FOREST SOIL MANAGEMENT

FES-512

Dr. Mahmuda Sharmin

Dept. of Forestry and Env. Science
Shahjalal University of Science and Technology
Sylhet
 Soils
Soils are natural unconsolidated materials on the
surface of the earth.
The soil is a natural body of mineral organic constituents
differentiated into horizons of variable depths, which differs
from the materials below in morphology, physical makeup,
chemical properties and composition and biological
characteristics (Joffe 1949)
Soils have evolved through natural processes as a dynamic
and a three-dimensional body.
Soils have three phases—solid, liquid, and gas.

• The solid phase contains organic and inorganic materials

intimately mixed together by natural processes.
• The liquid phase consists of water with dissolved salts, acids,
bases, and ions.
• The gaseous phase consists of soil air which renews from time
to time from the atmosphere.
So, soil has four major components—mineral matter, organic
matter, water, and air.

Soils support plant growth by providing anchorage, nutrients, water,

air, and warmth and protecting from toxins.

Soils have many crucial ecological functions:

it is a transformer of energy;
it is a recycler of materials;
it is a purifier of water;
 Soil Profile
• Eluviation and illuviation occur
simultaneously.
• Eluviation involves the removal of
nutrients and organic material from
superficial horizons.
• While illuviation involves the deposition of
these nutrients and organic materials in
deeper horizons, forming horizons in
• organic materials.
The regolith includes all of the weathered
material and unconsolidated materials within
the profile.
 Formation of Soil

• Climate as a soil-forming factor

• Time as a soil-forming factor
• Organisms as soil-forming factor
• Parent materials as a soil-forming factor
• Topography as a soil-forming factor
 Formation of Soil
• Climate as a soil-forming factor

Conditions of rainfall, temperature, humidity, solar radiation,

day-length, etc. at a place over a long period is called climate.

Climatic conditions at a place depend on geographic location,

elevation, velocity and direction of prevalent wind, position of
land in relation to sea, ocean, and mountains, characteristics
of oceanic current, etc.
 Formation of Soil
• Climate as a soil-forming factor (2)

Water acts as a reactant and a medium of translocation. As rainfall

increases, rate of weathering, depth of weathering, diversity of
weathering products, formation of clay, release of soluble
substances, and organic matter production increase.
In very dry conditions, physical weathering is relatively intense
and the resulting parent material is sandy. Due to scarcity of
water there is little chemical weathering and inadequate
leaching.
Temperature regulates the rate of chemical reactions. For every
10°C rise in temperature, the rate of chemical reactions is almost
doubled. Increased weathering and clay formation occur with an
average increase in soil temperature at optimum soil moisture
level.
Both organic matter production and decomposition increase with the
increase in soil temperature. The organic matter content of soil is the
balance between organic matter production and mineralization.

Mineralization in soil science is the decomposition (i.e., oxidation) of the chemical

compounds in organic matter, by which the nutrients in those compounds are released in
soluble inorganic forms that may be available to plants.
Mineralization is the opposite of immobilization.
 • Parent materials as a soil-forming factor
Parent materials are the main raw materials from which a soil is
ultimately formed. So, many of the properties of parent materials
may inherit to the resulting soils. Soil texture is mainly inherited from
the parent materials.
Coarse-textured parent materials generally produce coarse-
textured soils. Mineralogical and chemical compositions of parent
materials are also very important in soil formation. For example,
acid-parent materials tend to produce acid soils. Lime-rich parent
materials produce calcareous soils. The mineralogical composition
and fertility of soil also depend on the mineralogical composition of
the parent materials.
• Climate as a soil-forming factor
• Time as a soil-forming factor
• Organisms as soil-forming factor
• Parent materials as a soil-forming factor
• Topography as a soil-forming factor
 Forest Soil

Forest soils, where soil formation has been influenced by forest

vegetation, are generally characterized by deeply rooted trees,
significant ‘litter layers’ or O horizons, recycling of organic matter
and nutrients, including wood, and
wide varieties of soil-dwelling organisms.

There are also soils now covered with forest vegetation, often
plantations, on lands that were not naturally forest.
 Forest Soil (2)

Like other soils, forest soils have developed, and are developing, from
geological parent materials in various topographic positions
interacting with climates and organisms.

Forest soils may be young, or ‘mature,’ in relatively stable landscape

positions.

Just as forest vegetation of the world varies greatly, so do forest soils,

e.g., they are shallow, deep, sandy, clayey, wet, arid, frigid, or warm
 Forest Soil (3)
Many forest soils are shallow and low in organic matter and water-holding
capacity, on steep, rocky landscapes, in mountainous areas of the world, e.g.,
some of the Norwegian and Swedish mountains, the Alps, the Andes, and Rocky
Mountains of North America, and in arid environments, e.g., in Mediterranean
countries, parts of Chile, Mexico, and the ponderosa pine regions of the western
USA.

In large areas of Canada, the US Lake States, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and
Siberian Russia, forests grow on soils that are shallow, often very wet, on
peatlands of several types, and on some soils with permafrost.

These forests are slow-growing, due in part to limited nutrient- and water-
supplying capacities, shallow rooting potentials, and cold temperatures of the
 Physical properties of forest soils

• Almost permanent properties unless modified by harvesting operations,

shifting cultivation, and forest fires.
• Include texture, structure, porosity, density, aeration, temperature,
water retention, and movement.
• Affect every aspect of soil fertility and productivity.
• Determine the ease of root penetration, the availability of water and
the ease of water absorption by plants, the amount of oxygen and other
gases in the soil, and the degree to which water moves
 Forest soil Agricultural soil

Chemical constituents of forest soil may Chemical constituents of agricultural soil is

be unbalanced balanced

Forest soil in the virgin condition Agricultural soil lacks in a pure organic layer
generally exhibit awell defined horizon but contains a disturbed plough layer
consisting of organic matter

Activity of root in the surface to No well defined root activity in surface to

subsurface horizon is observed subsurface horizon

An artificial horizon can not be developed An artificial horizon due to ploughing is created
in the upper layer of forest soil in the upper 6 inches of agricultural soil
 Forest soil Agricultural soil

Land with limitations such as hilly Most fertile land is used for
topography, salinity, stoniness, toxicity, agriculture
droughtiness, poor drainage and shallow
soil depth is generally used for forest
creation

Unique micro flora and fauna are present Unique micro flora and fauna like forest soil
in the forest soil are not present in agricultural soil
 Why do forest soils need to be managed?

A good O horizon prevents erosion and loss of sediments into streams.

Soils sustain
life
Forests can reduce mountain soils’ sensitivity to
degradation
clean water and watershed management

Soil conservation in semi-arid and arid areas starts with forests and trees

Climate change: what forests and forest soils

do
 Soils
particles.
Primary particles and secondary particles. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)
Individual discrete particles are called primary the International Soil Science Society (ISSS)
particles and their aggregates are known as
secondary particles.

Particles greater than 2 mm diameter are

known as gravels which include pebbles (2–7.5
cm), cobbles (7.5–25 cm), stones (25–60 cm),
and boulders (> 60 cm).

Although particles larger than 2 mm are less

common and they hardly affect soil fertility and
productivity, many productive forests have
developed on gravelly or stony soils.
Characteristics of Soil Particles
Sand: Sand particles are mainly
fragments of quartz and some
feldspars and mica. They have little
surface area exposed (0.1 m2 g−1
specific area).
Sand particles are visible to the
naked eye, gritty in feeling, have
little or no capacity to hold water or
nutrients, and bind other particles.
They are loose when wet, very loose
when dry. Sand does not absorb
water and does not exhibit swelling
and shrinkages, stickiness and
 Characteristics of Soil Particles

Silt: Silt particles are also fragments

Clay: Clay particles are mainly
of primary minerals. Most silt particles
secondary minerals.
are not visible to the naked eye, but
can be seen through an ordinary
Clay particles can be seen by an
microscope.
electron microscope and have large
surface area (10–1000 m2 g−1).
They feel smooth when wet and like
They have electrical charges, both
talcum powder when dry.
negative and positive, on their surfaces.
They have low to medium capacity to
attract water, nutrients and other
Because of these properties, clays have
particles.
high water and nutrient-holding
Because of adhering film of clay, they
capacity and they participate in
exhibit some plasticity, cohesion,
chemical reactions in the soil.
 When a soil equally exhibits the
Soil texture
properties of sand, silt, and clay, then
Soil texture refers to the degree of fineness or it is called loam (approximately 40%

coarseness created by the close packing of sand, 40% silt, and 20% clay).

variously sized particles together in a soil.

It is determined by the relative proportion of
sand, silt, and clay in a soil.

12 textural classes have so far been

identified. They are (from coarse to fine) sand,
loamy sand, sandy loam, loam, silt loam, silt,
sandy clay loam, clay loam, silty clay loam,
sandy clay, silty clay, and clay. Soil texture is
not usually changed by management
practices.
 Soil Organic Matter
(SOM)
“all organic materials found in soils irrespective of origin or state of
decomposition.”

Amount of SOM that exists in any given soil is determined by the balance between
inputs from biota (vegetation, roots, microorganisms, animals) and output (CO2
from microbial decomposition).

Soil type, climate, topography, soil biota, mineral composition, management, and
their interactions are modifying factors that will affect the total amount of SOM in a
soil and its distribution within the profile.
Mineral soils may contain on an average 5 % organic matter by volume.
Organic soils may have more than 80 % organic matter by volume.
SOM concentrations are major indicators of soil quality.

Sources of Organic Matter in Forest Soil

• Forest vegetations continuously cast litters from the above- and belowground
parts. Litters are dead parts of the forest vegetation, including leaves, branches,
twigs, flowers, fruits, barks, and even large logs, existing in various stages of
decomposition above the soil surface.

• Litters may also include dead bodies of soil animals, insects, etc.
• Plant leachate, sloughed cells, and root exudates are other sources of organic matter
from vegetation.
Dead aboveground and burrowing animals also significantly contribute to the
forest SOM since forests are habitats of a large group of big and small animals.

They suggested that a tropical forest may

shed on average 10 t ha−1 aboveground
litters annually in comparison to 5 t ha−1 in
temperate and 3 t ha−1 in boreal forests.

Important factors were climate (rainfall and temperature), topography, soil, age of
forest (in case of plantations), altitude, latitude, etc.
 Categories of
SOM
1. Fresh or undecomposed organic matter Fresh SOM includes freshly

fallen leaves, twigs, branches, flowers, fruits, dead animal tissue, etc., if

they have been incorporated into the soil. These materials begin to

decompose immediately after their incorporation.

2. Partially decomposed organic matter It includes organic residues in

soil that have undergone decomposition to a considerable extent. The

structure and origin of the materials may or may not be identified.

 Categories of SOM

3. Fully decomposed (2)

SOM or humus undergoes decomposition for a considerable time,

say some hundreds or thousands of years, and that further decomposition proceeds

extremely slow. Humus may be defined as a brown to black, amorphous, colloidal

organic matter (considered as the most chemically active portion of the soil) that has

undergone decomposition to such an extent that it has become stabilized with soil

constituents.
Humus is fairly resistant to decomposition due to its physical state and chemical

nature. Humus is present as a coating on soil particles, as gum within aggregates,

and as organo-mineral complexes, which make them inaccessible to decomposing

organisms.
Functions of the soil organic matter in forest soil
 Forest Floor
The continuous layer of organic residues developed on the surface of a forest soil by the
accumulation of fallen litters is popularly known as forest floor in forestry literature. It is
actually the organic O horizon, most frequently developed on the surface of temperate and
boreal forests and rarely in humid tropical forests.
 Forest Floor

• The L layer consists of fresh, undecomposed litter.

• The F layer lies immediately below the L layer and consists

of fragmented organic materials in a stage of partial

decomposition. This layer is dominated by organic

materials in cellular form, and fungi and bacteria are

common.

• Beneath the F layer lies the H or humus layer, primarily

consisting of amorphous, resistant products of

decomposition and with lower proportions of organic

matter in cellular form.

 Mor humus
• Develop in cooler climates,
• Often characterized by coniferous vegetation.
• Decomposition in the forest floor is slow and incomplete, resulting in
a thick organic layer.
• The litter of coniferous species contains high concentrations of
phenolic substances and lignin that yield acid decomposition
residues.
• The soil solution often has a pH as low as 4.0.
• Fungi predominate over bacteria.
• Earthworm populations are low in mor forest floors, which results in
little fragmentation and mixing with the underlying soil (Phillipson et
al., 1978).
 Mull humus

• Typically found under deciduous forests in warm temperate climates.

• Decomposition is more rapid, residues are less acidic, and earthworms

are more abundant.

• Bacteria play a greater role in decomposition processes

• The pH is higher -5.0–7.0,

• Fragmentation and mixing often make differentiation of the forest

floor difficult (Pedro et al., 1978).

 Soil
Structure
Soil structure is the arrangement of soil particles into units of
different sizes and shapes. These units are called peds or aggregates
and the processes of formation of peds are collectively called
aggregation.

• Soil structure refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of solids and
voids, continuity of pores and voids,
• Their capacity to retain and to transmit fluids and organic and
inorganic substances, and
• Ability to support vigorous root growth and development.
 Soil
Structure

There are four types of soil structure

• spheroidal (granular and crumb),

• block- like (angular blocky and sub-

angular blocky),

• plate-like, and

• prism-like (prismatic and columnar)

 Formation of Soil
Structure
Aggregation results from complex interactions of many factors including
the environment, soil management, plant influences, and soil properties,
such as mineral composition, texture, soil organic matter, pedogenic
processes, microbial activities, exchangeable ions, nutrient reserves, and
moisture availability

There are several mechanisms of aggregation. Aggregates are formed

in stages, with different bonding mechanisms dominating at each
stage. Aggregation results from the rearrangement of particles, and
cementation.
 Formation of Soil
Structure

Sand and silt particles are inert materials. They can come closer
but cannot hold themselves together because they do not
possess the power of adhesion and cohesion. Clays form
coatings on them and cement several sand and silt particles into
a larger unit. Soil particles are bound mechanically by plant roots
and fungal hyphae. There are also various chemical compounds
which act as cements and gums in soils.
 Soil
Biology
Many organisms, both macro- and micro- flora and fauna, live in the forest floor and mineral
layers of the forest soil.

Macrofloras include plant roots, which function

in water storage, drainage, aeration, and
nutrient cycling in soil by their proliferation,
death, and decay.
Soil microflora includes algae, bacteria, and
fungi, which act on organic matter and mineral
transformations.
Organic matter decomposition, humification,
mineralization, nitrogen fixation, etc., are
some important transformations mediated by
forest soil microflora.
 Soil
Biology
 The principal functions of soil macrofauna in
forest soils
Soil Mixing Ants, termites, earthworms, and ground beetles can move huge
quantities of soil, bringing back to the surface mineral matters from deeper
horizons and burying the organic matter from the surface horizons, from litter and
from excre- ments.

Gallery construction Gallery (burrow) formation is very important for soil aeration
and water flux. For example, earth- worms and termites develop networks of galleries
that improve large spaces in the soil macroporosity by 20–100 % (Edwards and Bohlen
1996).
Litter fragmentation The fragmentation of dead wood (high lignin material), carcass,
and litter is one of the most important activities of soil fauna. It has a major effect on
organic matter evolution in soil, conditioning the activity of bacteria, fungi, and
microfauna populations.
Aggregation Earthworms, termites, millipedes, centipedes, and woodlice
ingest soil particles with their food and contribute to aggregate formation
by mixing organic and mineral matter in their gut.

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (2008)

summarized the functions of soil macrofauna as:
Maintenance of soil structure: Bioturbating invertebrates and plant roots
Regulation of hydrological processes: Bioturbating inver- tebrates and plant
roots
Nutrient cycling: Soil and litter-feeding invertebrates
Decomposition of organic matter: Saprophytic and litter-feeding invertebrate
detritivores
Suppression of pests and parasites: Nematodes, earth- worms, and various
predators
Mycorrhizae, their forms and functions in tree growth
Mycorrhizae, their forms and functions in tree growth
 Density, Porosity, and
Compaction
Density is defined as the mass per unit volume.
Bulk density is estimated by dividing the mass (dry weight, usually after
oven drying at 105 °C until constant weight) by total volume of soil (volume
of solid + volume of pores)
Particle density is estimated by dividing mass by the volume of the solids.
If a core of soil has a total volume VT, which is the sum of the volume of
solids, VS and volume of pores, VP and if the dry weight of the soil is WS,
then
 Density, Porosity, and
Compaction
Density is defined as the mass per unit volume.
Bulk density is estimated by dividing the mass (dry weight, usually after
oven drying at 105 °C until constant weight) by total volume of soil (volume
of solid + volume of pores)
Particle density is estimated by dividing mass by the volume of the solids.
If a core of soil has a total volume VT, which is the sum of the volume of
solids, VS and volume of pores, VP and if the dry weight of the soil is WS,
then