El secundario: el to Pepe. Los dems son comparsas, amueblan el espacio
literario solamente. Tema principal: La amistad. Otros temas: la nostalgia, reflexin
sobre el paso del tiempo, sobre la brevedad de la vida y la soledad. Estructura del
texto: se analiza al hilo de mi lectura en voz alta, dejando muy claro cul es la idea
principal de cada una de las partes, que no coinciden necesariamente con los
prrafos.
En funcin del origen de los estudiantes, son claras las diferencias respecto a
lo que les llama la atencin. Los estudiantes occidentales muestran inters por el
ncleo familiar, tal y como est estructurado en el texto (situado a principios del siglo
XX en Espaa), especialmente la relacin del nio con los mayores, parecida a la de
otros pases de nuestro entorno inmediato y la fiesta de San Jos, en torno a la cual
se articula el tema de la amistad del nio con el perro. Tambin manifiestan inters
por el apelativo familiar Pepe y por la Fiesta de las Fallas de Valencia, a la que suelen
asistir durante su estancia en nuestro pas:
Fue un da de San Jos. En mi ciudad natal, como en Espaa
entera, abundan y sobreabundan los Pepes y las Pepas, cuyo santo
se celebra con felicitaciones de parientes y amigos en fiestas
caseras donde - la verdad sea dicha - no constituan aliciente
menor los vinos generosos y los dulces tan preciados y
tradicionalmente famosos de la regin Aquel 19 de marzo
(Ayala, 1993, pp. 1269-1270).
Sin embargo, a los estudiantes africanos y asiticos lo que ms les llama la
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atencin es la relacin del nio con el perro y que el narrador-protagonista empiece

evocando su muerte y su posible enterramiento en un cementerio para animales.
Aqu la conversacin se hace imparable al no lograr comprender que se considere
amigo a un animal. Surgen todo tipo de cuestiones al hilo de lo que ven en la calle:
gente paseando con perro, clnicas veterinarias, perros con abrigo Hasta que no he
tenido en clase mayora de estudiantes universitarios africanos, no he cado en la
cuenta de la importancia del tema, ya que, para nosotros, tener una mascota, es algo
natural, de ah que con otros estudiantes extranjeros este tema no surja. Es algo que
escapa completamente a sus esquemas y por tanto requiere una explicacin.
Pobre Barbin mo, viejo compaero de andanzas! T fuiste, no
hay duda, mi mejor amigo, el nico que me daba entera confianza,
el nico con quien yo me encontraba a mis anchas. S, es despus
de tu muerte cuando habra de reconocer yo que me haba
quedado definitivamente solo, en soledad completa y sin remedio,
ya para siempre (Ayala, 1993, p. 1271).
Despus, su inters se dirige igualmente al ncleo familiar y a las relaciones
entre sus miembros, que difieren mucho de las de sus culturas de origen. Las
explicaciones gramaticales surgen de forma inevitable al hilo de la narracin.
Como conclusin, solo queda sealar una vez ms, que el uso del idioma
desvela aspectos culturales necesarios para el acercamiento de diversas culturas, por
medio del estudio de las lenguas.
Referencias
Alonso, F. (1978). El hombrecito vestido de gris. Madrid: Alfaguara.

Ayala, F. (1993). Narrativa completa, Madrid: Alianza editorial.
Navarrete Curbelo, A. M. (2014). La obra de Ambrosio de Salazar: Un espaol en la Corte de Luis XIII de
Francia. Saarbrcken, Alemania: Verlag/Publicia.
Salazar, A. de (1614). Espexo de Gramtica. Rouen: Chez Adrian Morront.
Skrmeta, A. (2000). La composicin. Madrid: SM.
Ana Mara Navarrete Curbelo es Profesora en la Universidad Autnoma de Madrid. Pueden

dirigirle correspondencia relacionada con este artculo a: [email protected].
156
Reflexiones sobre el Proceso Enseanza-Aprendizaje Solidario

en un Aula Multicultural de Literatura Postcolonial
Antonia Navarro Tejero
Universidad de Crdoba
Con la premisa de que debemos tender puentes entre el aula y el mundo real, lo personal y lo poltico,
lo global y lo local, y la teora y la prctica, proponemos sugerencias a la hora de impartir una
asignatura sobre otras culturas en un aula multicultural. A la luz de los estudios sobre el poder de
Michel Foucault, el orientalismo de Edward Said y la pedagoga feminista de Gayatri Spivak y
Chandra Mohanty, ofreceremos una visin solidaria de la programacin didctica de una asignatura,
alejada del paternalismo y de perjuicios para reflexionar sobre la misoginia y el racismo de nuestra
sociedad. As, pretendemos construir compromisos cvicos en nuestro proceso de enseanza-aprendizaje.
Palabras clave: Pedagoga feminista, paternalismo, literatura postcolonial
We need to bridge the classroom and the real world, the personal and the political, global and local,
theory and practice. Therefore, in this paper we reflect upon teaching feminism in an Indian Literature
course in a multicultural University classroom. In the light of Michel Foucaults notion of biopower
and Edward Saids orientalism, allied with the feminist approaches of Gayatri Spivak and Chandra
Mohanty, we offer a solidarity model -against paternalism- when preparing the lesson plans so that we
can dismantle racist and sexist prejudices. It is our aim to build civic engagements in the teaching-
learning process.
Keywords: Feminist pedagogy, paternalism, postcolonial literature.
Introduccin
Con la premisa de que debemos tender puentes entre el aula y el mundo real, lo
personal y lo poltico, lo global y lo local, y la teora y la prctica, proponemos
sugerencias a la hora de impartir una asignatura sobre otras culturas en un aula
multicultural. Para la mayora de mi alumnado tanto de grado como de posgrado,
hablar abierta y explcitamente sobre feminismo en clase es algo que segn dicen est
pasado de moda puesto que la comunidad que nos rodea es incapaz de admitir que
vivimos en un patriarcado, en una sociedad dominada e identificada por el hombre.
Por lo tanto, ensear feminismo en una Universidad del sur de Espaa no es una
tarea fcil. El perfil de nuestro alumnado es por lo general familias locales, y se les hace
ms fcil centrarse en "otras literaturas" y "otras culturas" desde un punto de vista
eurocntrico y paternalista. Cuando comenzamos el curso ltimas literaturas en
lengua inglesa: Asia y Oceana con un intercambio de ideas, aparecen en la discusin
157
KWLH 1 temas misginos, como si fueran exclusivos de las culturas de la India (aunque
en esta etapa mi alumnado todava cree en una cultura india monoltica). Sin embargo,
si tenemos suerte, un buen nmero de alumnado internacional (Erasmus) se inscribe
en nuestro curso, por lo que el ambiente de aprendizaje se hace ms diverso.
Pronto, aprendemos a contextualizar los textos culturales discutidos en clase con
el fin de analizar las complejas interacciones entre la historia, la ideologa, la cultura y
el poder. A la luz del marco terico de Michel Foucault, aliado con los enfoques
feministas de Chandra Mohanty, analizamos las obras de varias escritoras del sur de
Asia. Gayatri Spivaky Judith Butler son nuestras aliadas en la pedagoga utilizada.
Debido a las limitaciones en la extensin de este trabajo, nos centraremos en la forma
en la que enseo feminismo en las lecturas del relato corto The Remains of the Feast
de Githa Hariharan y la novela The God of Small Things de Arundhati Roy. Ya que la
pedagoga feminista se ocupa de las nociones de poder y autoridad, localizamos dentro
del feminismo una crtica de la representacin de los personajes racializados en su
entidad como sujetos estructuralmente disciplinados.
Trabajo en clase
En clase, nos inspiramos en la pedagoga feminista de Mohanty, y diseamos
nuestro curso siguiendo el modelo solidario que propone, pues nos centramos en los
lazos e intersecciones entre los diferentes grupos y temas. De esta manera, nos
aseguramos de incluir las complejidades del conocer y del ser. Creemos que esto ayuda
al alumnado a ver las conexiones entre el aula y las luchas del mundo real. Mohanty
argumenta que, centrarnos en la solidaridad entre las divisiones tradicionales de clase,
nacin y raza, por ejemplo, ayuda al alumnado a entender la interconexin de la
experiencia humana. Por lo tanto, prestamos especial atencin a traer al aula artculos
y noticias que desafan los prejuicios sobre lo que conocemos como "la India". Cada
tema que se discute en clase es una oportunidad para explorar la misoginia y el racismo
de nuestras propias instituciones. Al hacer esto, construimos actividades de
aprendizaje cvicas de compromiso. Trabajamos juntas en generar sentimientos y
pensamientos sobre los discursos de gnero en la construccin del nacionalismo y la
pertenencia, as como sobre los cambios que estn producindose. Lo local y lo global
existen simultneamente, como los espacios locales y nacionales se constituyen entre
s. Una reflexin sobre estas interconexiones abre el mundo al en todas sus
complejidades.
Las preguntas subyacentes generadas en nuestras discusiones en clase son: Qu
tipo de fuente uso para obtener mis conocimientos?, qu lentes uso cuando miro al
mundo?, quin soy yo como participante en el proceso?, mi concepcin de la moral
pertenece a un grupo?, son mis emociones genuinamente mas?, qu/quin
1K-W-L-H es una estrategia muy til para motivar al alumnado sobre un tema nuevo, pues activa
conocimiento previo y se establecen los objetivos. Tambin es interesante para hacer un seguimiento
del aprendizaje. K representa lo que sabes del tema, W lo que quieres aprender sobre dicho tema, L lo
que aprendiste, y H lo que an deseas conocer.
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consideramos diferente?, cmo contribuye los lmites a la exclusin o a la

desigualdad? Llegamos a la conclusin de que no hay nada que podamos entender
como normal y resaltar lo que otros hacen como extico o extrao, por lo que
desmantelamos las relaciones de poder y las jerarquas. Nos basamos en los
fundamentos tericos de Michel Foucault, quien explora las relaciones entre poder y
conocimiento. En sus numerosas obras, ilustra cmo la diferencia se usa para construir
los binomios insano/civilizacin, perversin/normalidad. Adems, rechaza la idea de
que el poder se ejercita exclusivamente con la represin y demuestra, pues, que opera
sutilmente a travs de la aprobacin/desaprobacin de acciones especficas.
El concepto de la otredad, segn hooks 1994, tambin se puede llevar al plano de
las prcticas educacionales y de ah que se aplique en la pedagoga feminista. Aadimos
al pensamiento de Foucault, a la terica Gayatri Spivak, quien en su influyente artculo
Can the Subaltern Speak? asegur que la subalterna no puede hablar aunque se
esfuerce porque no se la escucha, por lo que el acto de comunicacin no se completa
(Spivak 1996: 292). Spivak responda que el sujeto subalterno no puede hablar porque
no tiene un lugar de enunciacin que lo permita. Tambin afirmaba que la mujer ocupa
ese lugar radical por su doble condicin de mujer y de sujeto colonial. El subalterno se
constitua as como una figura de la diferencia radical, del Otro que no puede hablar
no porque literalmente no pueda es evidente que las mujeres en la sociedad
tradicional india hablaban sino porque no forma parte del discurso. Spivak tiene
tambin mucho inters en la pedagoga, como prctica y como poltica, buscando
maneras de hacer or las voces subalternas. En nuestra asignatura, inspiradas por
Spivak, guiamos a nuestro alumnado para que se pregunte, siempre y en todo caso,
quin es representado y por quin, quin deja de ser representado y es, por ello,
silenciado u omitido, y cul es la mecnica de construccin y constitucin de los hechos
representados: cules son, en suma, las estrategias de disimulacin y las costumbres
narrativas del imperialismo.
Freire abraz la visin occidental de que la racionalidad es el camino hacia el
conocimiento y, por tanto, a su juicio, la mejor respuesta a la opresin. Para l, las
opiniones y las acciones deben basarse en la razn, no en las emociones. Sin embargo,
esta manera de privilegiar el racionalismo, segn Ellsworth, ha establecido como su
opuesto un Otro irracional, que se ha entendido histricamente como la provincia de
la mujer y otros Otros exticos (94). Edward Said propuso la teora del orientalismo
como modo de ejemplificacin de cmo occidente construye y representa a un oriente
homogneo y estereotipado (2003[1978]: 47-49). Segn Belenky, necesitamos ofrecer
un marco epistemolgico alternativo que reconozca la conexin inherente entre el
poder y el conocimiento (3). Aqu, podramos incorporar la teora del afecto. Creemos
que la disposicin de gnero y casta se puede abordar mediante el afecto (dndose
cuenta y observando), ya que se puede integrar en las metodologas de investigacin
existentes (tradicionalmente basadas en el anlisis de texto). Los sentimientos
experimentados y las emociones derivadas de ellos son esenciales en nuestro curso
antes de procesar una respuesta al estmulo.
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Mtodos
En cuanto a los mtodos utilizados en el aula, tratamos de ser lo ms experimental
posible, fomentar un entorno activo y feminista. Es por lo que encontramos
especialmente til la integracin de las actividades extracurriculares en las vidas del
alumnado. Se les ofrece una pltora de opciones y se les anima a proponer nuevas
entidades donde puedan ofrecer voluntariado a cambio de crditos. Teniendo esto en
mente, creamos en el ao 1996 el Seminario Permanente de Estudios de la India, que
ha ayudado a consolidar la enseanza de la literatura y las culturas del sur de Asia en
nuestra Universidad. Proporciona al alumnado el contacto personal con los artistas
indios, los escritores de ficcin, acadmicos, estudiantes, etc, que les ayuda a
experimentar el mundo real.
Otro mtodo interesante es el inspirado en el Aula Invertida, por el que al
alumnado lee y/o ve el material en lnea a su propio ritmo, para despus compartir sus
sentimientos y pensamientos en formato seminario dentro del aula, mtodo que
provoca los debates ms interesantes y atractivos. Adems, dejamos foros de discusin
abiertos en la plataforma en lnea (Moodle) durante todo el curso, donde tienen libre
acceso a las lecciones grabadas, vdeos, artculos y otros recursos, y pueden
comunicarse entre s sin las restricciones de horario. De esta manera, nos aseguramos
de que el alumnado de todo tipo de habilidades puede seguir el curso. El proceso de
aprendizaje es, por tanto, atractivo y autntico, relevante, crtico y reflexivo, donde la
expresin de las emociones estn protegidas.
Los Textos
Como dijimos ms arriba, hemos elegido dos textos representativos de la literatura
contempornea de la India escritos en lengua inglesa que exponen las nociones de
gnero y casta. En The Remains of the Feast de Githa Hariharan, un relato corto
tomado de su coleccin The Art of Dying (1993), la viuda protagonista es una figura
marcada por una muerte especfica que transgrede las normas de su casta. Ella es
vidhava (sin marido) y por lo tanto necesitada no slo de proteccin pblica, sino
tambin de regulacin. Las historias sobre viudas, segn Susie Tharu expone en su
ensayo The Impossible Subject: Caste in the Scene of Desire, son compromisos
histricos sutiles sobre la gobernabilidad y la ciudadana (256). La historia trata sobre
la represin y las estrategias de escape en lo relacionado con la individualidad femenina
en una comunidad brahmnica. La novela The God of Small Things pone de relieve el
cdigo inviolable de la moralidad y de la sexualidad femenina en la comunidad cristiana
y comunista de Kerala.
El sistema de castas forma una estructura difcil de entender para nuestro
alumnado, ya que esperan que lo defina en trminos simples y ofrezca un catlogo de
posibilidades. La idea de que las sociedades hindes comparten un cdigo moral
establecido en contraposicin a la ausencia de jerarquas en occidente apoya los lmites
preestablecidos entre ellos y nosotros. Con el fin de desmantelar este supuesto,
primero hacemos una introspeccin sobre el sistema social espaol (y de otras
160
nacionalidades segn la presencia de alumnado Erasmus). El ao en que Susie Tharu

acept nuestra invitacin para impartir una charla sobre la cultura dalit, coincidiendo
con su recin publicada obra en dos volmenes New Dalit Writing from South India fue
especial y los resultados fueron sorprendentes. Durante otro curso acadmico, nos
visit un joven dalit de Anantapur, y en otra ocasin Janet Chawla nos visit para
hablar de las parteras tradicionales dalit.
El alumnado primero lee la novela de Roy fuera del aula y en la primera sesin
compartimos emociones, que suelen ser las relacionadas con el sufrimiento, la pena,
aunque algunas hablan de esperanza. Un sentimiento comn es el de la auto-condena
por pertenencia a un "pas ms civilizado" (que conduce al alivio) y la necesidad de
ayudar (como si les estuvieran salvando del horror). La distancia entre "ellos y
nosotros" es espectacularmente grande en esta etapa. Les pregunto si las emociones
son genuinas y despus de una lluvia de ideas, les propongo que piensen en la
posibilidad de haber reproducido sentimientos paternalistas debido a la moral catlica
y a las lentes eurocntricas que compartimos a medida que se incrustan en nuestra
sociedad. A continuacin, leemos el captulo de Butler Survivability, Vulnerability,
Affect, donde sostiene que las respuestas afectivas estn mediadas (34). El alumnado
lee el reciente caso de monjas catlicas de origen indio que llegaron a Espaa hace 15
aos siendo menores de edad y que desde entonces han permanecido en un convento
de mercedarias de Santiago en condiciones de esclavitud bajo amenaza de expulsin. 2
Tambin llamamos la atencin sobre las diversas declaraciones que los sacerdotes
catlicos han hecho recientemente en relacin con sus puntos de vista misginos. La
distancia entre "ellos y nosotros" se acorta.
Establecemos un debate en torno a la pregunta "cmo y qu grupos estn
marginados en tu pas?" Ya estamos preparadas para analizar los textos literarios en
solidaridad, comprendiendo sus contextos y complejidades, pero siendo lo
suficientemente crticas como para encontrar una estructura comn. Llegamos a
entender que las diferencias tnicas estn relacionados con los sistemas de poder como
las diferencias de gnero son construidas por el patriarcado. Y tambin aprendemos
que el sistema de castas tiene una versin moderna, aunque se tiende a negar que exista
hoy en da. Seguidamente, leemos la historia corta de Hariharan para darnos cuenta de
que las mujeres de castas superiores tambin estn oprimidas, ya que sus cuerpos son
disciplinados y regulados para apoyar el sistema. Usando la imagen de un iceberg para
identificar la violencia de gnero, vemos cmo las micro-violencias aparecen en la parte
inferior por ser difciles de percibir y reconocer, ya que se naturalizan e interiorizan.
Discutimos, pues, el techo de cristal y las diferencias que existen entre los trminos
"mismas oportunidades", "igualdad efectiva" y justicia". Una vez ms, es importante
reconocer la posicin desde la que realizamos las enunciaciones. Muchas otras tericas
analizan cmo la imagen de la mujer occidental liberada se construye a travs de las
2Durante los das 25-30 de enero de 2016, podemos encontrar la noticia en numerosos peridicos
espaoles.
161
representaciones de las mujeres del tercer mundo o de color que son

estereotipadas como oprimidas (Mohanty 1991; Ong 2001[1988]; Trinh 1989). Fatima
Mernissi ya declar que la moda es el ayatol de occidente en su influyente ensayo El
harn de occidente. Otro peligro a advertir en el aula es que el uso etnocntrico del sistema
binario de gnero puede hacernos considerar que las mujeres que permanecen en el
mbito privado del hogar para realizar los cuidados de su familia son tradicionales o
atrasadas (Mohanty 1991: 72).
Introducimos el concepto de nacin, proponiendo varias cuestiones: pueden los
dalits introducir su cultura de la comida en un lugar pblico en la India?, cul es la
cultura culinaria de India?, se incluye la carne de vacuno?, puede los musulmanes
introducir su cultura de la indumentaria en un lugar pblico en Espaa?, cul es la
cultura de la moda en Espaa?, est el vela incluido?, se les trata a los indios del sur
con tez oscura igual que a los indios claros del norte?, importa el idioma?, son los
andaluces representados del mismo modo que cualquier otro ciudadano espaol?,
importa el idioma, el acento? Las jerarquas pueden ser informales, pero condicionan
las relaciones profesionales y personales. Cmo define la palabra gitano el Diccionario
de la Real Academia Espaola? Estas son preguntas que pueden variar cada ao
acadmico en funcin de las nacionalidades del alumnado. Los contextos son
diferentes, pero las naciones que tratamos en el aula son democracias que no estn
practicando la igualdad real. De esta manera, llegamos a entender cmo funcionan las
castas en las sociedades patriarcales. Nuestro inters no se centra en el aprendizaje de
cmo funcionan las castas en la India, sino en reflexionar sobre cmo las relaciones
desiguales son productos de las estructuras de poder globales que van ms all de las
fronteras culturales o religiosas. Slo podemos traspasar fronteras cuando se da un
espejo al alumnado en la literatura.
A mi entender, podremos hacer uso de toda esta metodologa terica una vez
hayamos reflexionado desde la prctica. Todas tienen en comn el rechazo hacia una
interpretacin de la diferencia como un fenmeno natural cuyos significados son fijos
y estn basados en suposiciones biolgicas. Las desigualdades basadas en la diferencia
estn incrustadas en las relaciones de poder que involucran acceso diferenciado a los
recursos materiales y/o simblicos que generan procesos de exclusin/inclusin,
opresin/dominacin. Y por ende, la diferencia no es algo que tengamos que tolerar,
puesto que eso implicara la existencia de un grupo dominante mayoritario. Al igual
que cuando Simone de Beauvoir declar que una no nace mujer, sino que se hace, M.
Jacqui Alexander y Chandra Talpade Mohanty declararon que una no nace mujer de
color, sino que se hace en la metrpolis y as aprende la marca peculiar del racismo
estadounidense y sus fronteras raciales fabricadas (2001[1997]: 492).
Conclusin
Como hemos podido observar, no enseamos teora feminista per se. Ya deca la
influyente bell hooks que cada vez que se analiza el sexismo, se proponen estrategias
para desafiar el patriarcado y se crean nuevos modelos de interaccin social, se est
162
haciendo teora feminista. Segn la autora, todo lo que hacemos en la vida est
enraizado en la teora (19). Sin embargo, s que la plataforma virtual contiene una
carpeta con lecturas tericas y una amplia bibliografa para la parte H (how I can learn
more) de nuestra metodologa. Con estos ejercicios en el aula, esperamos lograr que la
diferencia no sea interpretada como una categora paralela ajena a nosotras,
simplificada en una descripcin de quien no soy yo, sino como una identidad
construida para establecer fronteras de pertenencia. De este modo, al desmantelar
binomios, las posiciones marginales desaparecen.
Mediante la identificacin de una prctica comn, que es la ideologa dominante
articulada en formas similares o diferentes, el alumnado es capaz de analizar los
acontecimientos sociales e histricos, ya que se ven a s mismos como parte de sus
objetos de estudio. Nuestro criterio de evaluacin incluye la observacin sobre cmo
el alumnado se ha empoderado, si es capaz de pensar crtica y responsablemente en la
comunidad creada en el aula tanto y si es capaz de aplicar el aprendizaje a la accin
social. Es nuestra responsabilidad devolverles hacia una introspeccin cada vez que
sentimos que se distancian de los textos y que reiteran las jerarquas existentes que
necesitan identificar. Resumiendo, en primer lugar existe una resistencia y
reproduccin de las fronteras entre nosotros (ciudadanos independientes civilizados)
y ellos (los sujetos subalternos sin poder) en el centro del anlisis de los textos. Es,
entonces, posible militar contra la exotizacin y el uso del Otro para la conciencia
occidental paternalista con la interaccin sostenida con el alumnado de diferentes
nacionalidades y realidades.
Referencias
Alexander, M. J. and Mohanty, C. T. 2001 [1997] Genealogies, Legacies, Movements, in K. Bhavnani

(ed) Feminism and Race, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
Belenky, M. F., Clinchy, B., Goldberger, N. y Tarule, J.M. 1997 Womens Ways of Knowing: The Development
of Self, Voice, and Mind. New York: Basic.
Butler, J. 2009. Frames of War: When is Life Grievable? London: Verso.
de Beauvoir, S. 2005. El segundo sexo. Madrid: Ctedra.
Ellsworth, E. 1989. Why Doesnt This Feel Empowering? Working Through the Repressive Myths of
Critical Pedagogy. Harvard Educational Review 59.3: 297-324.
Foucault, M. 1978. The History of Sexuality Volume I: An Introduction, London: Penguin.
Foucault, M 1979. Discipline and Punish: the Birth of the Prison, Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Foucault, M. 2001Madness and Civilization: a History of Insanity in the Age of Reason, London: Routledge.
Freire, Paulo. 1968. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Seabury Press.
Hariharan, G. 1993. The Art of Dying. New Delhi: Penguin.
hooks, b. 2000. Feminism is for Everybody: Passionate Politics. Cambridge, MA: South End Press.
hooks, b. 1994 Teaching to Transgress: Education as the Practice of Freedom, New York: Routledge.
Mernissi, F. El harn en occidente. Barcelona: Espasa, 2006.
Mohanty, C. T. 2006 Feminism without Borders: Decolonizing Theory, Practicing Solidarity. Durham y Londres:
Duke University Press.
Mohanty, C.T. 2003. Feminism without Borders: Decolonizing Theory, Practicing Solidarity. Durham and
London: Duke University Press.
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Mohanty, C. T. 1991 Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses, en C. T.
Mohanty, A. Russo and L. Torres (eds) Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism, Indiana:
Indiana Univ. Press.
Ong, A. 2001[1988] Colonialism and Modernity: Feminist Re-presentations of Women in non-Western
Societies, en K. Bhavnani (ed) Feminism and Race, Oxford and New York: Oxford University
Press.
Roy, A. 1997. The God of Small Things. New Dehli: IndiaInk.
Said, E. 2003[1978] Orientalism. London: Penguin.
Spivak, G. C. 1996 Can the Subaltern Speak?, in The Spivak Reader: Selected Works of Gayatri
Chakravorty Spivak, New York: Routledge.
Tharu, S. The Impossible Subject: Caste and the Gendered Body Economic and Political Weekly 31.22
(1996): 1311-1315.
Tharu, S. y K. Satyanarayana (eds.). 2013. Steel Nibs are Sprouting: New Dalit Writing in South India, Dossier
2: Kannada and Telugu. New Delhi: Penguin Books.
Taru, S. 2011. No Alphabet in Sight: New Dalit Writing in South India, Dossier 1: Tamil and Malayalam. New
Delhi: Penguin Books.
Trinh-T., M.H. 1989 Woman, Native, Other: Writing Postcoloniality and Feminism, Bloomington: Indiana
University Press.
Antonia Navarro Tejero es Profesora Titular de la Universidad de Crdoba y fundadora de la

Asociacin Espaola de Estudios Interdisciplinarios sobre India (www.aeeii.org). Pueden dirigirle
correspondencia relacionada con este artculo [email protected].
Esta investigacin ha sido financiada gracias al Ministerio de Economa y

Competitividad (Proyecto Cuerpos en Trnsito, Ref. FFI2013-47789-C2-1-P) y el
Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional.
164

Susana Gmez Martnez
University of Valladolid
Multicultural classrooms are a growing phenomenon, as migrant flows are increasing exponentially.
Schools and educators have a great challenge to integrate these students in the classrooms, preventing
prejudice and discrimination and at the same time opportunity to strengthen and increase cultural
consciousness and intercultural awareness. The Multicultural Schools project (www.multicultural-
schools.org) is an EU funded project which offers valuable support for teachers dealing with the urgent
need to foster integration among different cultures and languages within their classrooms. The goal of
this paper is to present the project with a special focus on its goals, working methodology, rationale,
outputs and materials.
Keywords: Lifelong learning, intercultural education, multilingualism,

multiculturalism, diversity in education, innovative project
Introduction
Immigration has dramatically increased in recent decades in the European
Union and is a trending topic nowadays. According to the UE Statistics Bureau
Eurostat, in January 2015, there were 34.3 million people living in an EU member
state who had been born outside the EU, and 18.5 million European people who had
been born in a different EU member state. In 2014, a total of 3.8 million people
immigrated to one of the EU-28 member states. From this group, approximately 1.6
million were citizens of non-member countries, 1.3 million were citizens of a different
EU member state from the one to which they immigrated, and around 870 thousand
migrated to an EU member state of which they had citizenship (i.e. returning nationals
or nationals born abroad) (please see http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat). These figures do
not include illegal immigrants nor the refugees migrating to Europe over the last
months, an issue considered one of the main conflicts in our society nowadays.
According to Eurostat, the percentage of foreign-born people and their children (both
Europeans and people from outside the EU) could increase from 10.4% of the total
EU population in 2011 to 26.5% in 2061. This number might grow as high as 34.6%.
This article will concentrate on the linguistic and cultural diversity immigrants
bring with them when they move from one country to another. I will also focus on
the need to preserve multiculturalism as a resource and treasure instead of a barrier to
integration for future generations. This is necessary from the very early stages of
education, as our children will have the power to build a better future and society.
However, children of such families often suffer problems and conflicts related
to their integration in schools, i.e. language troubles, cultural misunderstandings, or
165
xenophobia. This situation goes against the EU motto unity in diversity, i.e. diversity
of cultures, religions, custom, beliefs and languages. In fact, despite most countries
implementing legal measures to promote and encourage diversity and respect (Ferrer,
1992, p. 125), the results are far from satisfactory. A possible solution is to trust
schools, teachers and parents will work together to alleviate the situation.
However, schools seem to approach the issue of multiculturalism from a global
perspective that does not tackle diversity properly. In fact, many of them consider
themselves multicultural simply because they have an ethnically and racially diverse
student population. It is necessary to think beyond this and ask ourselves whether this
is what makes an organization really multicultural.
The issue has been contentious over the last 50 years. According to Rosado
(2006), in the 1960s and 70s, individuals were granted access to an educational system
based on the assimilation model, in which immigrant minorities were absorbed by the
culture of the host society. In the 1980s, while cultural plurality started to be
considered, a segregation model was supported, seeing cultures as separate and thus
avoiding contamination. During the 1990s, there was an increase in the push for
diversity, but challenges still remain as we move on to the 21st century, where the
focus should be placed on possible forms of integration making cultures valuable.
Working toward this goal, we should start talking about interculturality, a term
that should be differentiated from multiculturality (Akper 2006; Berri, 2011; Garca
1999; Muoz, 2000; Vil 2003; Williamson, 2011). Multiculturalism refers to two
cultures coexisting in the same space and at the same time, competing for their
respective values, belief systems, and ideologies; in other words, for what Balcomb
calls the high moral ground (2003, p. 15), and Hunter culture wars (1991). In
Balcombs words, this is a representation of different groups expressing different sets
of values that find their legitimating moral base in different meta-narratives (2003, p.
15). Within this context, racism and segregation can flourish as the minority culture is
undervalued and looked at with distrust (Tatum, 1999).
Interculturality, on the other hand, implies contact between cultures at a much
higher level of interaction, as there is communication, dialogue and an open attitude
to accept and listen to the other. Despite holding different values, there is no privileged
theology, no privilege set of values, and no race is considered better than another
(Jonker, 2000; Tracy 1987; West, 1992). Authors such as Henze (2002), Williams
(2003) or Muoz (2000), describe interculturality as a context which promotes the
construction of a society based on inclusion and where everyone can live together in
harmony; a society in which beliefs and behaviors are acknowledged, recognized,
respected, encouraged and empowered, thus promoting communication,
understanding, cooperation, broadmindedness, discovery, tolerance, respect, and
growth, rather than prejudices, stereotypes, division and exclusion. In so doing,
interculturality celebrates and maximizes everyones full potential, in a culturally
inclusive context where no one is left out. Needless to say, the 21st century demands
citizens who are culturally sensitive and internationally focused, thus making
166
interculturality the right approach for education. We then need to train children to be
world citizens and achieve what Troy Duster calls bicultural competence:
Competence in this context means being able to participate
effectively in a multicultural world. It means being bicultural and bilingual.
It means knowing how to operate as a competent actor in more than one
cultural world; knowing whats appropriate and whats not, whats
acceptable and unacceptable for cultures differing radically from our own.
Competence in a pluralist world means being able to function effectively
in contexts people had previously only read about, or seen on television.
It means knowing how to be different and feel comfortable about it; being
able, in short, to be the insider in one situation and the outsider in another
(Duster, cited in Bensimon & Soto, 1997, p. 44).
Are our teachers ready to face the challenge of making instruction culturally
responsive for all students while not favoring one specific group over another? Are
they ready to deal with the challenge of integrating these students? Are they ready to
prevent prejudice and discrimination? Are they ready to strengthen and increase their
students cultural consciousness and intercultural awareness?
A study carried out by the National Comprehensive Center for Teacher
Quality and Public Agenda (2008) found that 76% of new teachers said they were
trained to teach an ethnically diverse student class, but fewer than 4 in 10 said this
training helped them deal with the challenges they faced in their everyday teaching.
Banks (1986; 1989), on the other hand, suggests a holistic model in which not only
teachers, but the whole institution needs to consider the issue and participate actively.
Within this context, the EU project Multicultural Schools was born.
The Multicultural Schools Project

General information
The project Multicultural Schools-Enhancing Cultural and Linguistic
Treasure of Europe through Teachers (Ref. 2015-1-PL01-KA201-016963) is an
Erasmus+ KA2 EU funded project whose main objectives are to promote, preserve
and enhance the cultural richness of European society, to address teachers lack of
appropriate skills and competences when dealing with multicultural classes, and to
strengthen their profile by helping them address situations involving children from
different cultural backgrounds. The duration of the project is 30 months, starting in
September 2015 and ending in February 2018 (please visit: www.multicultural-
schools.eu)
The audience of the project covers a wide spectrum of individuals, namely
multicultural children, teachers and teachers associations, primary and secondary
school principals and directors, schools and universities, multicultural and multilingual
families, parents and parent associations, social, cultural, and national institutions and
associations focused on multilingual-multicultural education, and public authorities
and policy makers in the field of education, culture, immigration and minorities.
167
Partnerships and Working Methodology

Various European countries are involved in this partnership: Poland, Italy,
Belgium, Greece, and Spain. Three of them (Belgium, Italy, and Greece) house
relatively high numbers of citizens born outside the country. Experts in the field from
different sectors have merged their collective experience and specific skills in the field
of multicultural education and have produced several publications on the project
(Gamuzza, 2009a, 2009b; Gamuzza & Kaczynski, 2014; Gmez, 2015a, 2015b).
The partnership holds five meetings over the life of the project, where partners
from the five countries gather together. These meetings, normally lasting two days, are
an excellent opportunity to discuss project issues face-to-face. As they are
transnational meetings taking place in different countries, they constitute an excellent
opportunity to get to know other places, cultures and languages.
Work is also done online, thanks to the use of new technologies. Thus, there
are regular Skype meetings, frequent email exchanges, and GoogleDrive to keep in
touch and share documents.
Partners contribute to the project according to their expertise. A leader guides
the team for each program output, checking the work done by the partners in their
countries. Once the first version of the product is created, it is evaluated by the control
group, a quality manager and an external evaluator to guarantee quality before it is
launched.
The goals, timing and impact of the project were carefully described in the
application sent to the EACEA (Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive
Agency). Throughout the projects life, reports on its progress must be submitted to
the European Commission. A final report summarizes the project, placing special
emphasis on the audience reached, the dissemination done, and the sustainability of
the project once completed.
Intellectual Outputs
Intellectual outputs refer to the work or products created by the project
partners during the life of the project. All of them are closely related and organized in
a timely manner so that results, materials and findings from one output can be used
for the next one. This section describes the rationale of each output and the main
objectives and products of each of them.
Output 1. Report on the challenges faced by teachers in their educational work.

The main aim of this report is to analyze the challenges, problems and constraints
impacting teachers facing multiculturalism on a daily basis. This is done via an online
needs analysis survey on the following issues:
the kind of support teachers and schools need regarding knowledge about
religion, tradition, economy, society of origin, learning methodology or
learning tools and materials
168
the kind of support they need regarding skills and competences connected
with building trust, building relations, conflict management, influence on
pupils attitudes, involving family, or empowerment of pupils
their attitudes towards cultural diversity, their ability to understand
multicultural childrens needs, or their strength to deal with problems
between such children and other classmates
the kind of solutions (effective problem-solving skills) they use in everyday
situations which may be promoted as good practices
The results from this questionnaire can help partners concentrate on, and
develop materials for, the most problematic issues. So far it has already been filled out
by 395 teaches from the partners countries.
Output 2. Repository of Activities for Teachers

This output will provide teachers with ready to use active materials that can be
used in their teaching. These resources will have different formats (lesson plans,
activities, handcraft, games, quizzes, songs, videos, theatre, etc.) and a user-friendly
design to facilitate their implementation. They can also be handed to parents to use at
home with their children. While the materials will be created by the partners, teachers
can also share resources by uploading their ideas on the project website through the
application available at http://www.multicultural-schools.eu/form/
Output 3. Teachers Handbook on Culturally Inclusive Education

Topics covered in this handbook will be related to the results of the report in
Output 1. It will sport a Q&A model for teachers on how to deal with multiculturalism
and how to work with children and parents. Answers will consist of information about
the problem, possible solutions, guidance on where to find more information about
the issue and the external link to related activities on the repository of the project.
The handbook will be firstly produced in English and tested with a small pool
of teachers (100 teachers from 5 different countries) in order to receive feedback
which can help improve it. Comments and suggestions will be added, and the final
version of the handbook in English will also be translated into 24 EU languages.
Output 4. Good Practices of Cooperation among Schools and Parents

This document for teachers and parents includes inspirational examples from
real people mainly teachers and families- living in multicultural contexts. This output
will also be translated into 24 EU languages.
Output 5. Online Networking and Learning Platform

The project will develop a wide European network in which institutions,
teachers, parents and anyone interested in multicultural education, will share and
169
exchange tips and suggestion about teaching in multicultural classrooms. An open-

source platform in English and partners languages will be created for this purpose.
Project partners will prepare a schedule to maintain the platform live and
enhance group discussions by posting interesting themes and news. In addition,
partners will schedule regular weekly online mentoring for teachers asking for help
about problems/issues related to multicultural schools and partners.
Output 6. e-Course for Teachers

An online course will be designed, based on the handbook developed in
Output 4. To reach a wider audience, it will have a user friendly format and will be
accessed easily through an account or Facebook. It will be designed in English and
tested with the reference group and the external evaluator to get feedback before being
subtitled into the partners languages.
Multiplier Events
Several multiplier events during the life of the project are intended to publicize
it: roundtables, workshops and a final international conference. A big dissemination
campaign will also be organized which will include publications, presentation of the
project in international conferences, national and regional media, contacts with the
educational authorities, and meetings with teachers, to involve as many teachers as
possible into the project.
Roundtables in partners countries will seek interaction among participants.
Representatives of public administration departments dealing with education will be
invited to share their views on the topic. Attendees will receive information about the
project and will be asked to implement it in their schools.
Dissemination Workshops will be aimed at gathering teachers, school
principals, representatives of public administrations, and other educational/parent
organizations interested in the field of multiculturalism/multilingualism. The
workshop will be partially devoted to Laboratories-EXPO of Ideas, during which
teachers will present their own good practices and examples of activities with children.
Project partners will organize a conference in Brussels at the conclusion of the
project, in November 2017. The city is considered a key place for multiculturalism,
and the base for many cultural/foreign associations/communities. The scope of this
conference will be much wider than the previous events, as it will have an international
flair. Main key stakeholders from the area of multiculturalism or multilingualism,
together with representatives of EU parliament and agencies, will be invited.
Conclusion
The 21st century demands a citizenry that is culturally sensitive and
internationally focused. Understanding one another is a prerequisite for living together
harmoniously. In order to achieve the dream of a continent without dividing lines,
170
Europe needs citizens who can communicate in some of the many languages spoken
within its borders and understand a variety of cultures.
In this context, the Multicultural Schools project aims at the promotion of
linguistic and cultural diversity by creating more effective, responsive and diverse
education and societies. Thus, the project aims at making multilingualism and
multiculturalism more visible and acceptable in European societies, and especially in
educational contexts, en route to make multicultural education an added value to
enable the full integration of immigrants.
This article has tried to summarize the work planned during the life of the
project, making special emphasis on the reasons and rationale behind it.
Although the project timing is from November 2015 to February 2018, it does
not mean it will finish there. Quite the opposite: that will be the time when the
products will be ready to be used.
One of the most important goals of the project is to welcome everyone who
is interested in it. They can become involved by clicking on the following link:
https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1Y2LP4LdHgMHJ0DVhNeBIyilBkxsZCzlnWC
VADXOjGCk/edit#
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Susana Gmez es Profesora en la Universidad de Valladolid, campus de Soria. Pueden dirigirle

correspondencia relacionada con este artculo a [email protected].
The Multicultural Schools project has been funded with support from the European Commission. This
publication reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for
any use which may be made of the information contained therein.
172
Los Programas Europeos Erasmus Plus
Los Programas Europeos Erasmus Plus para la

Internacionalizacin del Profesorado y del Alumnado: Following
the Footprints of the Emperors , Un Proyecto en Marcha.
Altamira Alicia Lpez Gallego
Universidad de Burgos
Pablo Celada Perandones

Andrs Gonzlez Santa Olalla

Erasmus+ entr en vigor en enero de 2014 con el fin de incrementar las competencias y la
empleabilidad de profesores y alumnos europeos. Adems, este programa apoya los sistemas de
educacin, formacin, juventud y deporte. Dentro de Erasmus+ podemos encontrar todos los
anteriores programas de la Unin Europea referidos a dichas materias (Erasmus, Leonardo da
Vinci, Comenius) El objetivo de Erasmus+ es el apoyo a las polticas europeas y nacionales de
los estados miembros en todos los sectores de la educacin: Educacin Infantil, Primaria,
Secundaria, Bachiller, Ciclos Formativos, Educacin de Adultos, Deportes y Formacin de
Profesores. Following the Footprints of the Emperors, un proyecto de tipo KA2 (Key Action 2,
asociaciones entre centros escolares), fue aprobado en septiembre de 2015 y se desarrollar hasta
agosto de 2018. En l se relacionan nueve centros de otros tantos pases diferentes con una raz
comn, el Imperio Romano, tema central del proyecto, pero tambin se abordan otros aspectos claves
de la educacin actual, como la interculturalidad, el multilingismo o el aprendizaje inclusivo.
Palabras clave: Erasmus+, multilingismo, intercambio cultural, trabajo

colaborativo, aprendizaje inclusivo, huella romana.
Erasmus+, started in January 2014, aimed at improving the qualifications and workability of
European teachers and students. Besides, this programme supports the systems of education,
training, youth and sport. Within Erasmus+ we can find all the previous programmes of the
European Union related to those matters (Erasmus, Leonardo da Vinci, Comenious). The
objective of Erasmus+ is to support European and national policies of member states in every
education sector: Young Learners, Primary, Secondary, Bach, Professional Training, Adults
education, Sports and Teacher Training. Following the Footprints of the Emperors, a KA2
project (Key action 2, school partnerships), was approved in September 2015 and will be developed
until August, 2018. Nine centers from nine different countries will be connected through a common
root, the Roman Empire. While this is the central theme of the project, it also approaches other key
aspects of present education, such as interculturalism, multilingualism or inclusive learning.
173
Keywords: Erasmus+, multilingualism, cultural exchange, cooperative learning,

inclusive learning, Roman footsteps.
Introduccin
El programa Erasmus, del que se han beneficiado 3.500.000 de jvenes
europeos, naci en 1987 como una beca de movilidad para los estudiantes
universitarios, con el objetivo de que pudiesen hacer un ao de sus estudios en otro
pas. Esta apuesta para fomentar el intercambio y mejorar las aptitudes y cualificacin
de los alumnos comenz con 11 pases e involucr a 3.244 estudiantes, de los que
250 eran espaoles. El programa recibi el Premio Prncipe de Asturias de
Cooperacin Internacional en 2004 (Gmez, 2016).
Espaa es el Estado que ms Erasmus emite, seguido de Francia, Alemania e
Italia. En el curso 2013-14 envi 37.235 alumnos, lo que supone ms del doble del 5
pas que ms tiene, Reino Unido, con 15.600; tambin es el que ms recibe, 39.277,
seguido de Alemania con 31.000 y Francia 29.600 alumnos.
En 2014 se puso en marcha el plan Erasmus+, que cuenta con el 40 % ms
de recursos respecto al anterior, esto es, un presupuesto de 2.000 millones de euros y
movilizacin de 650.000 personas para estudiar, hacer prcticas o un voluntariado a
otro pas de la UE. Fueron 53.197 los espaoles que participaron; Espaa, en
concreto, recibi y envi alumnos principalmente de Italia, Alemania, Francia, Reino
Unido y Polonia. Entre las universidades receptoras destacan la de Granada,
Complutense de Madrid, UVEG y Politcnica de Valencia y la de Sevilla.
Recientemente, el 9 de mayo de 2016, el rey Felipe VI presidi en el
monasterio de Yuste la entrega del Premio Europeo Carlos V a Sofa Corradi, la
octogenaria profesora italiana conocida como Mamma Erasmus por su impulso a este
programa de intercambio entre universitarios de los pases de la UE. El Rey destac
que el proyecto fomenta no slo el aprendizaje y la comprensin de la cultura y las
costumbres del pas anfitrin, sino tambin el sentido de comunidad entre
estudiantes de diferentes naciones, que han tejido una red social y afectiva, de
hermanamiento, que construye Europa desde la base, desde sus ms genuinos
valores. Adems, seal que Erasmus es un programa exitoso, que contribuye a que
los jvenes estn mejor preparados y adaptados para afrontar el difcil entorno
econmico y laboral actual. Por otro lado, se refiri al hondo significado europeo
que tiene la ceremonia de entrega del Premio Carlos V, en la que Espaa quiere dar
la mayor visibilidad y solemnidad a su vocacin europesta y a su compromiso con la
Unin. Por su parte, la galardonada inst a Espaa a ayudar a extender el proyecto
acadmico a Latinoamrica (Agencias, 2016).
Cerramos estas lneas previas agradeciendo el permitrsenos participar de
nuevo en este evento, al tiempo que sirven para avanzar la estructura de nuestra
ponencia, que se inicia con una introduccin inquisitiva y expositiva del programa
Erasmus+ tratando de situar las acciones clave, contina con una somera descripcin
174
de los proyectos europeos, presentando los proyectos KA1 y KA2 con detalle,
recalando especialmente en el KA2 Following the Footprints of the Emperors, abordando
su configuracin, expectativas y desarrollo, antes de avanzar los resultados, con su
seguimiento y evaluacin, as como viendo tambin su difusin e impacto; algunas
referencias asientan e ilustran lo escrito.
Qu Es Erasmus +?
El programa Erasmus+ para el periodo 2014-2020 entr en vigor el 1 de
enero de 2014, como iniciativa del Parlamento Europeo a Travs del Servicio
Espaol Para la Internacionalizacin de la Educacin -SEPIE- (SEPIE, 2015b). El
nuevo programa Erasmus+ se dise dentro de distintos marcos polticos y
estrategias de la Comisin Europea, como son la Estrategia Europa 2020, Educacin
y Formacin 2020 o Rethinking Education, y engloba todas las iniciativas de
educacin, formacin, juventud y deporte, antes dispersas en diferentes programas
europeos como Comenius, Leonardo da Vinci o Grundtvig (Zrraga, 2014).
Esta propuesta abarca todos niveles educativos, tanto de educacin escolar,
como formacin profesional, enseanza superior y la formacin de personas adultas
(Valle y Garrido, 2014). Erasmus+ est constituido por los proyectos del Programa
de Aprendizaje Permanente, as como los de educacin superior internacional:
Mundus, Tempus, ALFA, Edulink y programas bilaterales, adems del Programa
Juventud en Accin.
El programa est enfocado hacia el aprendizaje formal e informal dentro y
fuera del contexto de la UE (SEPIE, 2015b), teniendo como primordial objetivo la
internacionalizacin de la educacin, desplazando los lmites de unos pases hacia
otros donde las personas puedan mejorar sus capacidades educativas y su formacin
general y al tiempo favorecer sus posibilidades de empleabilidad. Los pases que
pueden solicitar estos programas son los 28 Estados miembros de la UE, la antigua
Repblica Yugoslava de Macedonia, Islandia, Liechtenstein, Noruega, Suiza y
Turqua. Los pases socios pueden ser, dependiendo del programa solicitado, de
cualquier parte del mundo.
En cuanto a la Educacin Escolar, Erasmus+ quiere mejorar la calidad de la
enseanza Preescolar, Primaria y Secundaria en los centros de toda Europa (SEPIE,
2015a). A travs de los distintos programas, el personal docente y no docente accede
a oportunidades de Movilidad para el Aprendizaje, para ampliar y mejorar su
desarrollo profesional, y tambin para entrar en contacto con profesores de otros
pases europeos con los que pueden entablar actividades de colaboracin o crear
asociaciones estratgicas. Gracias a estas, se fomenta el intercambio de buenas
prcticas y se comparten criterios de innovacin para luchar contra problemas
comunes, tales como el abandono escolar temprano o el nivel bajo de conocimientos
bsicos (Zrraga, 2014). Las actividades que se pueden realizar dentro de estos
programas incluyen cursos o actividades de formacin estructurada en el extranjero,
175
periodos de docencia en los centros asociados, periodos de observacin

(jobshadowing),
Los programas Erasmus+ de Formacin Profesional pretenden mejorar la
calidad de dicho mbito educativo en Europa a travs de movilidades para el
aprendizaje y asociaciones estratgicas con organizaciones y empresas, de forma que
puedan establecer relaciones con el mundo laboral (SEPIE, 2015a). Los alumnos de
Formacin Profesional, los estudiantes en prcticas y los aprendices acceden a
oportunidades de realizar prcticas en el extranjero y as mejorar sus opciones de
empleabilidad, construyendo puentes entre el mundo acadmico y el mercado
laboral. De esta forma resultan beneficiadas la formacin y la empleabilidad.
Al igual que en el resto de programas, en Educacin Superior el objetivo
fundamental de Erasmus+ es su modernizacin y mejora, tanto en Europa como en
el resto del mundo, pudiendo acceder a estas oportunidades los estudiantes de Ciclos
Formativos de Grado Superior, universitarios, doctorandos e instituciones del
mundo entero, las cuales incrementaran su formacin y la empleabilidad de
estudiantes y personal de las instituciones educativas. Se establecen Alianzas para el
Conocimiento, favoreciendo el intercambio de buenas prcticas entre universidades y
empresas. Las instituciones de Educacin Superior de los pases dentro del programa
pueden crear proyectos y colaborar con las de los pases vecinos, pases balcnicos
fuera de la UE, Amrica Latina, Asia y frica.
Las oportunidades dentro de la Educacin Superior, abarcan oportunidades
de movilidad para el aprendizaje en el extranjero para estudiantes, oportunidades
para los profesores y el personal no docente de realizar actividades de desarrollo
profesional, cooperacin entre instituciones, cooperacin con empresas y
cooperacin fuera de la UE.
Por ltimo, Erasmus+ se dedica tambin a potenciar y mejorar la educacin
de personas adultas en toda Europa. A los docentes de personas adultas les ofrece la
oportunidad de realizar movilidades con el objetivo de ampliar y mejorar su labor
educativa. Estas experiencias de formacin posibilitan la colaboracin con otros
profesionales, promoviendo el intercambio de buenas prcticas y procesos de
innovacin. Se quiere llegar a que la educacin sea ms accesible a los adultos y a
enriquecer la capacitacin de los europeos (SEPIE, 2015b).
Estratgicamente, el programa Erasmus+ desarrolla las siguientes acciones clave
(Key Actions):
Movilidad de las personas por motivos de aprendizaje (KA1)
Cooperacin para la innovacin y el intercambio de buenas prcticas
(KA2)
Apoyo a la reforma de las polticas (KA3):
Descripcin de los Proyectos Europeos

El Centro de Enseanza Secundaria en el que ejercemos como profesores se
encuentra implicado en varios programas Erasmus+ en estos momentos. Desde hace
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varios aos, alumnos de Primaria y Secundaria han realizado proyectos y actividades

en la plataforma eTwinning, relacionndose con jvenes de centros escolares de toda
Europa. Uno de ellos lo presentamos el ao pasado en este mismo encuentro.
Proyecto KA1: En Europa y en el Aula: Todos diferentes, todos necesarios .

Dentro de las lneas de accin KA1, de formacin de profesorado, el Centro ha
conseguido este ao la aprobacin de su proyecto En Europa y en el Aula: Todos
diferentes, todos necesarios, con una financiacin de 17.826 para la realizacin de seis
movilidades. Los profesores estn realizando cursos para mejorar sus habilidades
metodolgicas y aprender nuevas estrategias y tendencias didcticas (Manso y Valle,
2013). Enseanza a travs de inteligencias mltiples, aprender a pensar mediante
imgenes y textos, aplicaciones para dispositivos mviles, tratar con alumnos
difciles, recursos para enseanza bilinge son algunos de los puntos que se tratan
en estas actividades de formacin y que son posteriormente compartidas con el resto
del profesorado y puestos en prctica en las aulas, buscando siempre llegar a los
alumnos en la mejor forma que ellos puedan aprender.
Los profesores que asisten a los cursos de CLIL (Content and Language
Integrated Learning) son tanto de Ciencias Sociales como de Naturales, de Msica,
Plstica y Educacin Fsica, que son las asignaturas que se imparten en ingls en
nuestro centro. Adems, consideramos que, gracias a la convivencia de nuestros
profesores con otros profesores extranjeros, se podrn crear lazos que luego se
traducirn en proyectos europeos conjuntos con otros centros fuera de Espaa.
Las actividades que se realizan al abrigo de este proyecto son las siguientes:
Teaching Through Multiple Intelligences. Los participantes en este curso
aprenden aplicaciones prcticas para el aula teniendo en cuenta las
Inteligencias Mltiples de sus alumnos (Del Pino y Palau, 2015).
Teaching Languages Using Technologies. Los profesores adquieren confianza
en sus propias habilidades para el uso de la tecnologa con fines
educativos, mejorando sensiblemente su competencia digital.
CLIL for Primary Teachers y CLIL for Secondary Teachers. Los participantes
adquieren mayor confianza al enfrentarse a los retos que supone la
enseanza de una asignatura en ingls en Primaria o Secundaria.
Dealing with Difficult Learners. Este curso est relacionado con disciplinas
como la Terapia Educativa y Programas Neuro-Lingsticos, y tiene
como objetivo que los participantes desarrollen estrategias para tratar con
alumnos difciles en el aula (Bender y Dittimar, 2006)
Practical Uses for Mobile Technology in the Classroom. Esta actividad ensea a
los profesores cmo pueden usar sus aparatos mviles para la enseanza-
aprendizaje. Les aporta destrezas prcticas en la bsqueda y la integracin
de aplicaciones educativas en el contexto del aula.
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Making Thinking Visible. En sociedades como la nuestra, en la que los

nios estn rodeados de seales audiovisuales, necesitamos volver a
practicar cmo pensar (Collins, Brown y Holum, 1991).
Proyecto KA2: Following the Footprints of the Emperors . Nuestro segundo

proyecto es del tipo KA2, de movilidad con alumnos: Following the Footprints of the
Emperors. Es un proyecto que relaciona nueve pases europeos con su pasado comn
dentro del Imperio Romano: Portugal, Italia, Alemania, Croacia, Macedonia,
Rumana, Bulgaria, Turqua y Espaa. El proyecto surgi a partir de la comunicacin
entre los profesores-coordinadores en la plataforma eTwinning. Dura 36 meses, con
un presupuesto total de 360.000 . Se present para su aprobacin por parte de la
Comisin Europea en Turqua, donde fue seleccionado en septiembre de 2015 entre
cientos de proyectos, quedando en cuarto lugar de los tan solo 31 aprobados. Para
conseguir esta aprobacin, se present el formulario de solicitud en marzo de 2015.
Following the Footprints of the Emperors : Un Proyecto en Marcha

Configuracin.
Hemos pretendido crear un entorno en el que tratar sobre cmo mejorar
aspectos educativos dentro de la Unin Europea. Queremos subrayar que cada pas
tiene una belleza e importancia nicas, pero que estas se potencian y se vuelven ms
significativas cuando se revelan las conexiones y relaciones existentes entre todos los
pases. Para conseguir este objetivo, vamos a estudiar un poder que uni a nuestros
pases actuales bajo una misma bandera en el pasado: el Imperio Romano (Veyne,
2003). Los emperadores romanos dejaron unas huellas vestigium- que son los signos
de la cultura, literatura, vida social, deportes, arte, religin, lenguas, derecho y
relaciones internacionales de los pases socios. Perseguimos estas huellas para
desenterrar ese pasado compartido.
Esperamos que las acciones previstas ayuden a nuestros alumnos a valorar la
importancia de su propia cultura primero y aprender despus la de otros pases, y a
descubrir la relacin entre todas ellas, para comprobar que tienen un pasado que les
ha unido a pesar de las diferencias, aunque la tecnologa y la globalizacin han creado
un mundo en el que la singularidad de cada cultura se est reduciendo y las culturas
se estn volviendo ms similares unas a otras. Vamos a utilizar la lengua inglesa
como lengua vehicular para que, de forma implcita, alumnos y profesores practiquen
el idioma en situaciones reales (Bernal, 2015).
Desafortunadamente, ese espacio en el que los emperadores reinaron in illo
tempore est pasando por un periodo de transformacin tras el comienzo de la crisis
que ha terminado con el progreso econmico y social en nuestro entorno. Para
invertir esta tendencia, debemos promover la innovacin y actuar juntos en la forma
que indica Europa 2020 (UE, 2010), porque nuestras economas estn
interrelacionadas y sus problemas individuales afectan a todas las dems. Entre estos
problemas contra los que debemos luchar se encuentran un nivel bajo de
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cualificacin de los jvenes, desempleo juvenil, fracaso escolar o falta de preparacin

para la competitividad a la hora de buscar trabajo.
En el proyecto se van a llevar a cabo talleres fuera de las aulas enfocados a
promover aspectos que ayuden a mejorar deficiencias de la educacin actual, al igual
que actividades TIC como la creacin de una Ciudad Romana en 3D en Lisboa, o el
diseo y desarrollo de una aplicacin para mviles previsto para su realizacin en
Alemania en mayo de 2017. Tambin se van a desarrollar las habilidades creativas y
artsticas de los participantes, con actividades como la participacin en unas
excavaciones arqueolgicas (Bulgaria, junio 2016), la representacin escnica de una
obra clsica en el teatro de la ciudad romana de Clunia, en Burgos (Espaa,
septiembre 2016), la confeccin de trajes de la poca romana (Macedonia, octubre
2017), o la construccin de mosaicos (Croacia, febrero 2018). Adems, y dado que
algunos de los centros implicados se encuentran en zonas desfavorecidas, el proyecto
ofrecer la posibilidad de viajar, conocer otras culturas y participar en estas
actividades a estudiantes que de otra forma no podran tener acceso a ellas.
Expectativas.
Durante el proyecto, entre 150 y 200 alumnos van a tener la oportunidad de
conocer a otros jvenes del resto de pases, aprender estilos de vida, culturas y
valores diferentes, lo que les conducir a comprenderlos y respetarlos. Con las
actividades programadas, tambin van a desarrollar sus competencias de trabajo en
equipo. Los equipos de trabajo estn formados por estudiantes de distintas
nacionalidades que se enfrentarn a retos reales para el desarrollo de sus destrezas.
Entre otros objetivos, se espera que los alumnos mejoren su autoestima y la
competencia comunicativa en ingls, desarrollen destrezas TIC, mejoren los
conocimientos de los distintos pases y sus culturas, desarrollen destrezas de trabajo
en equipo, colaboracin, resolucin de problemas, asuncin de riesgos y
responsabilidad, mejoren la comprensin del concepto que el aprendizaje es un
compromiso de por vida, desarrollen la comprensin de conceptos de transparencia
y ciudadana europeos y sentimiento de pertenencia y de comportamientos de
proteccin hacia su herencia cultural, tengan una actitud positiva hacia la historia y la
literatura, eliminen prejuicios, desarrollen cualificaciones para empleabilidad y
mejoren sus niveles educativos para responder a las necesidades actuales y futuras.
Desarrollo.
Como preparativos iniciales, cada socio ha preparado una esquina del
proyecto en su Centro, en las que se han desplegado los logos del proyecto, las
banderas de los socios, objetivos e informacin sobre el siguiente pas anfitrin.
Adems, se han hecho bsquedas de informacin sobre el resto de los pases y
coreografiado murales informativos con exposicin de objetos de dichos pases.
Durante el primer trimestre del proyecto se llev a cabo un concurso en cada
Centro para la eleccin de la mascota. En la primera reunin transnacional, los
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coordinadores votaron entre todas las ganadoras para escoger una, que nos
acompaar a lo largo de los tres aos. La mascota escogida fue la espaola.
La comunicacin entre socios se realiza a travs de la pgina del proyecto en
eTwinning, Facebook, y una pgina web que est siendo construida y se present en
la reunin de Bulgaria. En lo referente a la logstica, los pases anfitriones se ocupan
de buscar el alojamiento para profesores y alumnos visitantes, planificar el transporte,
preparar un plan de visitas y las actividades. Antes de la visita, se enva una invitacin
personalizada al resto de los socios, y al final de la misma cada quien reciben
acreditacin de asistencia. Para evitar riesgos, antes de cada salida, el equipo espaol
inscribe a las personas que vayan a viajar en el registro de viajeros del Ministerio de
Exteriores. Adems, los viajeros cuentan con un seguro de viaje abonado con los
fondos del proyecto. Los coordinadores de cada pas son los responsables de
organizar los viajes, comprar los vuelos y guardar copias de tarjetas de embarque,
facturas, correos electrnicos y comunicaciones con el resto de los socios.
Conclusiones y Previsin de Resultados

Seguimiento y evaluacin.
Las agencias nacionales, el SEPIE, en nuestro caso, se encargan de
proporcionar formacin inicial a los coordinadores de los centros beneficiarios. Se
convocan jornadas en las que se explica cmo se debe gestionar el proyecto en todos
los aspectos: documentales, econmicos, de difusin e impacto, y se proporcionan
las herramientas necesarias para llevar a cabo dicha gestin. La asistencia a estas
jornadas es importante, dado que el proyecto ser revisado y deber cumplir con los
objetivos y la ejecucin de las actividades programadas, recibiendo una puntuacin
final que debe alcanzar un mnimo para percibir la subvencin completa. Una
puntuacin insuficiente podra suponer la devolucin de fondos, por diversas causas.
Para la gestin informatizada, cada Centro tiene a su disposicin una
herramienta de movilidad, en la que se van grabando los detalles de cada viaje. Se
entregan informes al finalizar el proyecto. Adems de la evaluacin oficial por parte
de las agencias nacionales, nuestro proyecto cuenta con instrumentos de evaluacin
propios, en forma de encuestas. Al principio del proyecto se realizaron encuestas
sobre los conocimientos sobre el Imperio Romano por parte de alumnos y
profesores, los prejuicios y actitudes hacia el resto de los socios, el nivel de ingls y el
uso de las TIC en clase e individualmente. Las encuestas fueron diseadas por el pas
coordinador y aplicadas a travs de Google Forms. Los socios analizaron los
resultados y los presentaron en la reunin que tuvo lugar en Tarso, Turqua, en enero
de 2016. Al final del proyecto se repetirn las encuestas y se compararn resultados.
Las encuestas revelan que el 80% de los participantes tienen nivel suficiente para
comunicarse con sus compaeros de proyecto y que los participantes manifiestan la
intencin de mejorar en el aprendizaje de la lengua vehicular del proyecto. Por otro
lado, no se detectan prejuicios contra culturas diferentes. El conocimiento del
Imperio Romano no es mucho mayor que lo exigido en los distintos currculos
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educativos de los pases socios. Se hace hincapi en la necesidad de desarrollar el

programa, usando siempre que se pueda las tecnologas de la informacin.
Esperamos que cuando hayamos terminado de realizar las actividades de
estos proyectos, sus beneficios hayan llegado al nmero mximo de personas posible,
no slo dentro de nuestro Centro y su comunidad educativa, sino que tambin se
hayan hecho extensivos hacia nuestro entorno y ciudad. Para ello, adems de la
difusin interna en cada Centro, se publican artculos en la prensa local, se han
creado cuentas de Twitter, pgina de Facebook, pgina web y la plataforma VALOR
de difusin de resultados de los proyectos Erasmus + (SEPIE, 2016).
Referencias
Agencias (2016). El Rey elogia el programa Erasmus por ayudar a la construccin de Europa. Diario de
Burgos, (40008), p.41.
Bender, S., y Dittmar, E. (2006). Dealing with difficult learners: Two perspectives, five best practices,
and ten difficult learner types. International Journal of Instructional Technology y Distance Learning, 3(7),
55-59.
Bernal, J. M. F. (2015). Proyectos Europeos KA2 Erasmus+: una oportunidad para practicar idiomas
en situaciones de comunicacin reales. Aula de Secundaria, 2, 1519.
Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Holum, A. (1991). Cognitive apprenticeship: Making thinking visible.
American Educator, 15(3), 6-11.
Del Pino, C., y Palau, R. (2015). Las flipped classrooms y la teora de las inteligencias mltiples de
Gardner. Comunicacin y pedagoga: Nuevas tecnologas y recursos didcticos, 285, 19-23.
Gmez, J. F. C. (2016). Qu es el programa Erasmus? Movilidad internacional de estudiante y
docentes. 25 aos de xito. Journal of Supranational Policies of Education (JoSPoE), 2, 160-162.
Manso, J., y Valle, J. M. (2013). La formacin inicial del profesorado de secundaria en la Unin
Europea. Revista Espaola de Educacin Comparada, 22, 165184.
Premio Carlos V a Sofia Corradi. El impacto del programa Erasmus. (9 de mayo de 2016). Parlamento
Europeo. Oficina de informacin en Espaa. Recuperado de http://www.europarl.es/
SEPIE. (2015a). Educacin Escolar. Recuperado de http://www.sepie.es/educacion-
escolar/index.html
SEPIE. (2015b). Erasmus+. Recuperado de http://www.oapee.es/oapee/inicio/ErasmusPlus.html
SEPIE. (2016). Plataforma de Resultados de Proyectos Erasmus+ (VALOR). Recuperado de
http://www.sepie.es/comunicacion/resultados.html
UE. (2010). EUROPA 2020. Una Estrategia para un crecimiento inteligente, sostenible e integrador.
UE-DG. COM.
Valle, J., y Garrido, R. (2014). Los flujos de movilidad ERASMUS al trmino del programa Lifelong
Learning y comienzo del Erasmus+ RIESED. Revista Internacional de Estudios Sobre Sistemas
Educativos, 2 (3), 3757.
Veyne, P. (2003). El Imperio Romano. En Historia de la vida privada. 1 (pp. 19228). Madrid: Taurus
Ediciones.
Zrraga, E. C. (2014). Erasmus+: el nuevo programa europeo de educacin, formacin y juventud y
deporte para 2014-2020. Unin Europea Aranzadi, 2, 5558.
Altamira Alicia Lpez Gallego, Pablo Celada Perandones and Andrs Gonzlez SantaOlalla
teach at the Universidad de Burgos. Correspondence regarding this article can be addressed to the
first author at [email protected].
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Global Classrooms Project
Global Classrooms Project: El Modelo de las Naciones Unidas en

el Aula
Elena del Pozo

Consejera de Educacin, Madrid
The Global Classrooms Model UN is a collaborative effort of the Embassy of the United States,
the Fulbright Commission, and Spanish boards of education. It is aimed at promoting high school
students linguistic skills as they search for relevant information, discuss and negotiate, and write
reports, position papers and resolutions. The work is done in English as the target language. The
project is carried out in bilingual high schools in Madrid. During the working sessions teachers are
helped by a language assistant, usually a Fulbright grantee. Students are assigned a country and do
research about geographical, economic, social and political aspects. They study a topic (usually one of
the UN Sustainable Development Goals) and learn the protocol of the UN committees. Students
debate the issue with the help of the teachers and the language assistant, and prepare a report from
the point of view of their country. The final goal is to issue a resolution with possible solutions to
problems concerning the international community. The project contributes to enhancing students
attitude towards issues affecting especially third world countries. This paper describes the tools that
can be used in schools to run the project from an interactive point of view.
Keywords: Curriculum, bilingual, cooperation, skills, education, United Nations
Global Classrooms Model UN es un proyecto educativo en colaboracin con la Embajada de los

Estados Unidos, la Comisin Fulbright y administraciones educativas espaolas. Est dirigido a
promover, a travs de la competencia lingstica, la capacidad investigadora y participativa del
alumno de secundaria en la escritura de informes y resoluciones, el trabajo de extraccin de
informacin de distintas fuentes y la participacin en debates y negociaciones. Todo el trabajo se
realiza utilizando el ingls como lengua vehicular. El proyecto se lleva a cabo en los institutos de
secundaria bilinges en Madrid. Durante las sesiones de trabajo, los profesores cuentan con la ayuda
del auxiliar de conversacin, por lo general un becario Fulbright. Los alumnos investigan sobre los
pases que les son asignados los aspectos geogrficos, econmicos, sociales y polticos. Trabajan un
tema (por lo general uno de los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible de las Naciones Unidas) y
aprenden el protocolo de los comits de la ONU. Los estudiantes debaten sobre el tema con la ayuda
de sus profesores y el auxiliar de conversacin, y preparan un informe con la posicin de su pas. El
objetivo es alcanzar acuerdos sobre la base de la cooperacin. El proyecto contribuye a hacer de los
alumnos ciudadanos comprometidos con los problemas que afectan especialmente a los pases del
tercer mundo. En este artculo se describen las herramientas que se pueden utilizar en las escuelas
para llevar a cabo el proyecto desde un punto de vista interactivo.
Palabras clave: Currculo, bilinge, cooperacin, competencias, educacin,

Naciones Unidas
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Orgen del Proyecto Global Classrooms

El proyecto fue creado en 1999 por la organizacin educativa sin nimo de
lucro UNA-USA (UNA-USA, 2016) con el objetivo de implementar el modelo de las
Naciones Unidas en las aulas i. Desde entonces, en torno a veinticinco pases de todo
el mundo han adoptado el proyecto y lo han introducido en centros educativos tanto
de secundaria como de universidad. UNA-USA coordina el trabajo de estos centros
con el objetivo de acercar el protocolo de la ONU y la preocupacin por los
problemas globales a alumnos de todo el mundo. Se trata de la simulacin de los
rganos, comits y delegaciones de la ONU. Es una actividad centrada en los
alumnos, ya que ellos ejercen el papel de embajadores de los distintos pases
miembros. Para el profesorado, el proyecto es una herramienta esencial de enseanza
de la geografa e historia de esos pases y la investigacin sobre asuntos
internacionales y de inters global, todo ello utilizando el ingls como herramienta
vehicular y todas las destrezas de la competencia lingstica (Dalton-Puffer, 2013).
Entre las personas clebres que participaron en el proyecto en su etapa de
estudiantes encontramos a estudiosos de las relaciones internacionales como Al Gore
y Chelsea Clinton o actores como Samuel L. Jackson.
Si bien el proyecto se desarrolla desde el ao 2006 en centros de secundaria y
universidad de Madrid y Santander, en el presente estudio vamos a centrarnos
particularmente en cmo se trabaja en los institutos pblicos bilinges dependientes
de la Consejera de Educacin de la CAM (Consejo Escolar, 2010). Esta institucin
educativa colabora con la embajada de los Estados Unidos en Madrid y la Comisin
Fulbright para la celebracin anual de dos conferencias del Modelo de Naciones
Unidas; una regional en Madrid entre los meses de febrero y marzo, y una
internacional en Nueva York en el mes de mayo. Los participantes en las
conferencias son diez alumnos pertenecientes a cada uno de los institutos bilinges
de la CAM que solicitan participar en el proyecto.
La Consejera de Educacin contrata auxiliares de conversacin
(ocasionalmente becarios Fulbright) que sern los encargados de trabajar en el
instituto durante el curso escolar junto al coordinador y el profesorado en la
preparacin de los alumnos (Scrivener, 2005).
Global Classrooms en el Currculo de Secundaria

El trabajo ms complejo se lleva a cabo entre los meses de septiembre a
febrero, desde la presentacin del mtodo de trabajo a los alumnos hasta la
celebracin de la conferencia regional. Generalmente, el coordinador pertenece al
departamento de Ingls (por el papel que juega la lengua vehicular) o al de Ciencias
Sociales (por los temas que se van a trabajar).
El proyecto Global Classrooms supone la oportunidad para el profesorado
de Ingls de desarrollar todas las destrezas comunicativas. El departamento de
Ciencias Sociales se ocupa de trabajar a fondo la geografa, historia, poltica,
economa, diversidad cultural, relaciones internacionales, derechos humanos,
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desarrollo sostenible y sistemas de obtencin de informacin. Adems, Global

Classrooms contribuye a desarrollar contenidos transversales a ambas reas, como las
tcnicas de debate, la tolerancia hacia las opiniones diferentes, la capacidad de
negociar y adquirir compromisos y enfrentarse a un pblico real para defender una
postura determinada ante problemas globales.
Los auxiliares que ayudan al profesorado de secundaria en la preparacin de
los alumnos para las conferencias suelen pertenecer al programa de becas Fulbright,
que consiste en la estancia durante un curso acadmico (prorrogable a dos) en uno de
los institutos bilinges de la CAM, trabajando durante dieciocho sesiones lectivas a la
semana directamente con alumnos. Se trata de universitarios recin licenciados
procedentes de distintos estudios, no necesariamente vinculados a las ciencias
sociales. Muchos de los auxiliares toman contacto con el proyecto Global
Classrooms por primera vez, aunque hay algunos que participaron como delegados
en su etapa de estudiantes en la universidad. Durante la celebracin de la conferencia,
los auxiliares no pueden ayudar a los alumnos, a quienes han preparado, ya que
forman parte de las mesas presidenciales en los distintos comits ejerciendo las
funciones de presidente, director, secretario y personal de apoyo. Su funcin es
fundamental en el xito del proyecto, ya que durante el curso prestan a los alumnos
su ayuda en la bsqueda y seleccin de informacin, supervisan y corrigen los
informes que van escribiendo, moderan los debates en el aula y les dan apoyo en
cuanto al correcto uso de la lengua inglesa y el protocolo de la ONU.
El Modelo de las Naciones Unidas: Preparacin para la Conferencia Global

Classrooms
rganos y protocolo de las Naciones Unidas
Simultneamente a la preparacin de los temas para las conferencias, los
alumnos aprenden la estructura organizativa de la ONU: la Secretara General, la
Asamblea General, el Consejo de Seguridad, la Corte Internacional de Justicia, el
Consejo Econmico y Social y los Consejos Regionales. Los alumnos acuden a las
conferencias identificados con una etiqueta en la solapa con el nombre del pas al que
representan y piden la palabra o votan utilizando una pequea pancarta en la que
tambin figura el nombre de su pas. La utilizacin de estos elementos tambin se
practica en las clases con los auxiliares de conversacin junto a las frmulas que
componen el protocolo de la conferencia. Las que se suelen utilizar en Global
Classrooms son:
Setting the agenda: el comit determina el tema sobre el que van a versar los
debates durante la conferencia.
Speakers List: una vez el presidente del comit abre la sesin, los alumnos
delegados utilizan sus placards para solicitar su turno de palabra.
Opening Speeches: cuando disponen del turno de palabra, los delegados
exponen la postura del pas al que representan sobre el tema a debate
durante un tiempo limitado entre un minuto y minuto y medio. Si no
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consumen ese tiempo, el presidente les da la posibilidad de ceder su

tiempo a otro delegado, a preguntas aclaratorias de otros delegados o
bien a la presidencia.
Point of Information: un delegado pide a otro que aclare su postura en caso
de duda.
Point of Inquiry: un delegado pide al presidente alguna aclaracin sobre
procedimientos en el comit.
Point of Personal Privilege: el delegado hace una peticin al presidente
relativa a una situacin incmoda que se puede producir durante el
desarrollo de los debates (no escuchar con claridad al delegado que tiene
la palabra, pedir abrir una ventana porque hace calor,)
Motion for a Moderated caucus: forma de debate formal en el que el delegado
que lo solicita puede pedir el turno de palabra. Suele tener un tiempo
limitado de duracin variable (entre 15 y 30 minutos) y de uso de la
palabra de cada delegado (entre 30 y 45 segundos)
Motion for an Unmoderated caucus: forma de debate informal en el que los
delegados del comit dejan sus asientos e inician negociaciones en parejas
o pequeos grupos con el fin de llegar a acuerdos dirigidos a la redaccin
de una resolucin conjunta. Tiene una duracin limitada variable entre 15
y 30 minutos.
Voting procedure: sistema de votacin sobre acuerdos y resoluciones. Los
delegados utilizan sus placards para votar.
Para iniciar a los alumnos en el protocolo propio de la ONU, es conveniente
utilizar ejemplos de clase. Pueden utilizar los points and motions para votar si el examen
se realizar un da u otro, para debatir asuntos como el cambio de horario en el
instituto, la utilizacin o no de dispositivos electrnicos en clase, la celebracin de un
evento, etc.
Sesiones de trabajo en el aula

Los temas que se tratan en las conferencias estn relacionados directa o
indirectamente con los Objetivos de Desarrollo determinados por la ONU en
septiembre de 2000 y extendidos en 2015: erradicar el hambre y la pobreza, extender
la educacin primaria universal, promover la igualdad de gnero, etc. A lo largo del
primer trimestre del curso, la Consejera de Educacin, en contacto con la
organizacin UNA-USA, hace llegar a los institutos el tema y sus orientaciones
pedaggicas, as como los pases que cada instituto representar en la conferencia. El
contenido de las Background Guides comprende:
Descripcin del comit de la ONU en el que se debatir el tema.
Introduccin al tema de la conferencia.
Acciones internacionales: acuerdos y tratados firmados por distintos
pases en el mbito de la ONU o en cualquier contexto regional.
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Recomendaciones para la redaccin de la Resolucin.

Fuentes de investigacin tiles (websites)
Algunas cuestiones clave que los alumnos deben considerar en su
proyecto.
En el tiempo que sigue hasta la celebracin de la conferencia regional, los
alumnos recopilan datos geopolticos, sociales y culturales ii de los pases a los que
representan. Con el apoyo de los auxiliares comienzan a leer artculos seleccionados
de Internet relativos al tema de la conferencia iii. Es aconsejable que los auxiliares
creen blogs, wikis, Google sites, weebly o cualquier plataforma de comunicacin
inmediata con alumnos y profesores iv, ya que los alumnos harn gran parte del
trabajo en casa y necesitan ser monitorizados durante la evolucin del proyecto. A
partir de aqu, aprendern a poner en comn la informacin que hayan encontrado y
manifestarn sus opiniones durante las sesiones de clase. El objetivo es que los
alumnos aprendan a manejar el vocabulario especfico y se desenvuelvan en la lectura
e interpretacin de las Background Guides y datos estadsticos sobre los pases elegidos.
Las fases de preparacin consistirn en la Recopilacin de informacin sobre
los pases, Preparacin de discursos en los que los alumnos muestran sus
conclusiones y participan activamente en debates, Investigacin permanente con
lectura de artculos y datos sobre el pas y el tema v, Redaccin del informe de
posicin del pas, Preparacin del discurso de apertura, Preparacin de las
intervenciones en los debates y Redaccin de resoluciones.
La postura del pas (Position Paper) es el documento base del proyecto y, en
opinin de profesores, auxiliares y alumnos, la tarea ms ardua. Los alumnos deben
redactar un informe (Cummins, 1984) lo ms completo posible acerca de la postura
del pas que representan ante el tema discutido en la conferencia. El primer obstculo
es la dificultad que tienen los alumnos para investigar, leer y comenzar a escribir sin
plagiar (Coffin, 2006). Los auxiliares dedican una sesin de trabajo a concienciar a los
alumnos del peligro que esto supone para su desarrollo acadmico y les ensean
cmo evitarlo (Cooper & Chapman, 2009).
La escritura del Position Paper es compleja, por lo que el profesorado
comienza por introducir la forma de escritura argumentativa utilizando el hamburger
model vi y haciendo que los alumnos lo apliquen a temas fciles, hasta llegar a
familiarizarse con este tipo de registro antes de iniciarles en el protocolo de Position
Paper de la ONU. Resulta til que los alumnos vean ejemplos de Position Papers de
aos anteriores. El modelo oficial consta de varias partes vii:
Seccin Primera: descripcin del tema y breve referencia al estado actual
del mismo
Seccin Segunda: acciones nacionales. El motivo por el que el pas al que
se representa se preocupa del tema de la conferencia, las acciones llevadas
a cabo al respecto y testimonios de figuras relevantes del pas acerca del
tema
186
Seccin Tercera: acciones internacionales. Firma de tratados, acuerdos,

convenios y resoluciones de la ONU sobre el tema y postura del pas
representado en la esfera internacional.
Seccin Cuarta: recomendaciones acerca de las posibles soluciones. El
pas aconseja sobre las formas en las que se puede solventar el tema en el
contexto de la ONU y propone ideas a considerar en una Resolucin.
El discurso de apertura de la delegacin (Opening Speech) es el segundo reto al
que se enfrentan los alumnos. El discurso se elabora sobre la base del Position Paper
pero no debe ser sustitudo por ste. Est formado por las siguientes partes:
Agradecimiento al presidente del comit por tomar la palabra
Breve introduccin acerca del tema de la conferencia y cmo afecta al
pas de la delegacin.
Presentacin de la postura del pas ante el tema y la justificacin
Presentacin de la postura del pas en relacin con aliados,
organizaciones internacionales a las que pertenece, etc.
Descripcin de las medidas adoptadas por la ONU hasta el momento
respecto al tema.
Posibles ideas u objetivos para una resolucin.
Descripcin del papel de ONGs y organizaciones caritativas en la lucha
contra el problema que se est tratando en el comit.
Referencias a negociaciones entre los pases que integran el comit.
Terminar con el agradecimiento al presidente del comit y a las
delegaciones presentes
Es importante que los alumnos lean Opening Speeches de delegados de cursos
anteriores y a su vez practiquen los suyos frente a distintas audiencias. Por ejemplo,
una vez su discurso est listo, pueden leerlo ante alumnos de otros grupos que les
darn su opinin acerca de los puntos fuertes y los que convendra mejorar. El papel
del auxiliar es esencial en este punto, ya que ayudar a los alumnos con la
pronunciacin, vocabulario, fluidez y puesta en escena.
Las formas de debate varan entre el debate formal (Moderated Caucus) y el
informal (Unmoderated Caucus). Su utilidad tambin es diferente. Cuando el presidente
del comit abre la sesin y concede el turno de palabra a las delegaciones para que
lean sus discursos de apertura, puede ofrecer la posibilidad de interrumpir la lectura
de discursos para la celebracin de un debate formal. Esto ocurre cuando, tras varios
discursos, se han puesto de manifiesto las distintas vertientes del problema que se
est debatiendo y las delegaciones desean ponerlas en comn. En tal caso, la
delegacin que lo solicite presenta una mocin para la celebracin de un Moderated
Caucus y ser la primera en tomar el turno de palabra. Pasado el tiempo destinado al
debate formal, el presidente del comit vuelve a conceder la palabra a las
delegaciones para sus discursos de apertura. A lo largo de las sesiones, las
delegaciones comienzan a perfilar los posibles acuerdos y medidas destinados a la
187
redaccin de una Resolucin. El presidente del comit ofrece entonces la posibilidad

de presentar una mocin para la celebracin de debates informales o Unmoderated
Caucus de duracin variable con el objetivo de que los delegados lleguen a acuerdos
en pequeos grupos e inicien la redaccin de las Resoluciones. En cualquier caso, los
delegados deben poner en prctica las habilidades comunicativas que han trabajado
en las aulas con los auxiliares. Los primeros debates que se practiquen en el aula
pueden referirse a temas de inters para los alumnos, pero es aconsejable que se
celebren siguiendo el protocolo de mocin, votacin y respeto al turno de palabra.
Los alumnos desarrollan una gran madurez al aprender a discutir con el fin de llegar
a objetivos comunes, negociar las distintas posturas y alcanzar acuerdos que
contribuyan a solventar problemas globales.
El fin ltimo de la conferencia es la redaccin de resoluciones. En un mismo
comit puede haber ms de una Resolucin si hay distintos grupos de pases que han
alcanzado acuerdos. De la misma forma, un pas puede ser firmante en varias
resoluciones. El esquema que siguen las resoluciones se practicar en clase con el
profesor y el auxiliar ya que sigue un patrn muy particular:
Cada Resolucin ir encabezada por las siglas del comit y el nmero de
entre las que se presenten en el comit.
Los pases pueden aparecer como Sponsors o Signatories en distintas
resoluciones. Bsicamente, los firmantes como Sponsors suscriben el
contenido de la Resolucin al cien por cien, en tanto que los Signatories
pueden apoyar la Resolucin, pero no estar completamente de acuerdo
con todo el contenido de la misma.
Preambulatory clauses: listado de los problemas que los pases firmantes
quieren poner de manifiesto respecto al tema.
Operative clauses: listado de las soluciones propuestas por los pases
firmantes.
Tras la redaccin de las resoluciones en el comit y su lectura por parte de
todas las delegaciones, cualquiera de ellas puede presentar enmiendas a cada una de
las ideas expresadas. Si la enmienda es aceptada, se vota y la Resolucin se modifica.
Las delegaciones del comit votan cada una de las resoluciones, que deben obtener
una mayora de dos tercios del qurum y sern vinculantes para todos los pases.
Celebracin de las Conferencias

La conferencia regional se celebra entre febrero o marzo y la internacional en
el mes de mayo en Nueva York. Los alumnos delegados que van a participar en la
conferencia regional son seleccionados por cada centro educativo. La conferencia se
sucede en dos das. El primer da se celebra la ceremonia de apertura con discurso de
personalidades de distintos mbitos. Se trata de un contexto especial para los
alumnos, que deben seguir el cdigo de vestuario formal de negocios y su toma de
contacto con una situacin diplomtica real. Durante el segundo da se desarrollan
las sesiones de trabajo. Es el momento en el que profesores, alumnos y auxiliares
188
Fulbright van a ver en funcionamiento el proyecto para el que se han estado

preparando durante ms de un trimestre. Los distintos comits se distribuyen en
salas en las que los alumnos ponen en prctica todo lo aprendido. En todo momento
estarn guiados por los auxiliares, que forman parte de las mesas presidenciales, lo
que les infunde confianza. Al finalizar el da se celebra la ceremonia de clausura y la
entrega de premios a las delegaciones que han destacado en cada comit. De entre
todos los alumnos participantes, se seleccionan diez que participan en la conferencia
internacional en la sede de Naciones Unidas en Nueva York.
Conclusiones
Todos los alumnos que trabajan el proyecto se benefician de l en mayor o
menor medida. Unos, porque consiguen vencer la barrera de la timidez en la pre
adolescencia; otros, porque aprenden a investigar y escribir sin simplemente cortar y
pegar informacin, a lo que en ocasiones estn acostumbrados. Aprenden a negociar
y discutir con tolerancia hacia la diversidad que caracteriza a los distintos pases y
culturas. Se convierten en ciudadanos preocupados por los problemas globales que
afectan a distintos colectivos y aumenta su autoestima el hecho de verse partcipes de
un proyecto tan complejo.
En cuanto al profesorado, pese a que el proyecto implica mucho trabajo y
esfuerzo, tiene muchos beneficios, no slo porque se trabajan a fondo las asignaturas
implicadas (Ingls y Ciencias Sociales), sino porque la capacidad de investigar, leer,
escribir, razonar y dialogar de los alumnos adquiere un efecto multiplicador que se
transfiere a otros proyectos y asignaturas.
Referencias
Coffin, C. (2006). Historical discourse. London: Continuum.
Consejo Escolar (2010). Los Programas de Enseanza Bilinge en la Comunidad de Madrid. Un estudio
comparado. Madrid: Publicaciones Consejera de Educacin
Cooper, H. y Chapman, A. (2009). Constructing History 11-19. London: SGAE.
Cummins, J. (1984). Wanted: A theoretical framework for relating language proficiency to academic
achievement among bilingual students. In C.Rivera (Ed.), Language proficiency and academic
achievement (pp.2-19). Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.
Dalton-Puffer, Ch. (2013). A construct of cognitive discourse functions for conceptualizing content-
language integration in CLIL and multilingual education. EuJAL 1(2), 216253 DOI:
10.1515/eujal-2013-0011
Gapminder. Retrieved from http://www.gapminder.org/for-teachers/
Scrivener, J. (2005). Learning Teaching. Oxford: Macmillan.
Tedick, D. J., & Fortune, T. W. (2013). Bilingual/immersion teacher education. In C. A. Chapelle
(Ed.), The encyclopedia of applied linguistics (pp. 438443). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.
DOI:10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0096
The UN Cyberschoolbus for Students and Teachers. Retrieved from http://www.unausa.org/global-
classrooms-model-un/how-to-participate/model-un-preparation/research/cyberschoolbus
United Nations Association of the United States of America (2016). About Global Classrooms Model
UN. Retrieved from http://www.unausa.org/global-classrooms-model-un/about-global-
classrooms-model-un
189
Wiki Global Classrooms Model UN. Retrieved from

http://globalclassroomsmodelun.pbworks.com/w/page/33989276/Model%20UN%20in%20IE
S%20Manuel%20de%20Falla
William and Mary School of Education, Williamsburg, Virginia
http://education.wm.edu/centers/cfge/curriculum/teachingmodels/
The World Factbook-CIA: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/
Notas
ihttp://www.unausa.org/global-classrooms-model-un/about-global-classrooms-model-un
ii Estos datos constituyen el Country Information Worksheet.
iiihttp://www.gapminder.org/for-teachers/
iv Ejemplo de wiki del IES Manuel de Falla (Coslada)
http://globalclassroomsmodelun.pbworks.com/w/page/33989276/Model%20UN%20in%20IES%2
0Manuel%20de%20Falla
v http://www.un.org/Pubs/CyberSchoolBus/
vi Hamburger model for persuasive writing, William and Mary School of Education
http://education.wm.edu/centers/cfge/curriculum/teachingmodels/
viihttp://www.unausa.org/images/content/GC_Model_UN/Resources/ActivityGuide4_Writing_The
_Position_Paper.pdf
Elena del Pozo works at the Consejera de Educacin de la Comunidad Autnoma de Madrid.
Correspondence regarding this article can be addressed to the author at [email protected].
190
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Proceedings from the II International Colloquium

Conference Paper July 2016

Francisco Ramos Calvo

Four articles revolve around immigration-related issues. Laura Guzmn DuVernois

Integrating Global Competencies in the Curriculum

These Kids Are Different: An Exploration of How Ideologies and Personal

Negotiating a Democratic Learning Space through Teacher Cultural Narrative

Linguistic Identities and Pedagogical Practices: Transnational Bilingual Teachers

A Conceptualization of Transfer for L2 Multilingual Writing from a Translingual

Understanding Cantonese in the Portuguese Classroom

Impact of Immigration on Students, the PK-12 Perspective

Cultural and Linguistic Rights of Immigrant Pupils in Catalonia Schools:

Understanding the Complexities of Transmigration Experiences through

The Psychological and Educational Impact of Immigration-Induced

La Conciencia de la Complejidad: Un Espacio para el Aprendizaje

Discovering English[es]: The Experience of Otherness through Literature

La Animacin como Herramienta Multicultural y su Impacto Social

Tres Relatos Contemporneos para la Enseanza del Espaol Lengua Extranjera

Reflexiones sobre el Proceso Enseanza-Aprendizaje Solidario en un Aula

Multicultural Schools: Supporting Diversity in Education

Los Programas Europeos Erasmus Plus para la Internacionalizacin del Profesorado

Global Classrooms Project: El Modelo de las Naciones Unidas en el Aula

Integrating Global Competencies in the Curriculum

Keywords: Global competency, bridging cultures, faculty development, community

Palabras clave: Competencia global, acercando culturas, desarrollo professional,

Global Competencies for Career and College Readiness

In a similar vein, Dr. Sandra L. Russo, Director for International Center at

The Context of the Initiative: An Urban Community College

Forging Interdisciplinary Dialogue in a Globalized World

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others, and feeling comfortable in relating to others (Braskamp, Braskamp, &

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Cynthia S. Wiseman, Department of Academic Literacy and Linguistics, Borough of Manhattan

These Kids Are Different: An Exploration of How Ideologies and

Palabras clave: Formacin del profesorado, ideologa, identidad, cultura

Keywords: Teacher education, ideology, identity, culture

The teaching profession extends far beyond simply delivering instruction.

As a definition for identity, I use Nortons (2000) concept: how a person

31). Agency is integral to the notion of ideology because it is seen as discursively

Interview with Ms. Max

Interview with Ms. Sally

Interview with Ms. Lucy

Tiffany Farias-Sokoloski works at The Office of Organizational Learning and Professional

Negotiating a Democratic Learning Space through Teacher

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Religion. Sixteen of the teachers identified themselves as religious or having a

Summary of Dimensions of Culture

Cultural Positioning in Written Cultural Autobiographies

Summary of Cultural Positioning

Summary of Implicit Bias Dialogue

Summary of Explicit Bias Dialogue

schools. It documents the process of teachers uncovering their own cultural

Strickland, B. R. (2000). Misassumptions, misadventures, and the misuse of psychology. American

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