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Jo Iacovides

University of York, Computer Science, Faculty Member

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My work in the area of technology and learning has explored the use of digital games in formal education; how digital games and tools support informal learning and how people learn to use technology in the workplace.

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University of Greenwich

Humber College

Gustavo F Tondello

University of Waterloo

Richard N Landers

University of Minnesota - Twin Cities

Sofia University "St. Kliment Ohridski"

Dandara Palhano

UFPB - Universidade Federal da Paraíba

Dalhousie University

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Papers by Jo Iacovides

Game-play breakdowns and breakthroughs: Exploring the relationship between action, understanding and involvement.

Human Computer Interaction

Game developers have to ensure their games are appealing to, and playable by, a range of people. ... more Game developers have to ensure their games are appealing to, and playable by, a range of people. However, while there has been interest in the game-play experience, we know little about how learning relates to player involvement. This is despite challenge being an integral part of game play, providing players with potential opportunities to learn. This paper reports on a multiple case-study approach that explored how learning and involvement come together in practice. Participants consisted of a mix of gamers and casual players. Data included interviews, multiple observations of game-play, post-play cued interviews and diary entries. A set of theoretical claims representing suggested relationships between involvement and learning were developed on the basis of previous literature; these were then assessed through a critical examination of the data set. The resulting theory is presented as 14 refined claims that relate to: micro and macro involvement; breakdowns and breakthroughs in action, understanding and involvement; progress; and agency, meaning and compelling game-play. The claims emphasize how players experience learning via breakthroughs in understanding, where involvement is increased when the player feels responsible for progress. Supporting the relationship between learning and involvement is important for ensuring the success of commercial and educational games.

The false dichotomy between positive and negative affect in game play.

by Jo Iacovides and Max Birk

Most of the time games make us happy, but sometimes they are frustrating or make us feel sad. The... more Most of the time games make us happy, but sometimes they are frustrating or make us feel sad. They allow us to experience pleasure, success and joy, but they can also yield feelings of frustration, failure, or sorrow as a result of darker themes. In games, we can experience the full range of emotions – both positive and negative.

The workshop goals are to: 1) Investigate positive affect, negative affect, and the interplay between positive and negative affect as a means to create powerful gaming experiences; 2) Identify gaps in our existing knowledge regarding the full range of emotional experiences in games and their impact on the player and play experience; 3) Determine directions for research to advance knowledge in this space; and, 4) Create a community of people interested in developing games that involve powerful and meaningful player experiences. The organizers will provide the structure, questions, scaffolding of discussions, and workshop materials; whereas the participants will provide ideas through positions papers and discussion.

Removing the HUD: The Impact of Non-Diegetic Game Elements and Expertise on Player Involvement

Previous research has shown that player involvement can be influenced by a range of factors, from... more Previous research has shown that player involvement can be influenced by a range of factors, from the controllers used to the perceived level of challenge provided by the game. However, little attention has been paid to the influence of the game interface. Game interfaces consist of both diegetic (that can be viewed by the player-character, e.g. the game world) and non-diegetic components (that are only viewed by the player, e.g. the heads-up display). In this paper we examine two versions of a first-person shooter game to investigate how immersion is influenced through interacting with a diegetic and non-diegetic interface. Our findings suggest that the removal of non-diegetic elements, such as the heads-up display, is able to influence immersion in expert players through increasing their cognitive involvement and sense of control. We argue that these results illustrate the importance of considering the role of expertise in relation to how particular design choices will influence the player experience.

Moving Beyond Fun: Evaluating Serious Experience in Digital Games

Games are normally considered to be "fun", though recently there is growing interest in how gamep... more Games are normally considered to be "fun", though recently there is growing interest in how gameplay can promote empathy and encourage reflection through "serious experience". However, when looking beyond enjoyment, it is not clear how to actually evaluate serious experience. We present an evaluation of four games that were submitted to a student game design competition; the competition challenged teams to design a game that inspired curiosity around human error and blame culture within the context of healthcare. The entries were judged by a panel of six experts and subjected to a round of play testing by twelve participants. Methods included gameplay observation, questionnaires, post-play interviews and follow-up email questions. We discuss the utility of these methods, with particular emphasis on how they enabled a consideration of the immediate and longer term impact of serious experience on players.

Case Studies: Understanding Players and the Contexts in which they Play

Over recent years, the study of games and players has become an established domain with HCI resea... more Over recent years, the study of games and players has become an established domain with HCI research. However, while a range of methods has been employed within this area, questions remain as to how to develop in-depth understandings of players and the contexts they play within. Drawing upon the social sciences, this paper proposes case studies as an additional methodology for player research. We discuss the approach by referring to an example of how case studies were used to investigate the relationship between gaming involvement and learning.

The gaming involvement and informal learning framework

by Jo Iacovides and James Aczel

Simulation & Gaming

Aim. This article presents a model of how gaming involvement and informal learning come together ... more Aim. This article presents a model of how gaming involvement and informal learning come together in practice.

Method. Based on a series of interviews, case studies, and a wider survey, the Gaming Involvement and Informal Learning (GIIL) framework indicates how involvement with a variety of gaming practices can lead to a range of different learning experiences.

Results. The framework is able to account for both how and what people learn from gaming while also highlighting the influence of player identity. Further, the iterative relationship between identity, involvement, and learning is emphasized: The more strongly someone identifies themselves as a gamer, the greater their micro- and macro-level involvement and the more likely they are to learn from their gaming experiences.

Conclusion. The implications of the findings are discussed with regard to informal and formal learning.

Player strategies: achieving breakthroughs and progressing in single-player and cooperative games.

by Jo Iacovides and Ara Avakian

Proceedings of the First ACM Symposium on Computer-Human Interaction in Play (CHI PLAY 2014), 2014

Challenge is considered to be one of the key components of game-play, where game designers face t... more Challenge is considered to be one of the key components of game-play, where game designers face the tricky task of getting the balance right so that game-play is neither too easy nor too difficult. Through attempting in-game challenges, players experience cycles of breakdown and breakthrough, where breakthroughs involve moments of insight in which learning occurs. However, little attention has been given to how players actually overcome challenges to progress during game-play. Across two studies, we explore the ways in which players attempt to achieve breakthroughs in relation to single-player and co-located multiplayer games. We identified a number of strategies that are used by players, which illustrate how learning occurs during play. For instance, while “Experiment” involves forming an informal hypothesis, “Trial & error” occurs when the player tries to find out what, if anything, will happen when they carry out an action. These strategies are considered in relation to supporting player progress and engaging game-play when designing commercial and educational games.

How to Run an Errordiary Workshop: Exploring Errors and Resilience Strategies with Patients, Professionals and the Public

Paper presented at the Third Meeting of the Resilience Health Care Network (RHCN), Middelfart, Denmark, August 2014., Aug 2014

Errordiary is a public engagement initiative that aims to raise awareness and debate about error ... more Errordiary is a public engagement initiative that aims to raise awareness and debate about error and resilience strategies. Errordiary in healthcare targeted patients, healthcare professionals and members of the public to see if it had potential for healthcare. To engage with these groups we ran a competition, surveys, focus groups and presentations. However, at that stage, it was not clear to us how to run such a session. In this paper we present a format that could be adapted by others. This format was successful in getting people with diabetes, healthcare professionals and the public to talk about and share their own errors and resilience strategies in three separate focus groups.

Learning the game: Breakdowns, breakthroughs and player strategies.

Proceedings of the 2014 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI 2014), Extended Abstracts, 2014

Digital games are rich learning environments that require players to engage with challenging situ... more Digital games are rich learning environments that require players to engage with challenging situations in order to progress. Recent research indicates that game-play involves overcoming breakdowns and achieving breakthroughs in relation to player action, understanding and involvement. In particular, breakthroughs involve moments of insight where learning occurs which, in turn, can help increase involvement. However, little is known about how players actually achieve breakthroughs. We applied the breakdown/breakthrough “lens” to explore how players attempt to achieve breakthroughs in relation to two single player games. We identified a finite number of strategies that illustrate how players learn in games. These strategies are considered in relation to producing playable and engaging games.

Infusion device standardisation and the use of dose error reduction software: a UK survey

by Jo Iacovides and Ann Blandford

British Journal of Nursing, 2014

In 2004, the National Patient Safety Agency (NPSA) released a safety alert relating to the manage... more In 2004, the National Patient Safety Agency (NPSA) released a safety alert relating to the management and use of infusion devices in England and Wales. The alert called for the standardisation of infusion devices and a consideration of using centralised equipment systems to manage device storage. There has also been growing interest in smart-pump technology, such as dose error reduction software (DERS) as a way to reduce IV medication errors. However, questions remain about the progress that has been made towards infusion device standardisation and the adoption of DERS. In this article, the authors report the results of a survey investigating the extent to which the standardisation of infusion devices has occurred in the last 10 years and centralised equipment libraries are being used in practice, as well as the prevalence of DERS use within the UK. Findings indicate that while reported standardisation levels are high, use of centralised equipment libraries remains low, as does DERS usage. landford, A., Cox, A., Dean-Franklin, B., Lee, P., & Vincent, C.J

Gaming and the limits of digital embodiment

Philosophy & Technology, 2014

This paper discusses the nature and limits of player embodiment within digital games. We identify... more This paper discusses the nature and limits of player embodiment within digital games. We identify a convergence between everyday bodily actions and activity within digital environments, and a trend towards incorporating natural forms of movement into gaming worlds through mimetic control devices. We examine recent literature in the area of immersion and presence in digital gaming; Calleja’s (2011) recent Player Involvement Model (PIM) of gaming is discussed and found to rely on a problematic notion of embodiment as ‘incorporation’. We go on to further reflect on the nature of player involvement in digital gaming environments by applying insights from Maurice Merleau-Ponty’s Phenomenology of Perception. It is argued that digital embodiment differs so significantly from primordial embodiment that any idea of total immersion is simply fantasy. We subsequently argue that digital game media nonetheless provide us with unique opportunities for exploring the nature of distinctively human forms of embodiment, and so we need more complete and more reliable phenomenological descriptions of the experiences associated with computer games.

Supporting learning within the workplace: Device training in healthcare.

Proceedings of the European Conference on Cognitive Ergonomics (ECCE 2013), article no. 30. New York: ACM. , 2013

The phrase “lifelong learning” places emphasis on the fact that learning continues beyond the cla... more The phrase “lifelong learning” places emphasis on the fact that learning continues beyond the classroom and formal educational environments, though it is often supported by training within the workplace. Continued professional development is all the more important within the context of healthcare, where technology is constantly evolving and errors run the risk of causing serious harm to patients. This paper considers the case of infusion device training within UK hospitals. Interviews were carried out with staff involved in medical device training and management across seven National Health Service trusts. The analysis indicates the range of training provided by different institutions and highlights important issues that influence how users develop their understanding of these devices. Further, the research indicates that while there is an increasing interest in e-learning as a way to overcome some of the tensions trainers face in relation to time and resources, there are also significant concerns which need to be addressed when considering this approach.

Making sense of game-play: How can we examine learning and involvement?

It has been argued that there is still much to be understood about the game-play experience, whil... more It has been argued that there is still much to be understood about the game-play experience, while there is a need for more rigorous examination of how players interact with games and the sorts of thinking they engage in during play. This paper introduces a set of methods developed to explore these issues via a multiple case-study approach. This included game-play observation, cued post-play interview, the collection of physiological data, and the use of gaming diaries over a three week period. An examination of the strengths and limitations of the approach adopted is presented with reference to two particular methodological issues: (i) how to identify breakdowns and breakthroughs that occur during game-play; (ii) how to identify learning occurring beyond game-play. The paper will conclude by emphasising the importance of taking both micro and macro-level experiences into account when investigating learning and involvement within this context.

Do games attract or sustain engagement in citizen science?: a study of volunteer motivations

Increasingly, games are being incorporated in online citizen science (CS) projects as a way of cr... more Increasingly, games are being incorporated in online citizen science (CS) projects as a way of crowdsourcing data; yet the influence of gamification on volunteer motivations and engagement in CS projects is still unknown. In an interview study with 8 CS volunteers (4 from Foldit, 4 from Eyewire), we found that game elements and communication tools are not necessary for attracting new volunteers to a project; however they may help to sustain engagement over time, by allowing volunteers to participate in a range of social interactions and through enabling meaningful recognition of achievements.

Digital Games: Motivation, Engagement and Informal Learning

This thesis investigates the relationships between motivation, engagement and informal learning, ... more This thesis investigates the relationships between motivation, engagement and informal learning, with respect to digital games and adult players. Following the reconceptualisation of motivation and engagement (as forms of micro and macro level involvement respectively) three linked studies were conducted.

In the first study, 30 players were interviewed via email about their gaming experiences. The resulting set of learning categories and themes drew attention to learning on a game, skill and personal level, which arose from micro-level gameplay and macro-level interaction with wider communities and resources. The second investigation consisted of eight case studies that examined how involvement and learning come together in practice. Participants were observed in the lab during two gameplay sessions and kept gaming diaries over a three week period. A method for categorising game-play breakdowns and breakthroughs (relating to action, understanding and involvement) was developed in order to analyse several hours of gameplay footage. The previous categories and themes were also applied to the data. The findings suggested a relationship between macro-involvement and player identity, which was further investigated by a third survey study (with 232 respondents). The survey helped to establish a link between identity, involvement, and learning; the more strongly someone identifies as a gamer, the more likely they are to learn from their involvement in gaming practice.

Four main contributions are presented: (1) an empirical account of how informal learning occurs as a result of micro and macro-involvement within a gaming context, (2) an in-depth understanding of how breakdowns and breakthroughs relate to each other during play, (3) a set of categories that represent the range of learning experienced by players, and (4) a consideration of the role player identity serves with respect to learning and involvement.

Investigating the relationships between informal learning and player involvement in digital games

In the last few years, digital games have become increasingly popular with both ‘hardcore’ and ‘c... more In the last few years, digital games have become increasingly popular with both ‘hardcore’ and ‘casual’ audiences. At the same time, it has been argued that games can be powerful learning environments, since they are seen to encourage active and critical learning through participation in affinity groups and semiotic domains but there is a need for further empirical evidence to explore how this participation occurs and how prevalent it actually is. In addition the effectiveness of games within education indicates mixed results, though it has been suggested that this may indicate that learning through immersive worlds involves a more complex understanding of learning, one that is not so easy to tie to specified learning outcomes. It would seem the area would benefit from research that seeks to develop our understanding of how player involvement and learning come together in this context. This paper presents the preliminary results of a survey carried out in order to explore these issues. The initial findings suggest that how a player identifies as a gamer relates to what they think they gain from their gaming experiences with respect to learning.

What can breakdowns and breakthroughs tell us about learning and involvement experienced during game-play?

Alongside the growing mainstream appeal of digital games, there has been an increasing amount of ... more Alongside the growing mainstream appeal of digital games, there has been an increasing amount of academic interest in how games can be used to support involving learning experiences within formal educational settings. While there has been particular emphasis on the potential of games within these contexts, there is still much to be understood about what happens during specific instances of game-play (Squire, 2008). For instance, it has been argued that research in the area would benefit from further exploration of both how and what people learn informally when they play games during their leisure time (Oliver & Carr, 2009). This paper aims to address some of these issues by reporting on research which explores how involvement and learning come together in and around instances of game-play. A multiple case study approach was adopted, which included gameplay observation and a cued post-play interview. Eight cases were carried out in total, with participants being asked to come into the lab to play games on three different occasions and to keep a gaming diary over a three week period. This paper focuses on exploring the detailed processes that occur during game-play in order to consider how people learn through play. The preliminary findings of the analyses are presented through examples from the case studies which illustrate how these breakdowns and breakthroughs occurred with respect to: Action (e.g. problems with the controller, finding out a new attack), Understanding (e.g. not knowing what to do next, figuring out how to solve a puzzle) and Involvement (e.g. losing interest in the game, seeing evidence of progress). Consideration will also be given to how breakdowns and breakthroughs relate to each other and the influence they have on learning and involvement within this context.

Making sense of game-play: how can we examine learning and involvement?

by Jo Iacovides, James Aczel, and Will Woods

It has been argued that there is a need for more “rigorous research into what players do with gam... more It has been argued that there is a need for more “rigorous research into what players do with games (particularly those that don’t claim explicit status as educational), and a better
understanding of the thinking that is involved in playing them.” (Squire, 2008, p.167). This paper introduces a set of methods developed to explore these issues via a multiple case study approach, including; game-play observation, cued post-play interview, the collection of physiological data and the use of gaming diaries over a three week period. An examination of the strengths and limitations of the approach adopted is presented with reference to two particular methodological issues (i) how to identify breakdowns and breakthroughs that occur during game-play; (ii) how to identify learning occurring beyond game-play. The paper will conclude by emphasising the importance of taking both micro and macro level experiences into account when it comes to capturing learning and involvement within this context.

What do players have to say about informal learning through games?

It has been suggested that digital games can be powerful learning environments that encourage act... more It has been suggested that digital games can be powerful learning environments that encourage active and critical learning, including participation within “affinity groups” and “semiotic domains” (Gee, 2004). However, there is still a need to provide further empirical evidence to substantiate these claims, especially if educators want to try to replicate people’s enthusiasm for games within a formal educational context. By addressing the question “How do players describe learning in the context of gaming?” this study seeks to further our understanding of how and what people learn informally through playing games by first examining the player perspective. A set of learning categories, based on a series of email interviews with a range of adult games players, is identified along with some themes to consider in relation to players’ views on learning within this context. The findings indicate the importance of considering more than just what occurs during play, because, for example, players often consult external resources for advice about what to do in the game world. It is also pertinent to note players’ ideas about value and transfer of learning across contexts. The research raises questions about the completeness and applicability of these learning categories, and about how these categories relate to motivations for playing games and engagement during play.

Digital games: exploring the relationship between motivation, engagement and informal learning

It has been suggested that digital games can be powerful learning environments that encourage act... more It has been suggested that digital games can be powerful learning environments that encourage active and critical learning, including participation within “affinity groups” and “semiotic domains” (Gee, 2004). However, there is a need to provide further empirical evidence to substantiate these claims, while there is little research that attempts to explore the links between motivation, engagement and informal learning. This paper reports on work in progress which aims to explore theses links through three different studies of adult games players. The first study examines a series of email interviews to find out more about people’s game-playing experiences; the second consists of a set of eight case studies examining how involvement and learning come together in and around instances of game-play; and the third includes a survey, to find out how prevalent certain game-playing activities are amongst different kinds of players. Furthering our understanding of how motivation, engagement and learning relate to each other within commercially available digital games will have important implications for the design of more formal educational environments.

Game-play breakdowns and breakthroughs: Exploring the relationship between action, understanding and involvement.

Human Computer Interaction

Game developers have to ensure their games are appealing to, and playable by, a range of people. ... more Game developers have to ensure their games are appealing to, and playable by, a range of people. However, while there has been interest in the game-play experience, we know little about how learning relates to player involvement. This is despite challenge being an integral part of game play, providing players with potential opportunities to learn. This paper reports on a multiple case-study approach that explored how learning and involvement come together in practice. Participants consisted of a mix of gamers and casual players. Data included interviews, multiple observations of game-play, post-play cued interviews and diary entries. A set of theoretical claims representing suggested relationships between involvement and learning were developed on the basis of previous literature; these were then assessed through a critical examination of the data set. The resulting theory is presented as 14 refined claims that relate to: micro and macro involvement; breakdowns and breakthroughs in action, understanding and involvement; progress; and agency, meaning and compelling game-play. The claims emphasize how players experience learning via breakthroughs in understanding, where involvement is increased when the player feels responsible for progress. Supporting the relationship between learning and involvement is important for ensuring the success of commercial and educational games.

The false dichotomy between positive and negative affect in game play.

by Jo Iacovides and Max Birk

Most of the time games make us happy, but sometimes they are frustrating or make us feel sad. The... more Most of the time games make us happy, but sometimes they are frustrating or make us feel sad. They allow us to experience pleasure, success and joy, but they can also yield feelings of frustration, failure, or sorrow as a result of darker themes. In games, we can experience the full range of emotions – both positive and negative.

The workshop goals are to: 1) Investigate positive affect, negative affect, and the interplay between positive and negative affect as a means to create powerful gaming experiences; 2) Identify gaps in our existing knowledge regarding the full range of emotional experiences in games and their impact on the player and play experience; 3) Determine directions for research to advance knowledge in this space; and, 4) Create a community of people interested in developing games that involve powerful and meaningful player experiences. The organizers will provide the structure, questions, scaffolding of discussions, and workshop materials; whereas the participants will provide ideas through positions papers and discussion.

Removing the HUD: The Impact of Non-Diegetic Game Elements and Expertise on Player Involvement

Previous research has shown that player involvement can be influenced by a range of factors, from... more Previous research has shown that player involvement can be influenced by a range of factors, from the controllers used to the perceived level of challenge provided by the game. However, little attention has been paid to the influence of the game interface. Game interfaces consist of both diegetic (that can be viewed by the player-character, e.g. the game world) and non-diegetic components (that are only viewed by the player, e.g. the heads-up display). In this paper we examine two versions of a first-person shooter game to investigate how immersion is influenced through interacting with a diegetic and non-diegetic interface. Our findings suggest that the removal of non-diegetic elements, such as the heads-up display, is able to influence immersion in expert players through increasing their cognitive involvement and sense of control. We argue that these results illustrate the importance of considering the role of expertise in relation to how particular design choices will influence the player experience.

Moving Beyond Fun: Evaluating Serious Experience in Digital Games

Games are normally considered to be "fun", though recently there is growing interest in how gamep... more Games are normally considered to be "fun", though recently there is growing interest in how gameplay can promote empathy and encourage reflection through "serious experience". However, when looking beyond enjoyment, it is not clear how to actually evaluate serious experience. We present an evaluation of four games that were submitted to a student game design competition; the competition challenged teams to design a game that inspired curiosity around human error and blame culture within the context of healthcare. The entries were judged by a panel of six experts and subjected to a round of play testing by twelve participants. Methods included gameplay observation, questionnaires, post-play interviews and follow-up email questions. We discuss the utility of these methods, with particular emphasis on how they enabled a consideration of the immediate and longer term impact of serious experience on players.

Case Studies: Understanding Players and the Contexts in which they Play

Over recent years, the study of games and players has become an established domain with HCI resea... more Over recent years, the study of games and players has become an established domain with HCI research. However, while a range of methods has been employed within this area, questions remain as to how to develop in-depth understandings of players and the contexts they play within. Drawing upon the social sciences, this paper proposes case studies as an additional methodology for player research. We discuss the approach by referring to an example of how case studies were used to investigate the relationship between gaming involvement and learning.

The gaming involvement and informal learning framework

by Jo Iacovides and James Aczel

Simulation & Gaming

Aim. This article presents a model of how gaming involvement and informal learning come together ... more Aim. This article presents a model of how gaming involvement and informal learning come together in practice.

Method. Based on a series of interviews, case studies, and a wider survey, the Gaming Involvement and Informal Learning (GIIL) framework indicates how involvement with a variety of gaming practices can lead to a range of different learning experiences.

Results. The framework is able to account for both how and what people learn from gaming while also highlighting the influence of player identity. Further, the iterative relationship between identity, involvement, and learning is emphasized: The more strongly someone identifies themselves as a gamer, the greater their micro- and macro-level involvement and the more likely they are to learn from their gaming experiences.

Conclusion. The implications of the findings are discussed with regard to informal and formal learning.

Player strategies: achieving breakthroughs and progressing in single-player and cooperative games.

by Jo Iacovides and Ara Avakian

Proceedings of the First ACM Symposium on Computer-Human Interaction in Play (CHI PLAY 2014), 2014

Challenge is considered to be one of the key components of game-play, where game designers face t... more Challenge is considered to be one of the key components of game-play, where game designers face the tricky task of getting the balance right so that game-play is neither too easy nor too difficult. Through attempting in-game challenges, players experience cycles of breakdown and breakthrough, where breakthroughs involve moments of insight in which learning occurs. However, little attention has been given to how players actually overcome challenges to progress during game-play. Across two studies, we explore the ways in which players attempt to achieve breakthroughs in relation to single-player and co-located multiplayer games. We identified a number of strategies that are used by players, which illustrate how learning occurs during play. For instance, while “Experiment” involves forming an informal hypothesis, “Trial & error” occurs when the player tries to find out what, if anything, will happen when they carry out an action. These strategies are considered in relation to supporting player progress and engaging game-play when designing commercial and educational games.

How to Run an Errordiary Workshop: Exploring Errors and Resilience Strategies with Patients, Professionals and the Public

Paper presented at the Third Meeting of the Resilience Health Care Network (RHCN), Middelfart, Denmark, August 2014., Aug 2014

Errordiary is a public engagement initiative that aims to raise awareness and debate about error ... more Errordiary is a public engagement initiative that aims to raise awareness and debate about error and resilience strategies. Errordiary in healthcare targeted patients, healthcare professionals and members of the public to see if it had potential for healthcare. To engage with these groups we ran a competition, surveys, focus groups and presentations. However, at that stage, it was not clear to us how to run such a session. In this paper we present a format that could be adapted by others. This format was successful in getting people with diabetes, healthcare professionals and the public to talk about and share their own errors and resilience strategies in three separate focus groups.

Learning the game: Breakdowns, breakthroughs and player strategies.

Proceedings of the 2014 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI 2014), Extended Abstracts, 2014

Digital games are rich learning environments that require players to engage with challenging situ... more Digital games are rich learning environments that require players to engage with challenging situations in order to progress. Recent research indicates that game-play involves overcoming breakdowns and achieving breakthroughs in relation to player action, understanding and involvement. In particular, breakthroughs involve moments of insight where learning occurs which, in turn, can help increase involvement. However, little is known about how players actually achieve breakthroughs. We applied the breakdown/breakthrough “lens” to explore how players attempt to achieve breakthroughs in relation to two single player games. We identified a finite number of strategies that illustrate how players learn in games. These strategies are considered in relation to producing playable and engaging games.

Infusion device standardisation and the use of dose error reduction software: a UK survey

by Jo Iacovides and Ann Blandford

British Journal of Nursing, 2014

In 2004, the National Patient Safety Agency (NPSA) released a safety alert relating to the manage... more In 2004, the National Patient Safety Agency (NPSA) released a safety alert relating to the management and use of infusion devices in England and Wales. The alert called for the standardisation of infusion devices and a consideration of using centralised equipment systems to manage device storage. There has also been growing interest in smart-pump technology, such as dose error reduction software (DERS) as a way to reduce IV medication errors. However, questions remain about the progress that has been made towards infusion device standardisation and the adoption of DERS. In this article, the authors report the results of a survey investigating the extent to which the standardisation of infusion devices has occurred in the last 10 years and centralised equipment libraries are being used in practice, as well as the prevalence of DERS use within the UK. Findings indicate that while reported standardisation levels are high, use of centralised equipment libraries remains low, as does DERS usage. landford, A., Cox, A., Dean-Franklin, B., Lee, P., & Vincent, C.J

Gaming and the limits of digital embodiment

Philosophy & Technology, 2014

This paper discusses the nature and limits of player embodiment within digital games. We identify... more This paper discusses the nature and limits of player embodiment within digital games. We identify a convergence between everyday bodily actions and activity within digital environments, and a trend towards incorporating natural forms of movement into gaming worlds through mimetic control devices. We examine recent literature in the area of immersion and presence in digital gaming; Calleja’s (2011) recent Player Involvement Model (PIM) of gaming is discussed and found to rely on a problematic notion of embodiment as ‘incorporation’. We go on to further reflect on the nature of player involvement in digital gaming environments by applying insights from Maurice Merleau-Ponty’s Phenomenology of Perception. It is argued that digital embodiment differs so significantly from primordial embodiment that any idea of total immersion is simply fantasy. We subsequently argue that digital game media nonetheless provide us with unique opportunities for exploring the nature of distinctively human forms of embodiment, and so we need more complete and more reliable phenomenological descriptions of the experiences associated with computer games.

Supporting learning within the workplace: Device training in healthcare.

Proceedings of the European Conference on Cognitive Ergonomics (ECCE 2013), article no. 30. New York: ACM. , 2013

The phrase “lifelong learning” places emphasis on the fact that learning continues beyond the cla... more The phrase “lifelong learning” places emphasis on the fact that learning continues beyond the classroom and formal educational environments, though it is often supported by training within the workplace. Continued professional development is all the more important within the context of healthcare, where technology is constantly evolving and errors run the risk of causing serious harm to patients. This paper considers the case of infusion device training within UK hospitals. Interviews were carried out with staff involved in medical device training and management across seven National Health Service trusts. The analysis indicates the range of training provided by different institutions and highlights important issues that influence how users develop their understanding of these devices. Further, the research indicates that while there is an increasing interest in e-learning as a way to overcome some of the tensions trainers face in relation to time and resources, there are also significant concerns which need to be addressed when considering this approach.

Making sense of game-play: How can we examine learning and involvement?

It has been argued that there is still much to be understood about the game-play experience, whil... more It has been argued that there is still much to be understood about the game-play experience, while there is a need for more rigorous examination of how players interact with games and the sorts of thinking they engage in during play. This paper introduces a set of methods developed to explore these issues via a multiple case-study approach. This included game-play observation, cued post-play interview, the collection of physiological data, and the use of gaming diaries over a three week period. An examination of the strengths and limitations of the approach adopted is presented with reference to two particular methodological issues: (i) how to identify breakdowns and breakthroughs that occur during game-play; (ii) how to identify learning occurring beyond game-play. The paper will conclude by emphasising the importance of taking both micro and macro-level experiences into account when investigating learning and involvement within this context.

Do games attract or sustain engagement in citizen science?: a study of volunteer motivations

Increasingly, games are being incorporated in online citizen science (CS) projects as a way of cr... more Increasingly, games are being incorporated in online citizen science (CS) projects as a way of crowdsourcing data; yet the influence of gamification on volunteer motivations and engagement in CS projects is still unknown. In an interview study with 8 CS volunteers (4 from Foldit, 4 from Eyewire), we found that game elements and communication tools are not necessary for attracting new volunteers to a project; however they may help to sustain engagement over time, by allowing volunteers to participate in a range of social interactions and through enabling meaningful recognition of achievements.

Digital Games: Motivation, Engagement and Informal Learning

This thesis investigates the relationships between motivation, engagement and informal learning, ... more This thesis investigates the relationships between motivation, engagement and informal learning, with respect to digital games and adult players. Following the reconceptualisation of motivation and engagement (as forms of micro and macro level involvement respectively) three linked studies were conducted.

In the first study, 30 players were interviewed via email about their gaming experiences. The resulting set of learning categories and themes drew attention to learning on a game, skill and personal level, which arose from micro-level gameplay and macro-level interaction with wider communities and resources. The second investigation consisted of eight case studies that examined how involvement and learning come together in practice. Participants were observed in the lab during two gameplay sessions and kept gaming diaries over a three week period. A method for categorising game-play breakdowns and breakthroughs (relating to action, understanding and involvement) was developed in order to analyse several hours of gameplay footage. The previous categories and themes were also applied to the data. The findings suggested a relationship between macro-involvement and player identity, which was further investigated by a third survey study (with 232 respondents). The survey helped to establish a link between identity, involvement, and learning; the more strongly someone identifies as a gamer, the more likely they are to learn from their involvement in gaming practice.

Four main contributions are presented: (1) an empirical account of how informal learning occurs as a result of micro and macro-involvement within a gaming context, (2) an in-depth understanding of how breakdowns and breakthroughs relate to each other during play, (3) a set of categories that represent the range of learning experienced by players, and (4) a consideration of the role player identity serves with respect to learning and involvement.

Investigating the relationships between informal learning and player involvement in digital games

In the last few years, digital games have become increasingly popular with both ‘hardcore’ and ‘c... more In the last few years, digital games have become increasingly popular with both ‘hardcore’ and ‘casual’ audiences. At the same time, it has been argued that games can be powerful learning environments, since they are seen to encourage active and critical learning through participation in affinity groups and semiotic domains but there is a need for further empirical evidence to explore how this participation occurs and how prevalent it actually is. In addition the effectiveness of games within education indicates mixed results, though it has been suggested that this may indicate that learning through immersive worlds involves a more complex understanding of learning, one that is not so easy to tie to specified learning outcomes. It would seem the area would benefit from research that seeks to develop our understanding of how player involvement and learning come together in this context. This paper presents the preliminary results of a survey carried out in order to explore these issues. The initial findings suggest that how a player identifies as a gamer relates to what they think they gain from their gaming experiences with respect to learning.

What can breakdowns and breakthroughs tell us about learning and involvement experienced during game-play?

Alongside the growing mainstream appeal of digital games, there has been an increasing amount of ... more Alongside the growing mainstream appeal of digital games, there has been an increasing amount of academic interest in how games can be used to support involving learning experiences within formal educational settings. While there has been particular emphasis on the potential of games within these contexts, there is still much to be understood about what happens during specific instances of game-play (Squire, 2008). For instance, it has been argued that research in the area would benefit from further exploration of both how and what people learn informally when they play games during their leisure time (Oliver & Carr, 2009). This paper aims to address some of these issues by reporting on research which explores how involvement and learning come together in and around instances of game-play. A multiple case study approach was adopted, which included gameplay observation and a cued post-play interview. Eight cases were carried out in total, with participants being asked to come into the lab to play games on three different occasions and to keep a gaming diary over a three week period. This paper focuses on exploring the detailed processes that occur during game-play in order to consider how people learn through play. The preliminary findings of the analyses are presented through examples from the case studies which illustrate how these breakdowns and breakthroughs occurred with respect to: Action (e.g. problems with the controller, finding out a new attack), Understanding (e.g. not knowing what to do next, figuring out how to solve a puzzle) and Involvement (e.g. losing interest in the game, seeing evidence of progress). Consideration will also be given to how breakdowns and breakthroughs relate to each other and the influence they have on learning and involvement within this context.

Making sense of game-play: how can we examine learning and involvement?

by Jo Iacovides, James Aczel, and Will Woods

It has been argued that there is a need for more “rigorous research into what players do with gam... more It has been argued that there is a need for more “rigorous research into what players do with games (particularly those that don’t claim explicit status as educational), and a better
understanding of the thinking that is involved in playing them.” (Squire, 2008, p.167). This paper introduces a set of methods developed to explore these issues via a multiple case study approach, including; game-play observation, cued post-play interview, the collection of physiological data and the use of gaming diaries over a three week period. An examination of the strengths and limitations of the approach adopted is presented with reference to two particular methodological issues (i) how to identify breakdowns and breakthroughs that occur during game-play; (ii) how to identify learning occurring beyond game-play. The paper will conclude by emphasising the importance of taking both micro and macro level experiences into account when it comes to capturing learning and involvement within this context.

What do players have to say about informal learning through games?

It has been suggested that digital games can be powerful learning environments that encourage act... more It has been suggested that digital games can be powerful learning environments that encourage active and critical learning, including participation within “affinity groups” and “semiotic domains” (Gee, 2004). However, there is still a need to provide further empirical evidence to substantiate these claims, especially if educators want to try to replicate people’s enthusiasm for games within a formal educational context. By addressing the question “How do players describe learning in the context of gaming?” this study seeks to further our understanding of how and what people learn informally through playing games by first examining the player perspective. A set of learning categories, based on a series of email interviews with a range of adult games players, is identified along with some themes to consider in relation to players’ views on learning within this context. The findings indicate the importance of considering more than just what occurs during play, because, for example, players often consult external resources for advice about what to do in the game world. It is also pertinent to note players’ ideas about value and transfer of learning across contexts. The research raises questions about the completeness and applicability of these learning categories, and about how these categories relate to motivations for playing games and engagement during play.

Digital games: exploring the relationship between motivation, engagement and informal learning

It has been suggested that digital games can be powerful learning environments that encourage act... more It has been suggested that digital games can be powerful learning environments that encourage active and critical learning, including participation within “affinity groups” and “semiotic domains” (Gee, 2004). However, there is a need to provide further empirical evidence to substantiate these claims, while there is little research that attempts to explore the links between motivation, engagement and informal learning. This paper reports on work in progress which aims to explore theses links through three different studies of adult games players. The first study examines a series of email interviews to find out more about people’s game-playing experiences; the second consists of a set of eight case studies examining how involvement and learning come together in and around instances of game-play; and the third includes a survey, to find out how prevalent certain game-playing activities are amongst different kinds of players. Furthering our understanding of how motivation, engagement and learning relate to each other within commercially available digital games will have important implications for the design of more formal educational environments.