S4 PHYSICS (complete what was remaining from these) 9/MAY/2023

MODERN PHYSICS
An atom
This is the smallest electrically neutral indivisible particle of an element that can take part in a
chemical reaction but cannot exist on its own.
Structure of a Sodium atom

Composition
The particles inside the nucleus of an atom are protons and neutrons, they are collectively called
nucleons.
Electrons are located outside the nucleus within circular orbits.
In a neutral atom the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons surrounding the
nucleus.
Charge
Protons are positively charged particles.
Electrons are negatively charged particles.
Neutrons are neutral particles without charge.
Symbols
Electron −10e
Proton 11H
Neutron 10n
Atomic Number (Z)
This is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. It is represented by the letter Z.
Mass number (A): This is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. ie
A=Z+N
Nuclide: This is an atom which has a specified number of protons and neutrons. A nuclide X of
mass number A and atomic number Z is represented by AZX
Eg sodium atom is symbolized by 23 11Na , A = 23 and Z = 11 Find the number of neutrons in the
nucleus of this atom
N=A-Z, N=23 – 11 = 12
The following symbols represent nuclides of copper and nickel respectively
53 60
29Cu and 28Ni Write down the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in each nuclide.
Isotopes These are atoms of the same element with the same atomic number but different mass
numbers.
The difference in mass number is caused by the isotopes having a different number of neutrons.
Examples Hydrogen 11H, Deuterium 21H and Tritium 31H

Chlorine 35 37
17Cl and 17Cl

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Neon 10Ne and 22
10Ne

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RADIOACTIVITY
This is the spontaneous, random disintegration of the unstable nucleus of an atom forming stable
nuclides by emission of radiations.
The radiations emitted are alpha particles (α), beta particles (β) and gamma rays (γ).

Nuclear Equations
Alpha particle (α): This is a helium nuclei of mass number 4 and atomic number 2.In nuclear
reactions it is written as α = 42He
During alpha decay the mass number of the parent nuclide decreases by 4 and the atomic number
decreases by 2. ie.
A A−4 4
ZX → Z−2Y + 2He

The first law of radioactivity

When an element disintegrates by the emission of an alpha particle it turns into an element with
chemical properties similar to those of an element two places earlier in the periodic table.
Polonium decays by emission of an alpha particle and it is transformed into a stable element lead
(Pb)

Eg. 210
84Po →
206 4
82Pb + 2He

Beta particle (β): This is an electron of negligible mass and atomic number 1. In nuclear reactions it
is written as β = −10𝑒. During beta decay, the mass number of the parent nuclide remains unchanged
and the atomic number increases by 1.
A A 0
Ie ZX → Z+1Y + −1e

In the process a neutron is changed into a proton and an electron is produced.

1
0n → 11p + 0
−1e

The second law of radioactivity

When an element disintegrates by the emission of a beta particle it turns into an element with
chemical properties similar to those of an element one place later in the periodic table.
A radioisotope of Barium 13956Ba decays by emission of a beta particle and is transformed into a
stable isotope of lanthanum
139 139 0
56Ba → 57La + −1e
Gamma radiation (γ):
Gamma radiation does not affect the mass number or atomic number of the parent nuclide. They
are electromagnetic radiations moving at the speed of light.
Sample questions
1. Radium 22688Ra disintegrates by emission of an alpha particle to form radon (Rn). What is the
atomic number and mass number of radon? Write down the equation of the reaction.
2. An element X has mass number 228 and atomic number 90. It emits a beta particle forming Y.
write down the atomic symbol of Y.
3. A radioisotope of sodium atom decays by emission of a beta particle as shown in the equation
below. Find the values of A and Z
24 A 0
11Na → ZY + −1e

4. Uranium 22888U disintegrates emitting one alpha particle and gamma radiation and changes into an
isotope of thorium (Th). Write an equation for this change.
5. 232 228 228
90X → 88Y → 89Z → 89Z
228
L M N

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Identify the particles or radiations L, M and N emitted in the decay shown in the equation.
(𝑖) (𝑖𝑖) (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
6. 234 234
90𝐴 → 91𝐵 →
234
92𝐶 →
230
90𝐷
The above equation shows three stages of radioactive series. Name the particles emitted at each
stage.
Nature of radiations (α, β, γ) from radioactive substances
Effect of a magnetic field
The deflection of radiation by a magnetic field can be demonstrated by placing a strong magnetic
field between the radiation source and a detector. The alpha particles have a relatively large mass
and are slightly deflected in a direction which shows that they are positively charged.
Beta particles are greatly deflected because of their small mass. Their direction of deflection shows
that they are negatively charged.
The gamma rays are not deflected because they have no charge.
The direction of deflection is determined using Fleming’s left hand rule.

Effect of an electric field

The alpha particles are deflected towards the negative plate because they are positively charged
The beta particles are deflected towards the positive plate because they are negatively charged.
There deflection is greater because of their negligible mass.
The gamma rays are not deflected because they have no charge.
They are electromagnetic waves in nature.

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Penetrating power of radiations

Alpha radiations are stopped by a thin sheet of paper.

Beta radiations can penetrate a thin sheet of paper but are stopped by an Aluminium foil.
Gamma rays can penetrate both a sheet of paper and aluminium foil but are stopped by a lead
block of a few centimetres thick.

Range in air.
The range in air of a radiation is the distance the radiation can penetrate in air before it is totally
absorbed.
Alpha particles have a range in air of a few centimetres because they are massive and therefore
cause strong ionisation as they pass through air.

Beta particles have a range in air of several metres because they are light and cause less ionisation
in air compared to alpha particles.

Gamma rays have a range in air of a few kilometers because they have no mass and cause the least
ionisation in air.

Properties of alpha particles, beta particles and gamma rays

Alpha particles
1. They are positively charged.
2. They are slightly deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
3. The cause the most ionization in air.
4. They travel slowly in air.
5. They have the least penetrating power and are stopped by a thin sheet of paper.

Beta particles
1. Are negatively charged
2. Are greatly deflected by electric and magnetic fields
3. Cause less ionization in air
4. They travel relatively faster than alpha particles
5. They are highly energetic compared to alpha particles
6. They have a relatively large penetrating power. Can penetrate a sheet of paper but are stopped
by an aluminum foil.
Gamma rays
1. They have no charge
2. They are not deflected in both electric and magnetic fields
3. They cause the least ionization
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4. They travel at the speed of light
5. They have the largest range in air
6. They have the most penetrating power and are only stopped by a thick lead block.
Detectors of radioactive radiations
1. Gold-leaf electroscope
2. Cloud chamber
3. Geiger-Muller tube
4. Ionization chamber
4. Photographic plate

How a gold-leaf is used to detect radiations

The gold leaf of a charged electroscope remains diverged, because the charges on the gold repel the
charges on the metal plate. Dry air is a good insulator, so charge on a charged electroscope cannot
escape.
When a radioactive source comes near the cap, the air is ionised and starts to conduct electricity.
This makes the charge on the electroscope "leak" away, discharging the electroscope. Hence the
gold leaf falls.
The rate at which the electroscope discharges is proportional to the radiation intensity.

Appearance of the three radiations in a cloud chamber

Alpha particle tracks
Since alpha particles are large, they are good ionisers and are less likely to be deviated. They
produce well defined thick, straight tracks.

Beta particle tracks

Beta particles are electrons and due to their small size they are poor ionisers and are easily
deviated. The tracks produced are thin wavy lines.

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Tracks of Gamma rays
Unlike alpha and beta particles gamma rays must hit the atom directly in order to ionize it this is
very unlikely so the tracks are not clearly defined.

HALF LIFE
This is the time taken for a radioactive element to decay to half of its original mass.
Determining the remaining mass after decay
For each half life that elapses the mass is successively reduced by half until the accumulated half
lives add up to the given time of decay. You end up with the mass that remains after the given
decay time has elapsed.
Example
Given 32g of a radioactive material whose half life is 20 days we can find the mass that remains
after 80 days
20days 20days 20days 20days
32g → 16g → 8g → 4g → 2g
Four half lives add up to 80days
The mass remaining is 2g
The mass that decayed = 32 – 2 = 30g

Alternative method
Given that the radioactive sample has an original mass of Mo and a half life of t 1⁄2 , the mass Mt
remaining after a radioactive substance has decayed for a time t is given by
Mo
Mt = n
2
t
Where n = t
1⁄2

Decayed mass = Mo - Mt
Considering the previous example
M0 = 32g 80
n=
t 1⁄2 = 20 days 20
t = 80 days n=4
Mt = 32g Mo
Mt = n
t 2
n=
t 1⁄2
32 32
Mt = 4 =
2 16
Mt = 2g

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Examples
1. A radioactive sample has a half life of 4 hours. If the initial mass of the sample is 96g, find how
much of the original sample will remain after 24 hours.
2. A radioactive sample has a half life of 24 days. If the initial mass of the sample is 38.4 g, find how
much of the original sample will remain after 96 days.
3. The half life of a radioactive substance is 10 s. How long will it take for a mass of 16 g of that
substance to reduce to 2 g?
4. The mass of a radioactive substance falls to a quarter of its original mass after 10 days. Calculate
its half life.
5. A sample of a radioactive material contains 1018 atoms. The half life of the material is 2000years.
Find;
(i) The number of atoms present after 6000years
(ii)The fraction of radioactive material decayed after this time
6. A 64g sample of a radioactive substance was reduced to 4g in 96 days. What is its half life? How
much will remain after another 96days?
7. 1⁄64 of a radioactive sample remains after 2 weeks. What is its half life?
8. The half life of the isotope cobalt-60 is five years. What fraction of the isotope remains after 1
year?
9. The mass of a radioactive sample decays to 1⁄32 of its original mass after12 days. Find the half
life of the substance.
10. In 168 seconds Thoron decays to one eighth of its original value. What is its half life?
11. A certain mass of radioactive material contains 2.7 × 1024 atoms. How many atoms would have
decayed after 3200 years if the half life of the material is 400 years?

(Leave a space of four pages in your books for solutions)

THE COUNT RATE

The count rate is the amount of radiation from a radioactive substance detected per second. Count
rate is measured using a Geiger Muller (GM) tube connected to a counter.
Count rate is measured in counts per second or counts per minute. The count rate decreases with
time as the number of unstable atoms in a radioactive substance reduces. This is shown on the
graph of count rate against time known as the decay curve.

Count Rate
(C/min) C0

C0
2

C0
4

t1 t2 Time in minutes

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Points to note about the decay curve
(i) In theory, every radioactive substance should stay slightly radioactive forever. The graph should
never actually fall to zero.
(ii) A decay curve is also represented by a graph of mass of the radioactive substance remaining
against time.
(iii) The activity is the total number of emission per second in all directions from the radioactive
substance.
(iv)The count rate is always much less than the activity of the source because count rate is
measured by detecting radiations from a small angle.

Finding half-life from the decay curve

From the graph the half-life is determined by finding the time taken for the count rate of the
radioactive sample to reduce by a half.
From the graph the count rate at a time t = 0 is C0 and that at a time t1 is Co⁄2. The half-life is t1
The count rate at a time t1 is Co⁄2and that at a time t2 is Co⁄4. The half life is t2 - t1
A number of half-lives are measured and their average value is calculated. The average value is the
half-life of the radioactive source.
Examples
1. The table below shows the count rate produced a radioactive source at different times
Count rate/min 1800 1360 1080 880 760 600 500 400
Time (min) 0 1 1.8 2.5 3 3.8 4.5 5.5
Plot a graph of count rate against time. Use the graph to calculate the half-life of the sample. How
long will it take the count rate to reduce to 625 counts per minute?
2. The table below shows the count rate produced a radioactive source at different times
Count rate/min 6400 5380 3810 2700 1910 1350 850 440
Time (min) 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13
Plot a graph of count rate against time. Use the graph to calculate the half-life of the sample. How
long will it take the count rate to reduce to 2000 counts per minute?
3. The table below shows results obtained in an experiment to determine the half-life of a
radioactive substance.
Count rate 250 175 76 38 25
Time (min) 0 5 10 15 10
Draw a graph of count rate against time and use it to determine the half-life of a radioactive
substance.
4. The half-life of a radioactive element is 24 days. Given an initial mass of the substance of 128g
calculate the mass remaining after the time shown in the table.
Mass (g) 128
Time (Days) 0 24 48 72 96 120 148
Plot a graph of mass against time and use it determine;
(i) The mass remaining after 55 days
(ii) How long will it take to remain with a mass of 32g?

5. A researcher measures 200 counts per minute coming from a radioactive source at midday. At 3
o'clock, she finds that this has dropped to 25 counts per minute. What is the half-life of the
radioactive source?
6. The count rate of a radioactive sample is 40 counts per second. The count rate after 15minutes is
20 per second. How long is the half-life of the substance? What will be the new count rate after 10
minutes?
7. A chemist determines that a sample of an old petrified wood has a carbon-14 decay rate of 6.00
counts per minute per gram. The decay rate of carbon-14 in fresh wood today is 13.6 counts per
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minute per gram, and the half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years. What is the age of the piece of wood in
years?
8. The C-14 content of an ancient piece of wood was found to have three tenths of that in living
trees this indicates that 70% of the C-14 had decayed. How old is that piece of wood?
9. The count rate of a radioactive isotope falls from 600 counts per second to 75 counts per second in
75 minutes. What is the half-life of the radioactive isotope?
10. The activity of a radioactive element with a half-life 30 days is 2400 counts per second. Find the
activity of the element after 120 days.
11. The half-life of Uranium is 24 days
(i) Explain the meaning of the above statement
(ii) Calculate the mass of Uranium which remains after 120days if the initial mass is 64g
(Leave a space of four pages in your books for solutions)
USES OF RADIOACTIVITY
Biological uses
1. Gamma rays are used in treatment of cancer. They are used to kill cancer cells by a process called
Radiotherapy
2. Gamma rays are used to sterilize medical equipment especially that used in surgery.
3. Gamma rays are used to preserve some food products.
4. Radio isotopes are used to induce plant mutations which lead to improved seed varieties with
high yields and high resistance to crop diseases.
5. Radio isotopes are used as tracers in medicine to examine the function of body organs.
6. Radioactive Iodin-131 is used to diagnose and treat goitre (thyroid disorder).
7. Carbon dating is used to determine the number of years an organism has been dead.

Carbon dating
Living organisms have a known quantity of Carbon-14 a radioisotope of Carbon in their tissues.
When an organism dies, its Carbon-14 starts decaying with a half-life of 5700 years. The age of
ancient animal or plant remains can be found by measuring the amount of Carbon-14 left. This age
is the period for which an organism has been dead.

Industrial uses
1. The nuclear energy released during nuclear reactions is used to generate electricity for industrial
and domestic use.
Steps of generating electricity
(i) Radioactive element undergoes nuclear fission
(ii) Large amount of heat produced is used to boil water to produce steam at high pressure
(iii) The steam rotates turbines which in turn rotate coils is a magnetic field to produce electricity.
2. Nuclear energy is used in nuclear bombs and weapons for defense purposes.
3. Radiations are used to monitor the thickness of paper and metal sheets by monitoring the count
rate of the sample across the sheet. This principle is used to monitor level of contents in sealed
containers. Eg paint, oil, tooth paste etc.
4. Leaks in underground pipes are detected by adding a small quantity of the radioactive sample to
the liquid in the pipe. The leakage of radiation through a crack is detected.
5. Gamma rays from the isotope of cobalt are used to detect faults in thick metal sheets and welded
joints.
6. Alpha radiation is used in smoke detectors found in smoke alarms.

Health Hazards /Dangers of radiations from radioactive substances

 The radiations cause burns and sores on the skin.  Radiations destroy
body cells

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  Radiation exposure causes long term effects such as cancer, eye cataracts, sterility,
infertility,suppressed immunity etc.
 Radiations cause genetic mutations that lead to birth of babies with serous abnormalities.
Safety Precautions when dealing with radioactive sources:
 Radioactive materials should be handled using forceps, long tongs and never with bare
hands.
 Radioactive materials should be stored in thick lead boxes
 People who deal with radioactive materials should wear protective clothing.
 Should avoid unnecessary exposure to radioactive substances by pointing sources away
from people. Containers and rooms keeping radioactive sources must be clearly marked
with a warning symbol.

Nuclear fission
This is a nuclear reaction in which a heavy nucleus splits into smaller nuclei with emission of
energy.
Nuclear fission occurs in atomic bombs, nuclear reactors etc
Nuclear fission is achieved by bombarding a heavy nuclide using neutrons.
The difference in mass between the parent nuclide and the daughter nuclides is turned into energy.

Examples
235 1 148 85
92U + 0n → 57La + 35Br + 3 10n + energy
235 1 90 143
92U + 0n → 38Sr + 54Xe + 3 10n + energy
235 1 141 92 1
92U + 0n → 56Ba + 36Kr + 3 0n + energy

Nuclear fusion
This is the union of light nuclei to form a heavy nucleus with emission of energy.
Nuclear fusion occurs in the sun and in a hydrogen bomb.

Conditions
(i) The particles approaching each other should be at very high speeds to overcome the strong
nuclear repulsion.
(ii) The particles approaching each other should be heated to very high temperatures.

Example
2 3 4 1
1H + 1H → 2He + 0n + Energy

Similarities between Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion

Both fission and fusion release huge amounts of energy.
Both fission and fusion reactions can occur in nuclear bombs.

Differences between Fission and Fusion

1. Nuclear Fission breaks a heavy nuclide into smaller nuclides. The parent nuclide has a higher
atomic number than the daughter nuclides.
2. Nuclear Fusion joins light nuclides. The nuclide formed has more neutrons and protons than the
fusing nuclides.

Thermionic emission
This is the release of electrons from a heated metal surface.
The surface emitting electrons is called a cathode.
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Cathode rays
Cathode rays are a stream of fast moving electrons.
The electrons are emitted by thermionic process when the cathode is heated. The electrons are
accelerated through a potential difference of several kilovolts between the cathode and the anode
producing cathode rays.
Properties of cathode rays
1. They are fast moving electrons.
2. They are negatively charged.
3. They travel in a straight line.
4. They are deflected by both electric and magnetic fields.
5. They cause certain substances to fluoresce.
6. They produce X-rays when they hit a metal target,
The cathode ray oscilloscope (C.R.O)

The electron gun

It consists of a heater, a cathode, control grid and the anode.
The grid is set at a slightly negative potential with respect to the cathode. It controls the number of
electrons leaving the cathode. The grid therefore controls the brightness of the screen.
The anode is in form of a hollow metallic cylinder and it is at a positive potential relative to the
cathode. The anode is used to accelerate and focus electrons onto the screen.

The deflecting system

It comprises of the X-plates and Y-plates. When a potential difference is applied across either pair of
plates, a deflecting electric field is created. The X – plates deflect the electron beam horizontally.
The Y – plates deflect the electron beam vertically.

The fluorescent screen

A bright spot is displayed on the screen at the point where the electron beam hits. The spot traces
out a pattern that depends on the voltage variations applied to the X and Y-plates.

TIME BASE
The time base circuit in the C.R.O applies a p.d across the X-plates which repeatedly moves
(sweeps) the spot steadily across the screen from left to right horizontally and then returns it
rapidly to the left. When the frequency of the time base is increased a horizontal line is observed
across the screen.

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Note: The time base is also known as the sweep generator.

Traces displayed on the C.R.O. screen

A spot at the centre represents a signal with both the Y-plates and time base switched off.

A spot above or below the horizontal axis represents a D.C voltage applied to the Y-plates with the
time base switched off.

A straight line along the vertical axis represents an A.C voltage applied to the Y-plates with the
time base switched off.

A horizontal straight line along the horizontal axis represents no voltage applied to the Y-plates
with the time base switched on.

A horizontal straight line above or below the horizontal axis represents a D.C applied to the Y-
plates with the time base switched on.

The sine wave represents an A.C applied to the Y-plates with the time base switched on.

Uses of a cathode ray oscilloscope

1. A CRO is used to measure voltage (p.d)
2. A CRO is used to measure frequency of a wave form.
3. A CRO is used to study different wave forms
4. A CRO is used to compare frequencies of different wave forms

How to determine voltage from a C.R.O

A known A.C voltage is applied to the Y-plates to adjust the Y- sensitivity (gain) to a suitable value
like 2Vcm-1 for low voltage and 50Vcm-1 for high voltage. The A.C voltage to be measured is
connected to the Y-plates and the peak to peak value is measured. To get the peak A.C voltage we
divide the peak to peak voltage by two.

Measurement of frequency from a C.R.O

We measure the periodic time (T) of the wave form using the expression
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T = (horizontal distance of one cycle on screen in cm) x (time-base setting)
1
We calculate frequency from f = T

Examples
1. The C.R.O trace shown below was obtained when an A.C was connected to the Y-plates and the
Y-gain set at 2Vcm-1 Determine the A.C peak voltage.

Length of trace = 6cm

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Length of trace from zero to peak = 2 = 3𝑐𝑚
Peak voltage = 3 X Y-Sensitivity
Peak voltage = 3 X 2 = 6V

2. A D.C applied to a C.R.O showed a spot at a position shown on the screen. Given that the Y-
Sensitivity (gain) was set at 5Vcm-1 determine the voltage of the D.C.

Displacement of the spot = 4cm

Voltage = 5 X 4 = 20V
3. A C.R.O with time base switched on is connected across a power supply. The wave form shown
in the diagram below is obtained

(i) Identify the type of voltage generated by the power supply

(ii) Find the amplitude of the voltage generated if the voltage gain is 5Vcm-1
V=2X5
V = 10V
(iii) Calculate the frequency of the power source if the time base setting on the C.R.O is
5.0 × 10−3 scm−1

1
−3 f=
1cm → 5.0 × 10 s T
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4cm → 4 × 5.0 × 10−3 1
f=
4cm → 2.0 × 10−2 seconds 2.0 × 10−2
T = 2.0 × 10−2 seconds f = 0.5 × 102
f = 50Hz

4. The wave form shown in the figure below was produced on a C.R.O when a certain oscillating
source was connected to the Y-plate of the C.R.O. The Y-gain reads 0.5Vcm-1 and the time base
reads 10mscm-1.

(i) Determine the peak voltage of the wave form.

Peak voltage = 2 X 0.5 = 1.0V

(ii) Find the frequency of the wave.

1𝑐𝑚 → 10𝑚𝑠 1
f=
1𝑐𝑚 → 0.01𝑠 T
3.4𝑐𝑚 → 3.4 × 0.01 1
f=
3.4cm → 0.034seconds 0.034
One cycle is 3.4cm
T = 0.034seconds f = 29.41Hz

Exercise
1. A D.C applied to a C.R.O showed a spot at a position shown on the screen. Given that the Y-
Sensitivity (gain) was set at 2.5Vcm-1 determine the voltage of the D.C.

2. The diagram below shows the trace obtained on the screen of an oscilloscope. The time base of
the oscilloscope is set at 10mscm-1 and the voltage sensitivity at 15 Vcm-1.

For the ac source, calculate the

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(i) Voltage.
(ii) Frequency.

X-Rays
X-rays are electromagnetic radiations produced when fast moving electrons hit a metal target such
as tungsten.

The X-ray tube

How X-rays are produced

A low voltage is applied across the filament which heats up and emits electrons thermionically. The
concave cap focuses emitted electrons onto the tungsten target.
The anode is a copper block in which a target is fitted.
A high voltage set up between the cathode and anode accelerates the electrons at a very high speed
towards the anode. When electrons strike the target, a small fraction of their kinetic energy is
converted into X-rays and the rest into heat.

The heat generated at the anode is lost to the surrounding by the cooling fins and a cooling liquid
which circulates a behind the anode.
The glass tube is evacuated to prevent collisions between electrons and air atoms which would
slow down the electrons.

Quality of X-rays
The quality of x-rays is defined by their penetrating power.
The quality of x-rays is determined by the velocity of electrons hitting the target. The velocity in
turn depends on the p.d across the tube.

Hard X-rays
These are produced when a very high voltage is applied across the x-ray tube. They have short
wave length and a high penetrating power.

Soft X-rays
These are produced when a relatively small voltage is applied across the x-ray tube. They have long
wave length and a low penetrating power.

Properties of X-rays
1. They travel in a straight line at the speed of light
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2. They have no charge
3. They are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields
4. They are electromagnetic waves of very short wave length
5. They readily penetrate matter
6. They cause ionization of gases
7. They cause fluorescence in some materials
8. They affect photographic plates
9. They eject electrons from matter by photo electric effect
10. They are diffracted by crystals

Uses of X-rays
1. Detection of fire arms in public places
2. Used in medical treatment of cancer and tumours by burning cancerous cells
3. Used to locate bone fractures in human bodies using X-ray photography
4. Used to detect flaws and cracks in metals and welded joints by examining X-ray photographs.
5. X-rays are used to study crystal structures

Thermionic Diode
It consists of an evacuated glass tube with an anode and a cathode which releases electrons when
heated. The electrons are attracted by a positive anode. The air is removed to avoid collisions
between electrons and air particles.
Circuit symbol of a diode

When the anode is connected to the positive terminal and the cathode to the negative terminal of
the battery, current is detected by the ammeter. The diode is forward biased.

When the diode is reversed, no current flows. This happens because electrons are not attracted to
the negative electrode. The diode is reverse biased.

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A thermionic Diode is therefore called a diode valve because it allows flow of current in only one
direction.
Rectification of alternating current
A diode valve is used to convert alternating current (A.C) to direct current (D.C).

A diode is connected in a circuit in which alternating current is flowing. The diode conducts current
only during the half cycle when the cathode is negative and the anode positive. During the
reversed half cycle no current flows. This process is called half-wave rectification.
The graph below shows the variation of the voltage across the resistor.

Full wave rectification

A bridge rectifier circuit is used to rectify both half-cycles of the alternating current.
During the half cycles when X is positive and Y is negative, diodes B and D are forward biased and
conduct current which flows through resistor R along PQ.
During the half cycles when Y is positive and X is negative, diodes C and A are forward biased and
conduct current which flows through resistor R along PQ.

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During both half cycles current flows through resistor R in the same direction PQ. Hence the output
is continuous direct current

Photoelectric emission (effect)

This is the process by which electrons are emitted from a metal surface when an electromagnetic
radiation falls on it.
Eg a clean, negatively charged zinc plate emits electrons when exposed to an ultraviolet source.
Electrons emitted this way are called photoelectrons.
Photoelectric emission occurs when the electrons have gained enough energy from the radiation to
overcome the attractive force of the positive nucleus.
Work function
This is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from a metal surface.
Each metal has its own work function. This means it is easier to remove electrons from some metals
than others.
If the energy of the radiation falling on the metal surface is greater than the work function, then the
excess energy is converted into kinetic energy of the emitted electrons.
Threshold frequency (fo)
This is the minimum frequency of the radiation required to cause photoelectric emission.
In general, the smaller the work function the lower the threshold frequency.
The photoelectric cell

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Photoelectric effect is applied in a photoelectric cell which converts light energy into electrical
energy. When a suitable radiation falls on the cathode it emits electrons. The positive anode attracts
electrons which then go through an external circuit causing an electric current to flow.
The strength of the current depends on the intensity of the radiation falling on the metal cathode.

Uses of photoelectric cells

They are used in alarm circuits
They are used as automatic switches for street lights
They are used to Control lift doors
They are used to measure the temperature of stars

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