ATOMIC PHYSICS

The Nuclear Atom and Radioactivity

The Nuclear Atom

In 1911 Geiger and Marsden
performed series of experiments under
the direction of Rutherford which led
to the planetary or nuclear model of
atom.
Rutherford’s experiment on the scattering of alpha
particles

The radioactive material kept inside a thick lead

box emits alpha particles. Beam of alpha particles
are then allowed to fall on a thin gold foil in a
vacuum place.
While passing through the gold foil, the
alpha particles are scattered through
different angles, but few were repelled so
strongly that they bounced back.
Rutherford concluded that the atom must be
largely empty space, with the positive charge and
most of its mass concentrated in a tiny nucleus at
the center. In his model much lighter electrons
orbited the nucleus.

Atom
• Matter is made up of very small particles called
atoms
• Each atom has a very small and very dense core
called nucleus. Most of the mass of atom is
contained in the nucleus
• The electrons move in orbits around the nucleus.
• There are a lot of empty spaces within atom
• A nucleus consists of a number of protons
and neutrons.
• Protons and neutrons also known as
nucleons.
• A proton has a unit positive charge.
• A neutron is an uncharged particle of about
the same mass as the proton.
• An atom is neutral because it contains an
equal number of negatively charged
electrons. So the net charge is zero.
e
n e
e
p n p n
p p n
p
e n n
e

Helium

Lithium
Nuclide
A nuclide is an atom of a particular structure. Each
element has nucleus with a specific number of
protons.

Nuclide notation
A = nucleon number (mass number)
Z = proton number (atomic number)
X = chemical symbol of the element

Example
Proton number (atomic number) of carbon = 6,
carbon nucleus has 6 protons. The nucleon number
(mass number) of carbon is 12. So the number of
neutrons in carbon nucleus is 12 – 6 = 6
Question : Describe the structure of
lithium atom.
e
e
p n
p n
p
n n
e

Lithium

The atom of lithium atom of nucleus

consists of 3 protons and 4 neutrons.
Around the nucleus 3 electrons are
orbiting.
Proton number (atomic number)
Proton number, Z, is defined as the number of
protons in a nucleus.
The number of electrons = the number of
protons
An element is identified by its proton number

Nucleon number (mass number)

Nucleon number, A is defined as the total
number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus.
Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms with the same proton
(atomic) number but different nucleon (mass)
number.
Example: Hydrogen deuterium
tritium
Isotopes of an element contain the same
number of protons and the same number of
electrons. So isotopes have the same chemical
properties chemical reactions involve the
electrons in an atom. However they have
different physical properties because their mass
is different.
Some isotopes exist naturally. Isotopes can also
be made artificially.
 Radioactivity
Radioactivity is the spontaneous and random
disintegration (decay) of an unstable nucleus
accompanied by the emission of energetic
particles or photons.

• The nuclei of some atoms are unstable. The

nucleus of an unstable atom will decay to
become more stable by emitting radiation in the
form of a particle or electromagnetic radiation.

• Random process means there is no way to tell

which nucleus will decay, and cannot predict
when it is going to decay.
.
• A spontaneous process means the
process is not triggered by any external
factors such as temperature of pressure

There are three types of radiation that is

alpha (α), beta (β) and gamma (γ).
Characteristics of alpha beta and
gamma
Characteristic Alpha (α) Beta (β) Gamma (γ)
Nature Helium nuclei or Electrons, Electromagnetic
2 p and 2 n radiation.
Mass 4 1/2000 0
Charge +2e -e Neutral
Speed Slow Fast Speed of light
Ionizing ability High Medium Low
Penetrating Low Medium High
power
Stopped by A few cm of air or a A few mm of A few cm of lead
piece of paper aluminium foil
Deflected by
electric and Yes Yes No
magnetic fields
Ionizing effect
• Radioactive emission has an ionizing effect
• The 3 types of radiation are highly energetic
and use their energy to remove electrons
from the air molecules when they pass through
air.
• The ionization of an atom produces positive
ion and negative ion (electron)
• Due to their different charges and masses,
they have different ionizing abilities.
 Alpha Beta Gamma

Dense – strong ionization Very fast beta particles - The gamma rays do not
power straight tracks - the thin, straight tracks. The produce clear or continuous
alpha particle has a large slower beta particles - tracks due to their low
mass and momentum so it short, thick tracks which ionizing power
is not easily deflected curve in random direction.
Penetrating power
• The penetrating effect of alpha, beta and gamma
radiation depends on their ionizing power.
• Radiation which has a stronger ionizing power will
have a lower penetrating effect.
• The radiation emission loses some of its energy each
time an ion pair is produced.
• Alpha particles lose energy very quick as they move
through a medium. After a short distance in the
medium, the alpha particles would have lost almost all
energy. So alpha particles have the lowest penetrating
power.
• Alpha particles can be stopped by paper,
beta particles can penetrate through
paper but can be stopped by thin metal
(aluminium). Gamma rays can go through
paper and metal sheet and can only be
stopped by thick lead or concrete.
 Interaction with electric field

• Alpha and beta particles are deflected in an electric

field because they are charged. The deflections are in
opposite direction because they carry opposite
charges. The deflection of beta is larger than alpha
because mass of beta is less than mass of alpha.

• Gamma rays are not deflected because they do not

carry any charge.
Interaction with magnetic field

• Alpha particles and beta particles are also

deflected when they pass through a magnetic
field while gamma rays are unaffected.

• The direction of the deflection of alpha

particles in the magnetic field can be found
using Fleming’s left-hand rule.
Detectors for radioactive emissions
Radioactive emissions can be detected with the
help of Geiger-Muller tube (GM tube), gold leaf
electroscope, cloud chamber and spark counter.
Geiger-Muller tube (GM tube)
Cloud Chamber

• It shows the path traveled by the ionizing

radiation in air.
• The radioactive SOURCE produces ions in the air
that is saturated with alcohol vapour.
• The alcohol vapour condenses on the ions to
make the tracks of the radiation visible. Alpha
particles are best for this because it ionization
GEIGER MULLER COUNTER
• The radioactive emission enters the tube through the
mica window and ionizes the neon gas.
• The electrons and positive ions are attracted towards
the anode and cathode respectively.
• When electrons are collected by the anode, a pulse of
current is produces.
• The pulses of current are counted by a scaler or
ratemeter.
• The scaler gives the number of counts over a certain
period of time that is counts per minute / counts per
second.
• Initially the GM tube is switched on without the
presence of any radioactive substance. The reading
displayed by the ratemeter is known as the background
count rates.
• When the GM tube is used to detect radioactive
emission, the background count rate is subtracted from
the count rate obtained.
Notes:
Spark counter
• The spark counter consists of a wire gauze
and a thin wire below it.
• A high voltage is applied between the gauze
and the wire. The voltage is adjusted until it is
just below the value required to produce
sparks.
• When a radioactive source is brought near the
wire gauze, the radiation ionizes the air below
it. The motion of the ions to the gauze and the
wire causes sparks to be produced.
The spark can be seen and heard.
• Spark counters are suitable for alpha
particles. Beta particles and gamma rays
produce too few ions to produce sparks.
Safety precautions in handling
radioactive substances
Alpha, beta and gamma radiation can all
damage living cells. Alpha particles, due to
their strong ability to ionise other particles, are
particularly dangerous to human tissue.
Gamma radiation is dangerous because of its
high penetrating power. However cells have
repair mechanisms that make ordinary levels of
radiation relatively harmless.

Radioactive substances must always be

handled with the correct procedures to prevent
harmful effects to people and the environment.
Safety precaution for handling radioactive
materials include:
• Use forceps or tongs for handling
radioactive sources – don’t hold them
directly.

• Do not point radioactive sources at living

tissues.
• Store radioactive materials in lead-lined
containers – and lock containers away
securely.
• Wear laboratory coats, long pants, closed-toe
footwear and gloves when entering
radioactive place.

• Stronger radioactive sources should be

handled with robotic control systems behind
steel, concrete, lead or thick glass panels.
• Check the surrounding area for radiation
levels above the normal background levels.

Background radiation
The radioactive radiation present around the
environment because of radioactive materials
in the environment.
Background radiation is always present due to
natural radioactivity in the ground, bricks or
buildings, rocks and cosmic radiation (radiation
comes from stars and sun).
Radioactive decay
Radioactive decay is a self disintegrating
process which an unstable nucleus emits
nuclear radiation like alpha beta or gamma so
as to become stable.

• When a radioactive nucleus decays, its

nucleus breaks up, emits an alpha particle or
beta particle and energy, and forms a new
atom of a different element.

• A parent nuclide X changes into a daughter

nuclide Y.
Alpha decay
When a nucleus emits alpha particle, the
atomic number decreases by 2 units and it
mass number decreases by 4 units. And high
amount of energy released.
Beta decay
When a nucleus emits a beta particle, the
mass number does not change but the atomic
number increases by 1. and high amount of
energy released.
Gamma decay
Gamma emission does not change the
structure of the nucleus, it just makes the
nucleus more stable. Gamma rays are emitted
at the same time together with either an alpha
or beta particle. When a nucleus ejects an
alpha or beta particle, there is often some
excess energy produced which will be released
as gamma rays.
Half –life
The half-life T1/2 of a radioactive
substance is the time for half of the
radioactive nuclei to decay.
All radioactive substances decay with the
same pattern, as shown in the graphs below.
The graph shows that amount of substance
decrease rapidly at first and then more and
more slowly. We cannot say when the last atom
will decay. Different radioactive substances
decay at different rates some much faster than
others.

Question 1: The count-rate from a radioactive

source falls from 400 to 50 in 3.0 minutes.
What is the half-life?
The graph shows that amount of substance
decrease rapidly at first and then more and
more slowly. We cannot say when the last atom
will decay. Different radioactive substances
decay at different rates some much faster than
others.

Question 1: The count-rate from a radioactive

source falls from 400 to 50 in 3.0 minutes.
What is the half-life?
Ans : 1minutes
Question 2: The half-life of a radioisotope is
2400 years. The activity of a sample is 720
counts / s.
How long will it take for the activity to fall to
90 counts / s?

Question 3: The half-life of a radioactive

material is 24 years.
The activity of a sample falls to a fraction of its
initial value after 72 years.
What is the fraction?
Question 2: The half-life of a radioisotope is
2400 years. The activity of a sample is 720
counts / s.
How long will it take for the activity to fall to
90 counts / s?
Ans: 7200 years

Question 3: The half-life of a radioactive

material is 24 years.
The activity of a sample falls to a fraction of its
initial value after 72 years.
What is the fraction?
Ans: 1/8
Question 4: A radioactive isotope has a half-
life of 6000 years.
How much time passes before the rate of
emission from a sample of this isotope falls to
1/16 of its original value?

Question 5: Figure shows how the number of

atoms of a radioactive isotope changes with
time. Determine the half-
life of the
radioactive isotope.
Question 4: A radioactive isotope has a half-
life of 6000 years.
How much time passes before the rate of
emission from a sample of this isotope falls to
1/16 of its original value?
Ans : 2400 years.

Question 5: Figure shows how the number of

atoms of a radioactive isotope changes with
time. Determine the half-
life of the
radioactive isotope.
Ans: 12 s
Nuclear fission
Nuclear fission is the splitting of a heavy
nucleus into two lighter nuclei, when the
nucleus of an atom is bombarded with a
neutron.

The energy of the neutron causes the target

nucleus to split into two (or more) nuclei that
are lighter than the parent nucleus, releasing
When a neutron hits a uranium-235 nucleus,
causes it to split producing strontium-90,
xenon-143 and three neutrons + energy.

Use of nuclear fission

Electricity can be generated from the energy
released by fission reactions. A nuclear
power station consists of a nuclear reactor
and a generator.
Nuclear Heat energy Heat energy
energy Nuclear fission Heat exchanger of steam
of uranium in nuclear
reactor
turbine

Electrical generator Mechanica

energy l energy
Nuclear fusion
Nuclear fusion is the combining of two lighter
nuclei to form a heavier nucleus, releasing a
vast amount of energy during the process.

Nuclear fusion is believed to be the process by

which energy is released by the Sun. When
two hydrogen-2 nuclei moving at high speeds
collide, they can join together to produce
heavier nucleus. A large amount of energy is
A hydrogen bomb uses the principle of
nuclear fusion for its design.
Formation of star
Distribution of hydrogen and interstellar dust
in space may accidentally become so dense
that they contract under their own gravity,
causing temperature and density to rise.
When the mass starts to give a red glow, a
protostar is formed. When temperatures at
the center of the mass increase to ten-million
degrees Kelvin, hydrogen will fuse to form
helium in nuclear fusion reactions. Unlike
ordinary chemical reactions we are familiar
with, nuclear reactions convert one chemical
element into another such as from hydrogen
(H) to helium (He), releasing a lot of energy,
which causes the temperature to rise further.
The energy causes the surface to heat up, and
eventually, energy escapes from the mass as
radiation (heat and light). At some point in
time, the state is steady in that the amount of
energy released from fusion reactions equals
Carbon dating
Radioactive substances decay at a rate we can
determine, we can use them to discover how
old objects and animals are. The best-known
example of this is radiocarbon dating.

All living things contain carbon. Plant get this

from atmospheric carbon-dioxide, which they
use in photosynthesis. Plant-eating animals
get it from the plants they eat to build their
bodies. Meat eating animals get it from their
prey. Most carbon is carbon – 12 ( ),
which is not radioactive. A tiny fraction is
radioactive carbon – 14 ( ), with a half-life
of 5370 years. (It emits beta radiation)
The idea of radiocarbon dating is this. When a
living organism dies, the carbon – 14 in its
body decays. As time passes, the amount
remaining decreases. If we can measure the
amount remaining, we can work out when the
organism was alive.

There are two ways to measure the amount of

carbon – 14 present in an object.
• By measuring the activity of the sample
using a detector such as a Geiger counter.
• By counting the number of carbon – 14
atoms using a mass spectrometer.