Module 1

Data Communication
Components
Computer Networks
Data Flow
Communication between two devices can be classified as:

 Simplex

 Half-duplex

 Full-duplex
Simplex
• In the simplex mode, unidirectional communication occurs, ie, only in one
direction. Out of the two devices, only one can transmit at a time and the other
receives only. For example, a keyboard can only be used to enter the input while a
monitor can only receive the output.
Half Duplex
• In Half Duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When a
device is sending while the other can only receive and vice versa. This mode is used in cases
where there is no need for data transfer in both directions at the same time. The entire channel
capacity can be used only for one direction at a time.
Full Duplex
• In Full-Duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive at the same time.
The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required
all the time. The capacity of the channel must be divided between the two
directions.
Criteria of the Network
Performance

The performance of a network depends on several factors like the number of users, transmission
medium types, hardware capabilities, and the efficiency of the software. Performance can be
measured in several ways, including transit time and response time. The amount of time required for
a message to travel from the device to another device is called transit time while response time is the
elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.

Reliability
The frequency of the failure, the recovery time of a network after a failure, and the network’s
robustness in a catastrophe are used to measure the network reliability.

Security
The security of the information is the top priority because as the data travel from one device to
another device, it can be altered with or stolen. So we protect the data from unauthorized access and
viruses.
Connection
• A connection is a term that describes the link between a plug or connector into a port or jack.
For example, your monitor, mouse, and keyboard all must connect to the computer before they
work. Different forms of the word connect. Examples of computer connections. Connections on
the back of the computer.

• There are two possible types of connections:

 Point to Point

 Multipoint
Point to Point
• In this connection, a dedicated link is provided between two devices. The full
capacity of the link is held in reserve for transmission between those two devices.
In this type of connection, mostly we use an actual length of wire or cable to
connect the two devices, and also we have many other options like microwave or
satellite links.
Multipoint
• In this type of connection, more than two specific devices share a single link. The
capacity of the channel is shared either spatially or temporally. If many devices
can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection and if users
must take turns, it is called a timeshared connection.
Uses of Computer Networks
Communication Medium: Computer networks are used among different users as a communication
medium. For example, an email (electronic mail), video conference is generally used by the
employees of the company for communication purposes.

Resource Sharing: All the resources like printers, scanners, modems, programs, and data can be
shared by all the systems in computer networks.

Server-client model: Computer networking is used as a server-client model. Here, the server is the
master system that is used to store the information and is maintained by the system administrator.
The client is used to access the information stored in the server remotely.

E-Commerce: Computer network is also used in the field of businesses. The Internet platform is used
for business. For example, Amazon, Flipkart, etc. are doing their business over the internet.
Components of Data
Communication System
• Data Communication is defined as exchange of data
between two devices via some form of transmission
media such as a cable, wire or it can be air or vacuum
also. For occurrence of data communication,
communicating devices must be a part of
communication system made up of a combination of
hardware or software devices and programs.
Components of Data
Communication System
There are mainly five components of a data communication system:
• Message
• Sender
• Receiver
• Transmission Medium
• Set of rules (Protocol)
• Message: This is most useful asset of a data communication system.
The message simply refers to data or piece of information which is to
be communicated. A message could be in any form, it may be in form
of a text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.
• Sender: To transfer message from source to destination, someone must
be there who will play role of a source. Sender plays part of a source in
data communication system. It is simple a device that sends data
message. The device could be in form of a computer, mobile,
telephone, laptop, video camera, or a workstation, etc.
• Receiver: It is destination where finally message sent by source has
arrived. It is a device that receives message. Same as sender, receiver
can also be in form of a computer, telephone mobile, workstation, etc.
• Transmission medium: In entire process of data communication, there
must be something which could act as a bridge between sender and
receiver, Transmission medium plays that part. It is physical path by
which data or message travels from sender to receiver. Transmission
medium could be guided (with wires) or unguided (without wires), for
example, twisted pair cable, fiber optic cable, radio waves, microwaves,
etc.
• Set of rules (Protocol): To govern data communications, various sets of
rules had been already designed by the designers of the communication
systems, which represent a kind of agreement between communicating
devices. These are defined as protocol. In simple terms, the protocol is a
set of rules that govern data communication. If two different devices are
connected but there is no protocol among them, there would not be any
kind of communication between those two devices. Thus the protocol is
necessary for data communication to take place.
Computer Network?
• A Computer Network is a group of two or more
interconnected computer systems that use common
connection protocols for sharing various resources and
files.
• You can establish a computer network connection
using either cable or wireless media.
• Every network involves hardware and software that
connects computers and tools.
Computer Network Types

• A computer network can

be categorized by their
size.
• A computer network is
mainly of four types:
LAN(Local Area Network)
• Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other
in a small area such as building, office.
• LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through
a communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
• It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs,
network adapters, and ethernet cables.
• The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area
Network.
• Local Area Network provides higher security.
Characteristics of LAN
• It is a private network, so an outside regulatory body
never controls it.
• LAN operates at a relatively higher speed compared to
other WAN systems.
• There are various kinds of media access control
methods like token ring and ethernet.
Advantages of LAN
• Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can share local
area networks. This significantly reduces the cost of hardware purchases.
• You can use the same software over the network instead of purchasing the
licensed software for each client in the network.
• Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the server
computer.
• You can easily transfer data and messages over networked computers.
• It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data more
secure.
• Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet connection
among all the LAN users.
Disadvantages of LAN
• LAN will indeed save cost because of shared computer resources,
but the initial cost of installing Local Area Networks is quite high.
• The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN user, so it
does not offer good privacy.
• Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization in
case LAN admin is not able to secure centralized data repository.
• Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as there
are issues related to software setup and hardware failures
PAN(Personal Area Network)
• Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual
person, typically within a range of 10 meters.
• Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices
of personal use is known as Personal Area Network.
• Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea
of the Personal Area Network.
• Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
• Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area
network are the laptop, mobile phones, media player and play
stations.
Types of
Personal
Area
Network
PAN
• Wireless Personal Area Network:
Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simply
using wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a
low range network.
• Wired Personal Area Network:
Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.
Examples Of Personal Area Network:
• Body Area Network:
Body Area Network is a network that moves with a person. For example, a
mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a person establishes a network
connection and then creates a connection with another device to share the
information.
• Offline Network:
An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is also known as a
home network. A home network is designed to integrate the devices such as
printers, computer, television but they are not connected to the internet.
• Small Home Office:
It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet and to a corporate
network using a VPN
Characteristics of PAN
• It is mostly personal devices network equipped within a
limited area.
• Allows you to handle the interconnection of IT devices at the
surrounding of a single user.
• PAN includes mobile devices, tablet, and laptop.
• It can be wirelessly connected to the internet called WPAN.
• Appliances use for PAN: cordless mice, keyboards, and
Bluetooth systems.
Advantages of PAN
 PAN networks are relatively secure and safe
 It offers only short-range solution up to ten meters
 Strictly restricted to a small area
Disadvantages of PAN
• It may establish a bad connection to other
networks at the same radio bands.
• Distance limits.
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
• A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger
geographic area by interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger
network.
• Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private
industries.
• In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a
telephone exchange line.
• The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay,
ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
• It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).
Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:
• MAN is used in communication between the banks in
a city.
• It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
• It can be used in a college within a city
• It can also be used for communication in the military.
Characteristics of MAN
• It mostly covers towns and cities in a maximum 50 km
range
• Mostly used medium is optical fibers, cables
• Data rates adequate for distributed computing
applications.
Advantages of MAN
• It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic
cables.
• It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and
greater access to WANs.
• The dual bus in MAN network provides support to transmit data in
both directions concurrently.
• A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire city.
Disadvantages of MAN
• You need more cable to establish MAN connection from one
place to another.
• In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from
hackers
WAN(Wide Area Network)
• A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large
geographical area such as states or countries.
• A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
• A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans
over a large geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic
cable or satellite links.
• The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
• A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business,
government, and education
Examples Of Wide Area Network
• Mobile Broadband:
A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.
• Last mile:
A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the
customers in hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
• Private network:
A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices. This
network is made by using the telephone leased line provided by the
telecom company.
Advantages Of Wide Area Network
o Geographical area
o Centralized data
o Get updated files
o Exchange messages
o Sharing of software and resources
o Global business
o High bandwidth
Disadvantages of Wide Area
Network
o Security issue:
o Needs Firewall & antivirus software
o High Setup cost
o Troubleshooting problems
Connection Topology
• Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the
components are interconnected to each other. There are two types of
topology: physical and logical topology.
• Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a
network. arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and
connecting lines via sender and receiver is referred to as network
topology.
Mesh
Topology
• In a mesh topology, every device
is connected to another device
via a particular channel.
• In Mesh Topology, the protocols
used are
• AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration
Protocols),
• DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol), etc.
• Every device is connected
with another via dedicated
channels. These channels
are known as links.
• Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each
other in a mesh topology, the total number of ports that are
required by each device is N-1.
• In Figure , there are 5 devices connected to each other,
hence the total number of ports required by each device is 4.
Total number of ports required=N*(N-1).
• Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each
other in a mesh topology, then the total number of
dedicated links required to connect them is NC2
• i.e. N(N-1)/2.
• In Figure , there are 5 devices connected to each other,
hence the total number of links required is 5*4/2 = 10.
• Advantages of this topology:
 Communication is very fast between at the nodes.
 It is robust.
 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred
among the devices through dedicated channels or links.
 Provides security and privacy.

• Problems with this topology:

 Installation and configuration are difficult.
 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less
number of devices.
 The cost of maintenance is high.
Star Topology
• In star topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through
a cable.
• This hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the
central node.
• The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as
broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent
known as an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them.
• Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
• In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as
CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.
A star topology having four systems connected
to a single point of connection i.e. hub
• Advantages of this topology:
 If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of
cables required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total
number of ports required is N.
 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
 Star topology are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
• Problems with this topology:
 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system
will crash down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
Bus Topology
• Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network
device is connected to a single cable.
• It transmits the data from one end to another in a single direction.
• No bi-directional feature is in bus topology.
• It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if
the backbone fails the topology crashes.
• In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are
followed by LAN ethernet connections like TDMA (Time Division
Multiple Access), Pure Aloha, CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access),
Slotted Aloha, etc.
A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes
are connected to the channel via drop lines.
• Advantages of this topology:
 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables required to
connect them is 1, which is known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are required.
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus based networks that support up to 10 Mbps.
 The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build small networks.
 Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting techniques are well known.

• Problems with this topology:

 A bus topology is quite simpler , but still it requires a lot of cabling.
 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this, various protocols
are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
 Adding new devices to network would slow down networks.
 Security is very low.
Ring Topology
• In this topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two
neighboring devices.
• A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large
number of nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to
the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will
have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to
prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
• The data flows in one direction, i.e.., it is unidirectional, but it can be
made bidirectional by having 2 connections between each Network
Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring Topology, the Token Ring
Passing protocol is used by the workstations to transmit the data.
A ring topology comprises 4 stations
connected with each forming a ring
• The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.
 Token passing : It is network access method in which token is passed from one node
ton another node.
 Token : It is a frame that circulates around network.
• The following operations take place in ring topology are :
• One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility to perform
the operations.
• To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is done,
the token is to be released for other stations to use.
• When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
• There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the token
just after transmitting the data and Delay token release releases the token after the
acknowledgment is received from the receiver.
• Advantages of this topology:
 The data transmission is high-speed.
 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 It is less costly than a star topology.
• Problems with this topology:
 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 The addition of stations in between or removal of stations can disturb the
whole topology.
 Less secure.
Tree Topology
• This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a
hierarchical flow of data.
• In Tree Topology, SAC (Standard Automatic Configuration ) protocols like
DHCP and SAC are used.
• In this, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which
contains the repeater.
• This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to the secondary
and then to the devices or from bottom to top
• i.e. devices to the secondary hub and then to the central hub.
• It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the
backbone fails the topology crashes.
• Advantages of this topology :
 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it
decreases the distance that is traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
 It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different
computers.
 We can add new device to existing network.
 The Error detection and error correction is very easy in tree topology.

• Problems with this topology :

 If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
 The cost is high because of cabling.
 If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
Hybrid
Topology
• This topology technology is the
combination of all the various
types of topologies we have
studied above.
• It is used when the nodes are free
to take any form.
• It means these can be individuals
such as Ring or Star topology or
can be a combination of various
types of topologies seen above.
• Each individual topology uses the
protocol that has been discussed
earlier.
• Advantages of this topology :
 This topology is very flexible.
 the size of network can be easily expanded by adding new device.

• Problems with this topology :

 It is very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
 Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
• The infrastructure cost is very high as hybrid network requires a lot of cabling,
network devices.
Protocol and Standard in Computer
Networks
• Protocol :In Order to make communication successful between
devices , some rules and procedures should be agreed upon at the
sending and receiving ends of the system. Such rules and procedures
are called as Protocols. Different types of protocols are used for
different types of communication.
Types of Network Protocols
• There are three main types of network protocols.
• Network management protocols,
• Network communication protocols
• Network security protocols
 Communication protocols include basic data communication tools
like TCP/IP and HTTP.
 Management protocols maintain and govern the network through protocols such
as ICMP and SNMP.
 Security protocols include HTTPS, SFTP, and SSL.
Standards
• Standards are the set of rules for data communication that are
needed for exchange of information among devices.
• It is important to follow Standards which are created by various
Standard Organization like IEEE, ISO , ANSI etc.
• Types of Standards:
Standards are of two types:
• De Facto Standard.
• De Jure Standard.
De Facto Standard
• The meaning of the work ” De Facto ” is ” By Fact ” or “By
Convention”.
• These are the standard s that have not been approved by any
Organization but have been adopted as Standards because of it’s
widespread use. Also , sometimes these standards are often
established by Manufacturers.
• For example: Apple and Google are two companies which
established their own rules on their products which are different.
Also, they use some same standard rules for manufacturing for their
products.
De Jure Standard
• The meaning of the word “De Jure” is “By Law” or “By Regulations” .
• Thus , these are the standards that have been approved by officially
recognized body like ANSI , ISO , IEEE etc. These are the standard
which are important to follow if it is required or needed.
• For example: All the data communication standard protocols like
SMTP , TCP , IP , UDP etc. are important to follow the same when we
needed them.
OSI Model
• OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes
how information from a software application in one computer moves through a
physical medium to the software application in another computer.
• OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network
function.
• OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-
computer communications.
• OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each
layer is assigned a particular task.
• Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.
Characteristics of OSI Model
• The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
• The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application
related issues, and they are implemented only in the software. The
application layer is closest to the end user. Both the end user and the
application layer interact with the software applications. An upper layer
refers to the layer just above another layer.
• The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues.
The data link layer and the physical layer are implemented in hardware
and software. The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and
is closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible
for placing the information on the physical medium.
Functions
of the OSI
Layers
 Physical
layer

o The main functionality of the physical

layer is to transmit the individual bits
from one node to another node.
o It is the lowest layer of the OSI
model.
o It establishes, maintains and
deactivates the physical connection.
o It specifies the mechanical, electrical
and procedural network interface
specifications.
Functions of a Physical layer
• Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can
be connected physically.
• Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is
simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex mode between the two devices on
the network.
• Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
• Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the
information
Data-Link Layer
• This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.
• It defines the format of the data on the network.
• It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or
more devices.
• It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device
that resides on a local network.
It contains two sub-layers:
oLogical Link Control Layer
o It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer
of the receiver that is receiving.
o It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the
header.
o It also provides flow control.
oMedia Access Control Layer
o A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link
Control layer and the network's physical layer.
o It is used for transferring the packets over the network.
Functions of the Data-link layer
• Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream
into packets known as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header
and trailer to the frame. The header which is added to the frame
contains the hardware destination and source address.

• Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame
that contains a destination address. The frame is transmitted to the
destination address mentioned in the header.
• Flow Control:
Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the technique
through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that no
data get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such as a server with
higher processing speed does not exceed the receiving station, with lower
processing speed.
• Error Control:
Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic Redundancy
Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the
message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to
occurr, then the receiver sends the acknowledgment for the retransmission of
the corrupted frames.
• Access Control:
When two or more devices are connected to the same communication
channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device
has control over the link at a given time.
Network Layer
Network Layer
• It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of
devices on the network.
• It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination
based on the network conditions, the priority of service, and other
factors.
• The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
• Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used
to provide the routing services within an internetwork.
• The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network
layer protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.
Functions of Network Layer
• Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the
network layer. It provides a logical connection between different
devices.
• Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address
to the header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device
on the internet.
• Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it
determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from
source to the destination.
• Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper
layer and converts them into packets. This process is known as
Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).
Transport Layer
Transport Layer
• The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted
in the order in which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
• The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data
completely.
• It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into
smaller units known as segments.
• This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-
to-point connection between source and destination to deliver the
data reliably.
o Transmission Control Protocol
o It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the
internet.
o It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
o When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the
data into smaller units known as segments. Each segment travels over the
internet using multiple routes, and they arrive in different orders at the
destination. The transmission control protocol reorders the packets in the
correct order at the receiving end.
o User Datagram Protocol
o User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
o It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any
acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.
Functions of Transport Layer
• Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due
to this reason, the transmission of data from source to the destination not
only from one computer to another computer but also from one process to
another process. The transport layer adds the header that contains the
address known as a service-point address or port address. The responsibility
of the network layer is to transmit the data from one computer to another
computer and the responsibility of the transport layer is to transmit the
message to the correct process.
• Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message
from the upper layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each
segment is assigned with a sequence number that uniquely identifies each
segment. When the message has arrived at the destination, then the transport
layer reassembles the message based on their sequence numbers.
Functions of Transport Layer
• Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-
oriented service and connectionless service. A connectionless service treats
each segment as an individual packet, and they all travel in different routes to
reach the destination. A connection-oriented service makes a connection with
the transport layer at the destination machine before delivering the packets.
In connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single route.
• Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is
performed end-to-end rather than across a single link.
• Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error
control is performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender
transport layer ensures that message reach at the destination without any
error.
Session Layer
• It is a layer 5 in the OSI model.
• The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the
interaction between communicating devices.
Functions of Session layer
• Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a
dialog between two processes or we can say that it allows the
communication between two processes which can be either half-
duplex or full-duplex.
• Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when
transmitting the data in a sequence. If some error occurs in the
middle of the transmission of data, then the transmission will take
place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as
Synchronization and recovery.
Presentation Layer
• A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and
semantics of the information exchanged between the two systems.
• It acts as a data translator for a network.
• This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data
from one presentation format to another format.
• The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.
Functions of Presentation layer
• Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form
of character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different
encoding methods, the presentation layer handles the interoperability between
the different encoding methods. It converts the data from sender-dependent
format into a common format and changes the common format into receiver-
dependent format at the receiving end.
• Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of
converting the sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the
resulting message over the network.
• Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it
reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very
important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.
Application Layer
• An application layer serves as a window for users and application
processes to access network service.
• It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation,
etc.
• An application layer is not an application, but it performs the
application layer functions.
• This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
Functions of Application layer
• File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer
allows a user to access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the
files from a computer and to manage the files in a remote computer.
• Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email
forwarding and storage.
• Directory services: An application provides the distributed database
sources and is used to provide that global information about various
objects.
 TCP/IP model
• The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
• The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
• The TCP/IP model layers: the application layer, transport layer, network layer,
data link layer and physical layer.
• The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface,
internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the first four
layers of the OSI model and these four layers are represented in TCP/IP
model by a single layer called the application layer.
• TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of
them provides specific functionality.
• Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two
or more lower-level protocols.
TCP/IP Layers
• Process/Application Layer
• Host-to-Host/Transport Layer
• Internet Layer
• Network Access/Link Layer
Network Access Layer/ Host to
network layer
• A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
• A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer
defined in the OSI reference model.
• It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
• This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two
devices on the same network.
• The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into
frames transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical
addresses.
• The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame
relay
Internet Layer
• An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
• An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
• The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets
from any network, and they arrive at the destination irrespective of
the route they take.
Protocols Used in Internet Layer
• IP Addressing
• Host-to-host communication
• Data Encapsulation and Formatting
• Fragmentation and Reassembly
• Routing
• ARP Protocol
• ICMP Protocol
• IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host
addresses known as IP addresses. The IP addresses
are used by the internet and higher layers to identify
the device and to provide internetwork routing.
• Host-to-host communication: It determines the path
through which the data is to be transmitted.
• Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol
accepts the data from the transport layer protocol. An
IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received
securely, it encapsulates the data into message known
as IP datagram.
• Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size
of the IP datagram by data link layer protocol is known as
Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP datagram is
greater than the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the
datagram into smaller units so that they can travel over the
local network. Fragmentation can be done by the sender or
intermediate router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are
reassembled to form an original message.
• Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network
such as LAN, MAN, WAN, it is known as direct delivery. When
source and destination are on the distant network, then the IP
datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing
the IP datagram through various devices such as routers.
ARP Protocol
• ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.
• ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the
physical address from the IP address.
• The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
• ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address
of the device, it broadcasts the ARP request to the network.
• ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the
ARP request and process the request, but only recipient recognize
the IP address and sends back its physical address in the form of
ARP reply. The recipient adds the physical address both to its cache
memory and to the datagram header
ICMP Protocol
o ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.
o It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications
regarding datagram problems back to the sender.
o A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If
a router is unable to route the data because of some unusual conditions
such as disabled links, a device is on fire or network congestion, then the
ICMP protocol is used to inform the sender that the datagram is
undeliverable.
o An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:
o ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is reachable or not.
o ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination device is
responding or not.
o The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems,
not correct them. The responsibility of the correction lies with the
sender.
o ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the
intermediate routers because the IP datagram carries the addresses of
the source and destination but not of the router that it is passed to.
Transport Layer
• The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and
correction of data which is being sent over the network.
• The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram
protocol and Transmission control protocol.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
• It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.
• It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.
• User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the
error to the sender that user datagram has been damaged.
• UDP consists of the following fields:
• Source port address: The source port address is the address of the application
program that has created the message.
• Destination port address: The destination port address is the address of the
application program that receives the message.
• Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram in bytes.
• Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.
• UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only checksum; it does not
contain any ID of a data segment.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• It provides a full transport layer services to applications.
• It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active
for the duration of the transmission.
• TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the
damaged frames. Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be received
and acknowledged before the transmission is considered to be
completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.
• At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units
known as segment, and each segment contains a sequence number
which is required for reordering the frames to form an original message.
• At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them
based on sequence numbers.
Application Layer
• An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
• It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of
representation.
• This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
• When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with
another application layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.
• There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application
cannot be placed inside the application layer except those who interact
with the communication system. For example: text editor cannot be
considered in application layer while web browser using HTTP protocol
to interact with the network where HTTP protocol is an application layer
protocol.
Protocols used in the Application
layer
• HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows
us to access the data over the world wide web. It transfers the data in the
form of plain text, audio, video. It is known as a Hypertext transfer
protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a hypertext environment where
there are rapid jumps from one document to another.
• SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a
framework used for managing the devices on the internet by using the
TCP/IP protocol suite.
• SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol
that supports the e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This
protocol is used to send the data to another e-mail address.
• DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is
used to identify the connection of a host to the internet
uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names instead of
addresses. Therefore, the system that maps the name to the
address is known as Domain Name System.
• TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It
establishes the connection between the local computer and
remote computer in such a way that the local terminal
appears to be a terminal at the remote system.
• FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard
internet protocol used for transmitting the files from one
computer to another computer.
 OSI TCP/IP
OSI represents Open System Interconnection. TCP/IP model represents the Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol.

OSI is a generic, protocol independent standard. It is acting as an interaction gateway TCP/IP model depends on standard protocols about which the computer network has
between the network and the final-user. created. It is a connection protocol that assigns the network of hosts over the internet.

The OSI model was developed first, and then protocols were created to fit the network The protocols were created first and then built the TCP/IP model.
architecture’s needs.

It provides quality services. It does not provide quality services.

The OSI model represents defines administration, interfaces and conventions. It It does not mention the services, interfaces, and protocols.
describes clearly which layer provides services.

The protocols of the OSI model are better unseen and can be returned with another The TCP/IP model protocols are not hidden, and we cannot fit a new protocol stack in
appropriate protocol quickly. it.

It is difficult as distinguished to TCP/IP. It is simpler than OSI.

It provides both connection and connectionless oriented transmission in the network It provides connectionless transmission in the network layer and supports connecting
layer; however, only connection-oriented transmission in the transport layer. and connectionless-oriented transmission in the transport layer.

It uses a horizontal approach. It uses a vertical approach.

The smallest size of the OSI header is 5 bytes. The smallest size of the TCP/IP header is 20 bytes.

Protocols are unknown in the OSI model and are returned while the technology modifies. In TCP/IP, returning protocol is not difficult.
Transmission Media
• Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the
information from the sender to the receiver. Data is transmitted
through the electromagnetic signals.
• The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the
information in the form of bits through LAN(Local Area Network).
• It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data
communication.
• In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.
• In a fibre based network, the bits in the form of light pulses.
• In OSI(Open System Interconnection) phase, transmission media
supports the Layer 1. Therefore, it is considered to be as a Layer 1
component.
• The electrical signals can be sent through the copper wire, fibre optics,
atmosphere, water, and vacuum.
• The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined by
the characteristics of medium and signal.
• Transmission media is of two types are wired media and wireless
media. In wired media, medium characteristics are more important
whereas, in wireless media, signal characteristics are more important.
• Different transmission media have different properties such as
bandwidth, delay, cost and ease of installation and maintenance.
• The transmission media is available in the lowest layer of the OSI
reference model, i.e., Physical layer.
Factors need to be considered for
designing the transmission media
• Bandwidth: All the factors are remaining constant, the greater the
bandwidth of a medium, the higher the data transmission rate of a
signal.
• Transmission impairment: When the received signal is not identical to
the transmitted one due to the transmission impairment. The quality
of the signals will get destroyed due to transmission impairment.
• Interference: An interference is defined as the process of disrupting a
signal when it travels over a communication medium on the addition
of some unwanted signal.
Transmission Impairment
• In communication system, analog signals travel
through transmission media, which tends to
deteriorate the quality of analog signal, which means
that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not
the same as the signal at the end of the medium. The
imperfection causes signal impairment.
Causes of impairment
Attenuation
• It means loss of energy. The strength of signal decreases with
increasing distance which causes loss of energy in overcoming
resistance of medium. This is also known as attenuated signal.
Amplifiers are used to amplify the attenuated signal which gives the
original signal back and compensate for this loss.
• Attenuation is measured in decibels(dB). It measures the relative
strengths of two signals or one signal at two different point.

Attenuation(dB) = 10log10(P2/P1)
P1 is the power at sending end and P2 is the power at receiving end.
Some where the decibel is also define in terms of voltage instead of
power. In this case because power is proportional to the square of the
voltage the formula is
Attenuation(dB) = 20log10(V2/V1)
V1 is the voltage at sending end and V2 is the voltage at receiving end.
Distortion
• It means changes in the form or shape of the signal.
• This is generally seen in composite signals made up with different
frequencies.
• Each frequency component has its own propagation speed travelling
through a medium. And thats why it delay in arriving at the final
destination
• Every component arrive at different time which leads to distortion.
Therefore, they have different phases at receiver end from what they
had at senders end.
Distortion
Noise
• The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original signal is
called noise. There are several types of noise such as induced noise,
crosstalk noise, thermal noise and impulse noise which may corrupt the
signal.
• Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances. These
devices act as sending antenna and transmission medium act as receiving
antenna.
• Thermal noise is movement of electrons in wire which creates an extra
signal.
• Crosstalk noise is when one wire affects the other wire.
• Impulse noise is a signal with high energy that comes from lightning or
power lines
SNR = AVG SIGNAL POWER / AVG NOISE
POWER
Types of Transmission Media
Guided Media
• It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are
transmitted. It is also known as Bounded media.
Twisted pair
• Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted
with each other.
• A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission
media.
• Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight
cable.
• The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.
• A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a
regular spiral pattern.
Types of Twisted pair
Unshielded Twisted Pair
• An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication.
Following are the categories of the unshielded twisted pair cable:
Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed
data.
Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.
Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for
long-distance communication.
Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.
• Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:
• It is cheap.
• Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
• It can be used for high-speed LAN.
• Disadvantage:
• This cable can only be used for shorter distances
because of attenuation.
Shielded Twisted Pair
• A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding
the wire that allows the higher transmission rate.
• Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:
• The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.
• An installation of STP is easy.
• It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
• It has a higher attenuation.
• It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.
• Disadvantages
• It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.
• It has a higher attenuation rate.
Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example,
TV wire is usually a coaxial cable.
• The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel
to each other.
• It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
• The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and
the outer conductor is made up of copper mesh. The middle core is
made up of non-conductive cover that separates the inner conductor
from the outer conductor.
• The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the
copper mesh prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).
• Coaxial cable is of two types:
• Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of
transmitting a single signal at high speed.
• Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of
transmitting multiple signals simultaneously.
• Advantages Of Coaxial cable:
• The data can be transmitted at high speed.
• It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
• It provides higher bandwidth.
• Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:
• It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
• If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire
network.
Fibre Optic
• Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for
communication.
• Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic that
are used to send the data by pulses of light.
• The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold,
electromagnetic interference from other types of wiring.
• Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.
Diagrammatic representation of fibre optic cable
Basic elements of Fibre optic cable
• Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic
known as a core. A core is a light transmission area of the fibre. The
more the area of the core, the more light will be transmitted into the
fibre.
• Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main
functionality of the cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at
the core interface as to cause the reflection within the core so that
the light waves are transmitted through the fibre.
• Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a
jacket. The main purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fibre strength,
absorb shock and extra fibre protection.
Following are the advantages of fibre optic cable over copper
• Greater Bandwidth: The fibre optic cable provides more bandwidth
as compared copper. Therefore, the fibre optic carries more data as
compared to copper cable.
• Faster speed: Fibre optic cable carries the data in the form of light.
This allows the fibre optic cable to carry the signals at a higher speed.
• Longer distances: The fibre optic cable carries the data at a longer
distance as compared to copper cable.
• Better reliability: The fibre optic cable is more reliable than the
copper cable as it is immune to any temperature changes while it can
cause obstruct in the connectivity of copper cable.
• Thinner and Sturdier: Fibre optic cable is thinner and lighter in weight
so it can withstand more pull pressure than copper cable.
UnGuided Transmission
• An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves
without using any physical medium. Therefore it is also known as
wireless transmission.
• In unguided media, air is the media through which the
electromagnetic energy can flow easily.
• Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories
• Radio Waves
• Microwaves
• Satellite Microwave Communication
Radio waves
• Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all
the directions of free space.
• Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all
the directions.
• The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
• In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not
aligned, i.e., the wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by
any receiving antenna.
• An example of the radio wave is FM radio.
• Applications Of Radio waves:
• A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one
sender and many receivers.
• An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a
radio wave.
• Advantages Of Radio transmission:
• Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks
and mobile cellular phones.
• Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate
the walls.
• Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.
Microwaves

•Microwaves are of two types:

• Terrestrial microwave
• Satellite microwave communication
Terrestrial Microwave Transmission
• Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the
focused beam of a radio signal from one ground-based microwave
transmission antenna to another.
• Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the
range from 1GHz to 1000 GHz.
• Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to
be aligned, i.e., the waves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly
focussed.
• In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to
another antenna which is km away.
• It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on
the towers are the direct sight of each other.
Characteristics of Microwave
• Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial
microwave is from 4-6 GHz to 21-23 GHz.
• Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
• Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
• Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for
a longer distance.
• Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected
by environmental conditions and antenna size.
Advantages Of Microwave
• Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.
• It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land
for the installation of cables.
• Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in
terrains as the installation of cable in terrain is quite a
difficult task.
• Communication over oceans can be achieved by using
microwave transmission.
Disadvantages of Microwave
transmission
• Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication.
Any malicious user can catch the signal in the air by using its own
antenna.
• Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using
microwave transmission.
• Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is
susceptible to weather condition. This means that any environmental
change such as rain, wind can distort the signal.
• Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of
microwave transmission.
Satellite Microwave Communication
• A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a
known height.
• Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more
flexibility than cable and fibre optic systems.
• We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite
communication.
How Does Satellite work?
• The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth
station, and it amplifies the signal. The amplified signal is
retransmitted to another earth station.
Advantages Of Satellite Microwave
Communication
• The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial
microwave.
• The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance
from the centre of the coverage area.
• Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless
communication applications.
• It is easy to install.
• It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting,
radio/TV signal broadcasting, mobile communication, etc.
Disadvantages Of Satellite Microwave
Communication
• Satellite designing and development requires more time and
higher cost.
• The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on
regular periods so that it remains in orbit.
• The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this
reason, another launch of the satellite has to be planned
before it becomes non-functional.
Infrared
• An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for
communication over short ranges.
• The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
• It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer
between two cell phones, TV remote operation, data transfer
between a computer and cell phone resides in the same closed area.
Characteristics Of Infrared
• It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
• Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls. Therefore, the infrared
communication in one room cannot be interrupted by the nearby
rooms.
• An infrared communication provides better security with minimum
interference.
• Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the
sun rays will interfere with the infrared waves.
Multiplexing
• Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the
multiple data streams over a single medium. The process of
combining the data streams is known as multiplexing and
hardware used for multiplexing is known as a multiplexer.
• Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer
(MUX) that combines n input lines to generate a single
output line. Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n input
lines and one output line.
Demultiplexing
• Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called
Demultiplexer (DEMUX) available at the receiving end.
DEMUX separates a signal into its component signals (one
input and n outputs). Therefore, we can say that
demultiplexing follows the one-to-many approach.
• Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of available bandwidth
to achieve specific goals. Efficiency can be achieved by
multiplexing; privacy and antijamming can be achieved by
spreading.
Why Multiplexing
• The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to
receiver. The medium can only have one signal at a time.
• If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium
must be divided in such a way that each signal is given some portion of
the available bandwidth. For example: If there are 10 signals and
bandwidth of medium is100 units, then the 10 unit is shared by each
signal.
• When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility
of collision. Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such collision.
• Transmission services are very expensive.
History of Multiplexing
• Multiplexing technique is widely used in telecommunications in which
several telephone calls are carried through a single wire.
• Multiplexing originated in telegraphy in the early 1870s and is now
widely used in communication.
• George Owen Squier developed the telephone carrier multiplexing in
1910.
Concept of Multiplexing
• The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and
multiplexer combines the signals to form a composite signal.
• The composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer and
demultiplexer separates a signal to component signals and transfers
them to their respective destinations.
Advantages of Multiplexing
• More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.
• The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.
Categories of multiplexing
Multiplexing Process
• Each source generates a signal of a similar frequency range.
• Inside the multiplexer, these similar signals modulates different
carrier frequencies (F1, F2, and Fn).
• The resulting modulated signals are then combined into a single
composite signal that is sent out over a media link that has enough
bandwidth to accommodate it.
Demultiplexing Process
• The demultiplexer uses a series of filters to decompose the
multiplexed signal into its constituent component signals.
• The individual signals are then passed to a demodulator that
separates them from their carriers and passes them to the output
lines.
Example
Assume that a voice channel occupies a
bandwidth of 4 kHz. We need to combine three
voice channels into a link with a bandwidth of 12
kHz, from 20 to 32 kHz. Show the configuration,
using the frequency domain. Assume there are no
guard bands.
Solution
• We shift (modulate) each of the three voice channels to a different
bandwidth, as shown in Figure 6.6.
• We use the 20- to 24-kHz bandwidth for the first channel, the 24- to 28-
kHz bandwidth for the second channel, and the 28- to 32-kHz bandwidth
for the third one.
• Then we combine them as shown in Figure 6.6. At the receiver, each
channel receives the entire signal, using a filter to separate out its own
signal.
• The first channel uses a filter that passes frequencies between 20 and 24
kHz and filters out (discards) any other frequencies.
• The second channel uses a filter that passes frequencies between 24
and 28 kHz, and the third channel uses a filter that passes frequencies
between 28 and 32 kHz. Each channel then shifts the frequency to start
from zero.
Frequency-Division Multiplexing
• Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technique that
can be applied when the bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than
the combined bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted.
• In FOM, signals generated by each sending device modulate different
carrier frequencies.
• These modulated signals are then combined into a single composite
signal that can be transported by the link.
• Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to
accommodate the modulated signal.
Frequency-Division Multiplexing
• These bandwidth ranges are the channels through which the various
signals travel.
• Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth-guard
bands-to prevent signals from overlapping.
• In addition, carrier frequencies must not interfere with the original
data frequencies.
• Following Figure gives a conceptual view of FDM. In this illustration,
the transmission path is divided into three parts, each representing a
channel that carries one transmission.
FDM
• In FDM, we can observe a lot of inter-channel cross-talk, due to the
fact that in this type of multiplexing the bandwidth is divided into
frequency channels.
• In order to prevent the inter-channel cross talk, unused strips of
bandwidth must be placed between each channel.
• These unused strips between each channel are known as guard
bands.
• Advantages Of FDM:
o FDM is used for analog signals.
o FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
o A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.
o It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.

• Disadvantages Of FDM:
o FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.
o It suffers the problem of crosstalk.
o A Large number of modulators are required.
o It requires a high bandwidth channel.
• Applications Of FDM:
• FDM is commonly used in TV networks.
• It is used in FM and AM broadcasting. Each FM radio
station has different frequencies, and they are multiplexed
to form a composite signal. The multiplexed signal is
transmitted in the air.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
• Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except that the optical
signals are transmitted through the fibre optic cable.
• WDM is used on fibre optics to increase the capacity of a single fibre.
• It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fibre optic cable.
• It is an analog multiplexing technique.
• Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider band of
light with the help of multiplexer.
• At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit them
to their respective destinations.
• Multiplexing and Demultiplexing can be achieved by using a prism.
• Prism can perform a role of multiplexer by combining the various optical
signals to form a composite signal, and the composite signal is transmitted
through a fibre optical cable.
• Prism also performs a reverse operation, i.e., demultiplexing the signal.
 Time Division Multiplexing
• It is a digital technique.
• In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate at the same time with
different frequency, but in case of Time Division Multiplexing technique, all signals operate
at the same frequency with different time.
• In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the channel is distributed
among different users. Therefore, each user is allocated with different time interval known
as a Time slot at which data is to be transmitted by the sender.
• A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.
• In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted simultaneously rather the
data is transmitted one-by-one.
• In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames contain a cycle of time slots
in which each frame contains one or more slots dedicated to each user.
• It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly used to multiplex
digital signals.
Types of TDM
• Synchronous TDM
• Asynchronous TDM
Synchronous TDM
• A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is preassigned
to every device.
• In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot irrespective
of the fact that the device contains the data or not.
• If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.
• In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time
slots are organized in the form of frames. If a device does not have
data for a particular time slot, then the empty slot will be transmitted.
• The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing, ISDN
multiplexing, and SONET multiplexing.
• If there are n devices, then there are n slots.
Concept Of Synchronous TDM
Disadvantages Of Synchronous TDM
• The capacity of the channel is not fully utilized as the empty slots are
also transmitted which is having no data. In the above figure, the first
frame is completely filled, but in the last two frames, some slots are
empty. Therefore, we can say that the capacity of the channel is not
utilized efficiently.
• The speed of the transmission medium should be greater than the
total speed of the input lines. An alternative approach to the
Synchronous TDM is Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing
Asynchronous TDM
• An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.
• An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not fixed as in
the case of Synchronous TDM. Time slots are allocated to only those devices
which have the data to send. Therefore, we can say that Asynchronous Time
Division multiplexor transmits only the data from active workstations.
• An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically allocates the time slots to the
devices.
• In Asynchronous TDM, total speed of the input lines can be greater than the
capacity of the channel.
• Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor accepts the incoming data streams
and creates a frame that contains only data with no empty slots.
• In Asynchronous TDM, each slot contains an address part that
identifies the source of the data.

• The difference between Asynchronous TDM and Synchronous TDM is

that many slots in Synchronous TDM are unutilized, but in
Asynchronous TDM, slots are fully utilized. This leads to the smaller
transmission time and efficient utilization of the capacity of the
channel.
• In Synchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are n
time slots. In Asynchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then
there are m time slots where m is less than n (m<n).
• The number of slots in a frame depends on the statistical analysis of
the number of input lines.
Concept Of Asynchronous TDM
Concepts on spread spectrum
• Spread spectrum is a technique used for wireless communications in
telecommunication and radio communication.
• In this technique, the frequency of the transmitted signal, i.e., an
electrical signal, electromagnetic signal, or acoustic signal, is
deliberately varied and generates a much greater bandwidth than the
signal would have if its frequency were not varied.
• In other words, "Spread Spectrum is a technique in which the
transmitted signals of specific frequencies are varied slightly to obtain
greater bandwidth as compared to initial bandwidth."
Example of Spread Spectrum
• We know that a conventional wireless signal frequency is usually specified in
megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz).
• It does not change with time (Sometimes it is exceptionally changed in the form of
small, rapid fluctuations that generally occur due to modulation).
• Suppose you want to listen to FM stereo at frequency 104.8 MHz on your radio,
and then once you set the frequency, the signal stays at 104.8 MHz.
• It does not go up to 105.1 MHz or down to 101.1 MHz.
• You see that your set digits on the radio's frequency dial stay the same at all times.
• The frequency of a conventional wireless signal is kept as constant to keep
bandwidth within certain limits, and the signal can be easily located by someone
who wants to retrieve the information.
In this conventional wireless
communication model, you can face
at least two problems
• A signal whose frequency is constant is subject to catastrophic
interference. This interference occurs when another signal is
transmitted on or near the frequency of a specified signal.
• A constant-frequency signal can easily be intercepted. So, it is not
suitable for the applications in which information must be kept
confidential between the source (transmitting party) and the receiver.
Reasons to use Spread Spectrum
• Spread spectrum signals are distributed over a wide range of
frequencies and then collected and received back to the receiver. On
the other hand, wide-band signals are noise-like and challenging to
detect.
• Initially, the spread spectrum was adopted in military applications
because of its resistance to jamming and difficulty intercepting.
• Now, this is also used in commercial wireless communication.
• It is most preferred because of its useful bandwidth utilization ability.
Usage of Spread Spectrum
• It can successfully establish a secure medium of communication.
• It can increase the resistance to natural interference, such as noise
and jamming, to prevent detection.
• It can limit the power flux density (e.g., in satellite down links).
• It can enable multiple-access communications.
Types of Spread Spectrum
Frequency Hopping Spread
Spectrum (FHSS)
• The Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS allows us to utilize
bandwidth properly and maximum. In this technique, the whole
available bandwidth is divided into many channels and spread
between channels, arranged continuously.
• The frequency slots are selected randomly, and frequency signals are
transmitted according to their occupancy.
• The transmitters and receivers keep on hopping on channels available
for a particular amount of time in milliseconds.
• So, you can see that it implements the frequency division multiplexing
and time-division multiplexing simultaneously in FHSS.
Frequency Hopping Spread
Spectrum or FHSS can also be
classified into two types
• Slow Hopping: In slow hopping, multiple bits are transmitted on a
specific frequency or same frequency.
• Fast Hopping: In fast hopping, individual bits are split and then
transmitted on different frequencies
Advantages of Frequency Hopping
Spread Spectrum
• The biggest advantage of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS is its high efficiency.
• The Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS signals are highly resistant to
narrowband interference because the signal hops to a different frequency band.
• It requires a shorter time for acquisition.
• It is highly secure. Its signals are very difficult to intercept if the frequency-hopping pattern
is not known; that's why it is preferred to use in Military services.
• We can easily program it to avoid some portions of the spectrum.
• Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS transmissions can share a frequency band
with many types of conventional transmissions with minimal mutual interference. FHSS
signals add minimal interference to narrowband communications, and vice versa.
• It provides a very large bandwidth.
• It can be simply implemented as compared to DsSS.