Papers by The Journal of Ethical Reflections
The Journal of Ethical Reflections, 2020
The concept of place is ultimately a matter of ethical significance-of where something fits in a ... more The concept of place is ultimately a matter of ethical significance-of where something fits in a nexus or structure of meaning. Often this meaning is quite personal, involving a sense of presence we associate with a place. This essay investigates this connection through a study of Wordsworth's poem, "Tintern Abbey." It argues that the notion of a presence-infused place is ultimately that of a second-personal space. Presence is a matter of second-personal openness. Therefore, when presence infuses place, it makes its space second-personal also.
The Journal of Ethical Reflections, 2020
This article addresses contentious questions concerning individual freedom and democratic citizen... more This article addresses contentious questions concerning individual freedom and democratic citizenship education in the contemporary circumstances of multiculturalism. It suggests that educating children for civic equality is an ambitious aim for any democracy and not one that can ever be realized once and for all. It provides evidence that multicultural conditions can challenge the very aim of educating children for civic equality. It explains that democracies are variously multicultural and the varieties of groups make a difference in the kind of education and the progress toward civic equality that can realistically be expected at any time.
The Journal of Ethical Reflections, 2020
Introduction
Freedom of speech has traditionally been a cause championed by the left and liberal ... more Introduction
Freedom of speech has traditionally been a cause championed by the left and liberal side of the political spectrum, against conservatives who have tried to limit the expression of radical ideas. Here are three examples from the United States:
1) When I was appointed to Princeton University in 1999, Steve Forbes, whose father had endowed the university’s Forbes College, called for my appointment to be rescinded, and pledged that he would not donate to the university as long as I was on the faculty. Forbes was, at the time, running for the Republican nomination for president.
2) In 2014 the University of Illinois withdrew an offer of appointment to Professor Steven Salaita because he posted tweets that were highly critical of Israel and Prime Minister Netanyahu.
3) In September 2017 Harvard’s Kennedy School withdrew Chelsea Manning’s appointment as a visiting fellow after then CIA Director [and later Secretary of State] Mike Pompeo called her a “traitor” and cancelled a lecture he had been scheduled to give at the school.
The Journal of Ethical Reflections, 2020
What ethical stance would be appropriate in today's messy situation of health crisis, global warm... more What ethical stance would be appropriate in today's messy situation of health crisis, global warming, social and economic antagonisms, etc.? The first one is that of an expert who deals with the specific task imposed on him by those in power, blissfully ignoring the wider social context of his activity. The second one is that of pseudo-radical intellectuals who criticize the existing order from a comfortable morally superior position, well aware that their criticism will have no actual effects. How, then, are we to go on living after we get rid of the illusions of a false critical stance? Not just by accepting our reality: the fascination with the end of our civilization make us spectators who morbidly enjoy the disintegration of normality. A way out of this deadlock is signalled by a line from a song by the German rock band Rammstein: "we have to live till we die". We have to fight against the pandemic and other crises not by way of withdrawing from life but as a way to live with utmost intensity. Is there anyone more ALIVE today than millions of healthcare workers who with full awareness risk their lives on a daily base? Many of them died, but till they died they were alive.
The Journal of Ethical Reflections, 2020
The paper argues that the moral philosophy of Thomas Hobbes is unified by a complex conception of... more The paper argues that the moral philosophy of Thomas Hobbes is unified by a complex conception of reason that imposes consistency norms of both rationality and reasonableness. Hobbes's conceptions of rightness as reciprocity, and moral goodness as sociability belong to an original and attractive moral theory that is neither teleological nor classically deontological, nor as interpreters have variously argued, subjectivist, contractarian, egoist, or dependent on divine command.
The Journal of Ethical Reflections, 2020
It is widely affirmed that human beings have irreplaceable valuable, and that we owe it to them t... more It is widely affirmed that human beings have irreplaceable valuable, and that we owe it to them to treat them accordingly. Many theorists have been drawn to Kantianism because they think that it alone can capture this intuition. One aim of this paper is to show that this is a mistake, and that Kantianism cannot provide an independent rational vindication, nor even a fully illuminating articulation, of irreplaceability. A further aim is to outline a broadly Aristotelian view that provides a more fitting theoretical framework for this appealing conception of human value. This critique of Kantianism extends to contemporary theorists with a broadly Kantian orientation, including Christine Korsgaard, Stephen Darwall and John Rawls. The problem with these views, at heart, is that they attempt to ground morality in respect alone. Yet it is love, not respect, that brings irreplaceability into view. The paper closes with a sketch of a virtue-theoretic theory that follows Aquinas in taking love to be a master virtue that refines the other virtues so as to ensure a continuous and practically efficacious sensitivity to the irreplaceable value of fellow human beings.
This article, using a descriptive-analytic method, introduces the ideas of Ibn ʿArabī in moral ep... more This article, using a descriptive-analytic method, introduces the ideas of Ibn ʿArabī in moral epistemology while focusing on the sources of moral knowledge and explaining how man utilizes these sources in order to achieve a moral life. The findings of the research show that Ibn ʿArabī considers moral knowledge to be objective and presents the Realm of Fixed Entities (Ayan Thabete) as the thing-in-itself of moral realities. In his writings, though scattered, he clearly considers five things as the sources of moral knowledge: nature, intellect, heart, soul and revelation. However, these sources are not at equal levels and the distinction of revelation and the human soul over the other sources is apparent. Comparing these two sources, one can conclude from Ibn ʿArabī’s writings that revelation is the source of religious legislative guidance and is the result of God’s direct communication with the prophets and is the path of knowledge to perfect unity. God’s special servants (Valīyy-u l-Allah), while perfecting their human souls and possessing special merits in moral knowledge still follow the teachings of the law-bringing prophets in their teachings and actions.
This article, using a descriptive-analytic method, introduces the ideas of Ibn ʿArabī in moral ep... more This article, using a descriptive-analytic method, introduces the ideas of Ibn ʿArabī in moral epistemology while focusing on the sources of moral knowledge and explaining how man utilizes these sources in order to achieve a moral life. The findings of the research show that Ibn ʿArabī considers moral knowledge to be objective and presents the Realm of Fixed Entities (Ayan Thabete) as the thing-in-itself of moral realities. In his writings, though scattered, he clearly considers five things as the sources of moral knowledge: nature, intellect, heart, soul and revelation. However, these sources are not at equal levels and the distinction of revelation and the human soul over the other sources is apparent. Comparing these two sources, one can conclude from Ibn ʿArabī's writings that revelation is the source of religious legislative guidance and is the result of God's direct communication with the prophets and is the path of knowledge to perfect unity. God's special servants (Valīyy-u l-Allah), while perfecting their human souls and possessing special merits in moral 1. Ph.D. in Philosophy of Ethics, University of Qom. a.r.
The distinction between Rule and Act Utilitarianism is one of the most important dichotomies amon... more The distinction between Rule and Act Utilitarianism is one of the most important dichotomies among Utilitarian philosophers. First, we will briefly discuss the nature of this controversy and the precise point of the divergence. Then, we will take a look at the history of this terminology. In the third and main stage, the critiques particularly levelled at Act Utilitarianism will be probed. It will be indicated that part of these criticisms come from the opponents of utilitarianism while others are presented by its advocates who find the Act reading inefficient. We will categorize these reviews into three groups and examine their authenticity. Impracticality, harmfulness, and immoral effects are the titles of those critiques leveled at Act Utilitarianism. Is this version of utilitarianism capable of answering problems which opponents have made or is it necessary to give up of this type of utilitarianism and throw a new plan?
Growing technological advances in intelligent artifacts and bitter experiences of the past have e... more Growing technological advances in intelligent artifacts and bitter experiences of the past have emphasized the need to use and operate ethics in this field. Accordingly, it is vital to discuss the ethical integrity of having intelligent artifacts. Concerning the method of gathering materials, the current study uses library and documentary research followed by attribution style. Moreover, descriptive analysis is employed in order to analyze data. Explaining and criticizing the opposing views in this field and reviewing the related literature, it is concluded that the proof of the ethical integrity of the intelligent artifacts is possible due to the specific features of these artifacts and their own moral system.
The Journal of Ethical Reflections (JER), Summer 2020, 1(2): 93-109
When studying Henri Bergson's works, one can understand that as he proceeds from theoretical phil... more When studying Henri Bergson's works, one can understand that as he proceeds from theoretical philosophy to applied philosophy, he criticizes deterministic view in favor of freedom and establishes foundations of this attitude. He is of the view that by obtaining true knowledge, we would achieve practical purposes including dynamic religion, open society and, more importantly, freedom. Bergson establishes his epistemological and metaphysical foundations in a way that he provides an appropriate base for the realization of freedom in open society. This study attempts to interpret Bergson's idea about freedom in light of his dualistic system, and by referring to the place of freedom within the dualistic system, it also attempts to explain Bergson's conception of freedom and show how and why freedom would be realized. Furthermore, this paper seeks to show that freedom would be realized by disregarding the wrong parts of Bergson's dualism in relation to dynamic religion, with the help of intuitive knowledge which takes duration into account and in an open society, while closed society, static religion and the epistemological attitude which rely on intelligence and have a spatial approach to time would hinder the occurrence of freedom. Thus the cognitive basis of conceiving free will is considered in the light of a dualistic approach in which the positive side (life) realizes the freedom, while the negative side (matter) causes determinism.
The Journal of Ethical Reflections (JER), Summer 2020. 1(2): 69-92, 2020
Originally introduced by Plato and Aristotle, Moderation Theory in Ethics is the most prevalent t... more Originally introduced by Plato and Aristotle, Moderation Theory in Ethics is the most prevalent theory of ethics among Islamic scholars. Moderation Theory suggests that every virtue or excellence of character lies in the mean between two vices: excess or defect. Every ethical virtue comes from moderation in actions or emotions and every ethical vice comes from excess or defect. This paper suggests that while Islamic scholars have been influenced by this doctrine, they have also developed and re-conceptualized it in innovative ways. Kindī, Miskawayh, Avicenna, Rāghib Isfahānī, Nasīr al-Dīn Ṭusī, and others are among the Islamic contributors to the subject. Some of their innovations in this theory are as follows: bringing together Aristotle's doctrine of the mean with Plato's psychology (by Kindī), dividing virtues into four higher genuses, dividing vices into eight higher genuses, setting various kinds of vices and virtues under these higher genuses (by Miskawayh), adding the vice qualitative criteria to Aristotle's vice quantitative criteria (excess and defect) (by Ṭusī), dividing various conceptualizations of justice (by Avicenna), adding religious and mystical virtues into the existing list of virtues (by Rāghib Isfahānī), and proposing a comprehensive model for curing diseases of the soul. This paper seeks to establish the main contributions of these Muslim scholars to Moderation Theory and elaborate on this theory’s evolution within the Islamic world.
The Journal of Ethical Reflections (JER), Summer 2020, 1(2):47-68, 2020
Relativism generally, and moral relativism in particular, continue to be topics of philosophical ... more Relativism generally, and moral relativism in particular, continue to be topics of philosophical controversy. The controversy arises over general questions about the semantics, epistemology, and logic of the relativist’s position. With regard to moral relativism, there are also disagreements about whether moral relativism does not undermine the force of moral claims. Some of these disputes are due to the fact that the disputants differ in the ways they define or understand relativism. Since much of the current controversy about moral relativism has roots in earlier discussions that took place in the twentieth century which have been presented in the works of Leo Strauss, a critical analysis of some of Strauss’s views is presented. Relativism was an issue of paramount importance for Strauss, who nevertheless refused to define the object of his concern. Strauss argues that relativism is self-defeating in a manner designated here as the enfeeblement peritrope. Finally, a sketch of how equivocation on the issue of relativism can be avoided by distinguishing the value relativity from parameter parity. It is the latter that is responsible for the enfeeblement that is Strauss’s target.
The Journal of Ethical Reflections (JER), Summer 2020, 1(2):31-45, 2020
An examination of some of the main ideas of John Rawls first two books, A Theory of Justice and P... more An examination of some of the main ideas of John Rawls first two books, A Theory of Justice and Political Liberalism and of the relations between these ideas. Particular attention is given to the sense in which Rawls’ theory is a liberal theory, and to the relation between the rationale for Rawls’ two principles of justice and his later ideas of overlapping consensus and public reason.
In this paper I will offer an interpretation of some central features of Rawls’ theory of justice, features that are familiar but also subject to controversy. The question of how they should be understood bears on the relevance of Rawls’ theory under current conditions not only in Iran but also in the United States, where views opposed to liberalism have gained support.
Keywords: Rawls, Theory of Justice, Political Liberalism.
The Journal of Ethical Reflections (JER), Summer 2020, 1(2):7-29, 2020
We use the term “good” in two contexts: as the most general term of evaluation, and to refer to t... more We use the term “good” in two contexts: as the most general term of evaluation, and to refer to the final ends of life and action. I start from the question what evaluative and final goodness have to do with each other. Do we use the same term because when we talk about final goods, we are evaluating ends and lives? If so, how do we go about doing that? Most things are evaluated with respect to their fitness to perform their function, but ends and lives do not have functions. I contrast three theories of the final good: the intrinsic value theory, the hedonist theory, and Aristotle’s account, which identifies a being’s final good with its well-functioning, a form of evaluative goodness. Aristotle’s theory suggests an illuminating relationship between evaluative and final goodness: a conscious being has a final good when she functions by having conscious states that track, and so enable her to pursue, her functional or evaluative goodness. It is therefore the nature of an animal to have a final good, and there are such things as final goods because there are animals. This theory explains the existence of final goods without any metaphysical appeal to intrinsic values.
Keywords: Animals, Aristotle, Consciousness Function, Good, Hedonism, Intrinsic Value, Kant
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Papers by The Journal of Ethical Reflections
Freedom of speech has traditionally been a cause championed by the left and liberal side of the political spectrum, against conservatives who have tried to limit the expression of radical ideas. Here are three examples from the United States:
1) When I was appointed to Princeton University in 1999, Steve Forbes, whose father had endowed the university’s Forbes College, called for my appointment to be rescinded, and pledged that he would not donate to the university as long as I was on the faculty. Forbes was, at the time, running for the Republican nomination for president.
2) In 2014 the University of Illinois withdrew an offer of appointment to Professor Steven Salaita because he posted tweets that were highly critical of Israel and Prime Minister Netanyahu.
3) In September 2017 Harvard’s Kennedy School withdrew Chelsea Manning’s appointment as a visiting fellow after then CIA Director [and later Secretary of State] Mike Pompeo called her a “traitor” and cancelled a lecture he had been scheduled to give at the school.
In this paper I will offer an interpretation of some central features of Rawls’ theory of justice, features that are familiar but also subject to controversy. The question of how they should be understood bears on the relevance of Rawls’ theory under current conditions not only in Iran but also in the United States, where views opposed to liberalism have gained support.
Keywords: Rawls, Theory of Justice, Political Liberalism.
Keywords: Animals, Aristotle, Consciousness Function, Good, Hedonism, Intrinsic Value, Kant
Freedom of speech has traditionally been a cause championed by the left and liberal side of the political spectrum, against conservatives who have tried to limit the expression of radical ideas. Here are three examples from the United States:
1) When I was appointed to Princeton University in 1999, Steve Forbes, whose father had endowed the university’s Forbes College, called for my appointment to be rescinded, and pledged that he would not donate to the university as long as I was on the faculty. Forbes was, at the time, running for the Republican nomination for president.
2) In 2014 the University of Illinois withdrew an offer of appointment to Professor Steven Salaita because he posted tweets that were highly critical of Israel and Prime Minister Netanyahu.
3) In September 2017 Harvard’s Kennedy School withdrew Chelsea Manning’s appointment as a visiting fellow after then CIA Director [and later Secretary of State] Mike Pompeo called her a “traitor” and cancelled a lecture he had been scheduled to give at the school.
In this paper I will offer an interpretation of some central features of Rawls’ theory of justice, features that are familiar but also subject to controversy. The question of how they should be understood bears on the relevance of Rawls’ theory under current conditions not only in Iran but also in the United States, where views opposed to liberalism have gained support.
Keywords: Rawls, Theory of Justice, Political Liberalism.
Keywords: Animals, Aristotle, Consciousness Function, Good, Hedonism, Intrinsic Value, Kant