Prior Learning:

S4/5 covalent bonding

nit 2: Structure & Bondin

Key words: Electrons, share, dative, coordinate

art 1: Covalent bonding

Because
sharing is
caring
 Covalent
Bonding

• A covalent bond is the electrostatic attraction between positive nuclei and

a shared pair of bonding electrons.
• Covalent bonding occurs almost always between non-metal elements
only.
• The electronegativity difference between atoms is between 0.0 and 1.7
units.
 Single, double and triple
bonds
Single bonds are longer and weaker, triple bonds are shorter and stronger.

Ethane, Ethene and Ethyne are simple examples of molecules with these 3 types of
bonds. Draw the displayed formula (Lewis structure) for each of these.

Ethane Ethene
Ethyne
 Bond length and strength
Complete the missing values from the table below.

Bond # of shared e- C-C bond strength C-C bond length

(kJ mol-1) (10-12m)
Single

Double

Triple

(Review)
 Polar covalent bonds
Polar covalent bonds occur between atoms that have a difference in

the Lewis structure and/or by adding 𝛿+ and 𝛿− to donate the polarity.

electronegativity. The polarity of a bond can be shown by a vector arrow on

𝛿+
Add these separately to the molecules shown below.

𝛿−
 Electronegativity and bonding
State the definition of electronegativity and its trend in the periodic table

• Electronegativity is a measure of
the attraction of an atom for a
bonding pair of electrons.

• It increases across a period due

to increasing nuclear charge and
decreases down a group as
atomic radius increases.
The Pauling Scale
Electronegativity is measured on the Pauling Scale. Linus Pauling was the
original scientist to describe the phenomena of electronegativity. The range of
values for Pauling's scale of electronegativity ranges from Fluorine (most
electronegative = 4.0) to Francium (least electronegative = 0.7).

Complete the missing information from the table below.

Difference in Bond type Example

electronegativity
0 non-polar (pure) covalent bond Cl-Cl

0.1 - 0.4 C-H

non-polar (weakly polar) covalent bond

0.5 -1.7 polar covalent bond C-F C-F

> 1.7 NaCl

ionic
 Differences in electronegativity

1. Complete the missing information from the table below.

2. Calculate the differences in electronegativity in the following bonds and discern the
type for bond based on these differences.

1.8 Polar
covalent
0.8 Polar
covalent
1.98
Ionic
0 Non-
polar covalent
2.67
Ionic
1.55 Polar covalent
1.61 Polar covalent
 Noble gas configuration
Draw Bohr model diagrams of the 1st three noble gas atoms (He, Ne, Ar)

The octet rule states that atoms lose or gain electrons to achieve the
electron configurations of noble gases.

Noble gases are stable

because they have full
outer valence shells.

State these two methods of achieving ‘Noble Gas’ configuration.

Atoms can achieve the electron configuration of a noble gas by either:

• sharing electrons (covalent bonding)

• losing or gaining electrons (ionic bonding).

 Exceptions to the octet rule
• Hydrogen and helium are stable with 2 electrons in
Beryllium dichloride
their valence shells.

• Beryllium is stable with 4 electrons in its valence

Borane
shell.

• Boron is stable with 6 electrons in its valence shell.

• Elements in period 3 onwards can hold more than

8 electrons in their valence shells (expanded

octets).
Phosphorous
pentachloride
 Bonds Vs Intermolecular
forces.

Intermolecular forces are the forces that bind two molecules

together. Physical properties are affected by the strength of
intermolecular forces. Melting, boiling, and freezing points
increase as the strength of intermolecular forces increase.

uch more on this later in the cour

Lewis Structures A Lewis Structure is a very simplified
representation of the valence shell
electrons in a molecule. It is used to
show how the electrons are
arranged around individual atoms in
a molecule. Electrons are shown as
"dots" or for bonding electrons as a
line between the two atoms. The
goal is to obtain the "best" electron
configuration, i.e. the octet rule and
formal charges need to be satisfied.

Lewis structures of molecules/ions for up to 4 electron pairs (RT)

Lewis structures (Lewis formulas) (MSJ Chem)

Dative Coordinate covalent
bonds
Practice
Draw the Lewis structure with Dative bonds
shown for H3O+ and NH4+ in the boxes below.
Dative covalent bond
examples
Two AlCl3 molecules
can join to form an
Al2Cl6 molecule.

Predict, with reason the type of bonding between Al and Cl

X
Ionic as Al is a metal and Cl is a non-metal

Using the Pauling Scale we can see that the bond is

Polar covalent (Al)3.2 - 1.6(Cl) = 1.6 . Some
compounds that are metal + non-metal are not
ionic. Most are, which is why it’s still useful to
use this model at a basic level of chemistry.
Molymod Task
art 2: Structures & bond
Formal I do beg
your

Charge pardon!!

A formal charge (FC) is used to determine the best

Lewis structure (or predominant resonance
structure) for a molecule.

It is defined as the charge assigned to an atom in a

molecule, assuming that electrons in all chemical
bonds are shared equally between atoms,
regardless of relative electronegativity.
Formal charge dependent
factors
Calculating Formal Charge
A formal charge (FC) is used to determine the best Lewis
structure (or predominant resonance structure) for a molecule.

It is defined as the charge assigned to an atom in a molecule,

assuming that electrons in all chemical bonds are shared equally
between atoms, regardless of relative electronegativity.

Formal # of V e- # # of
= the atom
- bonds + lone
Charge
has made pair e-
 Formal
charge CO2
All the Lewis feasible structures
below fulfil the octet rule. So, which
one is correct?
You might know but can you prove
which one isFCbest?
= # V e- - ( Bond
+ # LP e-)
0 +10 0 -2 -1 +2

FC = 6 - (2
+ 4)
FC = 4 - ( 4+
0)
 Practice Use Formal Charge to deduce the most likely structure
of N2O from the 3 possible structures shown below.

2 +1 +1
_
N=_ _
_
N
_
_

_
O +1
1
_ _ 0

N=N=
_ _
O
_
_ _
+1

N= N _
_ -1
_
_
 π
σ (sigma) & π (pi) bonds σ
Sigma bonds are single covalent bonds along the
internuclear axis. There are 3 types to know:

H2

F2

CH4
As this is between 2
different types of
orbitals, we call the
resulting orbital a
 σ (sigma) & π (pi) bonds
Pi bonds are created by overlapping p orbitals parallel to
the internuclear axis.

This looks like 2 bonds, but it is just one π bond. It needs to

be coupled with a sigma bond to form a double bond.

Describe σ and π bonds (Chemistry)

σ (sigma) & π (pi)
examples

N
σ (sigma) & π (pi)
examples

σ bond from
overlapping p-
orbitals along
internuclear
axis

N N
σ (sigma) & π (pi)
examples
π bond from
overlapping p-orbitals
parallel to
internuclear axis
σ bond from
overlapping p-
orbitals along
internuclear
axis
π bond from
N N overlapping p-orbitals
https://www.savemyexams.com/dp/che
mistry/hl/25/topic-questions/models-of-b
onding-and-structure/the-covalent-mod parallel to
el/multiple-choice-questions/#medium
internuclear axis
Practice
State the number of sigma
and pi bonds in each of the
following molecules.
2-Methyl-2-butenoic acid contains both σ and π
bonds. Determine the number of each type in the
molecule shown
13 σ and 2 π
 More on π electrons σπ

Resonance structures exist due to delocalised π electrons. Explain

how the delocalisation of electrons causes resonance structures.
Delocalised electrons are not connected to any single atom or
covalent bond. When electrons move between more than two
nuclei this results in more than one Lewis structure with the same
formal charge (resonance structures).
Resonance structures are a group of two or more Lewis structures
that collectively represent a single polyatomic species’ electronic
bonding including fractional bonds and fractional charges. Here are 4
resonance structures.

Benzene (C6H6) Ethanoate (CH3COO-) Ozone (O3)

Carbonate (CO3-)
Examples
Ozone
Bond Length Enthalp The π bonding electrons become
10-12m y delocalised and are shared
kJ mol-1
between all 3 of the Oxygen
O-O 148 144
atoms in Ozone.
O=O
(ozone 128 303
)
O=O
(oxyge 121 498
n)
Notice the difference
in the strength of the
double bond in
Oxygen compared to
Ozone.
Example question

Reaction II requires a shorter wavelength with

greater energy as the O2 double bond is stronger
than the intermediate hybrid resonance double
bond in O3.

https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1Dwp7GTYZIScTLvIDFoWONtJ34PFAJ
wY
 Review
Carbonate, Nitrate and Sulfate
Resonance Structures of
SO3
Hybridisation
 Carbon has electron 6
Hybridization electrons in 2 energy levels
with a configuration of 1S2,
2P2 2S2, 2P2

2S2

As1S
only
2 the the electrons in
the 2nd energy level take
part in bonding, we will
discount the 1S with
regards to hybridisation
going forward.
 Carbon’s bonding orbitals can
Hybridization combine to form hybrids, and
these orbitals have energy
between the, 2S and 2P
2P2 sublevels.

Hybrid SP
orbitals

2S2
Carbon can form from 2 to 4
hybrid orbitals. SP, SP2 & SP3.
Each of these is covered in
detail on the next slides.
Hybridization sp3
CH4 has 4 sigma bonds. However, as the
bonding electrons in C come from P and S
orbitals, the resulting orbitals are sp hybrids
2P2
Carbon’s 2s orbital and 2P orbitals
hybridize. As the orbitals are a blend
of an s and 3 p orbitals, they are
termed sp3 hybrids.

2S2
SP3 hybridized
orbitals
Each H atom provides the
electrons to make sigma bonds
with carbon
Hybridization sp2
CH2O has 3 sigma bonds and a pi bond.

This time we are going to hybridize an s

2P2 orbital and 2 of the p orbitals
Oxygen’s p orbital forms a pi bond
with carbon’s p orbital creating the
double bond
Oxygen makes the last
2S2 sigma bond with carbon
SP2 hybridized
orbitals

Each H atom provides the

electrons to make sigma bonds
Hybridization sp
HCN has 2 sigma bonds and a 2 pi bonds.

We are going to hybridize the s orbital and 1 of the

2P2 p orbitals
Nitrogen’s p orbitals forms 2 pi bonds
with carbon’s p orbital creating the
triple bond
Nitrogen makes the last sigma
2S2 bond with carbon
SP
hybridized
orbitals
H provides the electron to make
a sigma bond with carbon
 More about hybridization
sp2

sp2 sp2
sp 3
sp 3 sp 2 sp

Can you notice any

pattern in the sp
sp3 same types of
hybridization in
this molecule? sp

(Vid 1) (Vid 2) (Vid 3)

Review Questions

1.B 2.A 3.A 4.A 5.A 6.B 7.C 8.D

rt 3 – Molecular Geometr
 VSEPR: Valence Shell
Electron Pair Repulsion
Theory
Electron
Domain The region in which electrons are most likely to be
found (bonding and nonbonding). A lone pair,
single, double, or triple bond represents one region
of an electron domain.
 VSEPR: Valence Shell
Electron Pair Repulsion
Theory
Using VSEPR helps is to be able to predict the
shapes of molecules. There are a few things
required when applying VSEPR theory.
• Each atom in a molecule will achieve a
geometry that minimises the repulsion
between electrons in the valence shell of
that atom.​

• The bonding electron pairs are arranged to

produce the minimum amount of repulsion
between them

• Both bonding pairs and lone pairs have to be

included.​
Applying VSEPR
Molecules and ions possess two types of electron pairs:

• Bonding pairs (the two shared electrons in a covalent bond)

• Lone pairs (two electrons in a pair not involved in bonding –

also known as non-bonding pairs). These electron pairs will
repel each other as far as possible.

• The shape of any molecule or ion is a consequence of the number of

electron pairs which repel each other as far as possible.

• Lone pairs are more compact than bonding pairs. This means that
lone pairs repel more than bonding pairs. This reduces the bond angles
to a small extent.

• There are five basic shapes that you have to know, and all other
shapes are based on these.
109.5°
 120°
90°
Examples

2 electron domains = Linear CO2 - 180°

Molecular Shapes: 2 and 3 Electron Domains (RT)

3 electron domains = trigonal planar

 Examples
4 electron domains = tetrahedral

As each lone pair replaces a bonding pair the

bond angle decreases by 2.5°. You can see this
as we move from CH4 to NH3 and then to H2O
 Examples
electron domains = trigonal bipyramidal

See-saw T-Shaped

Molecular Geometr Molecular polaritie

y: 5 Electron Doma s of geometries fo
ins (Lewis / Wedge r 5 /6 electron do
-Dash Diagrams) mains
RT) (RT)

Linear
PF5​
SO2Bond
​ angles Bond angle
120° & 90° 120°
Geometry
Geometry Bent
trigonal
bipyramidal

SO42-​
CO32-​

Bond angle Geometry Bond angle Geometry

109.5° Tetrahedral 120° Trigonal
planar
art 4 - Metallic bonding
The metallic bond is the electrostatic attraction between a
lattice of positively charged metal ions and delocalized
electrons.
 Properties of metals
• Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity
because of the presence of delocalized electrons are
free flowing and can transfer energy.

• Metals are reflective – the delocalized electrons in the

metallic structure reflect light.

• Metals are malleable (can be

bent into shape) and ductile (can
be drawn into wires) because the
metallic bond remains intact
even if the structure is distorted.
the layers can slide over each
other when metals are bent,
hammered, or stretched, without
breaking the metallic bond.
Strength of the metallic
bond
• The strength of the metallic bond is determined by the charge on
the metal ion and the ionic radius of the metal ion.

• The higher the charge on the ion, the

more delocalised electrons there are in
the metallic structure. This results in a
stronger electrostatic attraction
between the lattice of positive metal
ions and the delocalized electrons,
therefore a stronger metallic bond.

• Mg has a higher melting point than Na

due to its greater ionic charge and
smaller ionic radius.
Melting point trends

• The strength of the metallic bond decreases

down a group as the size of the metal cation
increases.

• The increased ionic

radius results in an
increased distance
between the delocalised
electrons and the
nucleus. The metallic
bond gets weaker which
results in a decreasing
melting point.
 Alloys
• Alloys are materials that are composed of two or more metals or a
metal and a non-metal.
• They tend to be harder (less malleable) and have greater tensile
strength.
• The added metal atoms can distort the lattice structure.
• The distortion of the lattice structure makes it more difficult for the
layers to slide
over each other.
Other alloy properties
Steel Construction

Iron, nickel & Corrosion

chromium resistance

Brass Strong, light and Pipes &

malleable musical
instruments
Copper and tin Strong, dense Statues,
Bronze
and malleable medals and
ornaments
Low melting Statues,
point medals and
ornaments
nickel & Light and high
chromium melting point
 Opposites attract

- +
-
-
-
-
-
Part 5 - Ionic bonding
Exercises:
1) Explain why the sodium atom has a larger radius than the sodium ion.

2) Explain why the chloride ion has a larger radius than the chlorine atom.

3) Explain why metals tend to lose electrons and form positive ions and non-metals
tend to gain electrons and form negative ions.
Ionic lattice structures
+ ++ ++ +
-- -- --
++ + ++ + ++ +
- - -- - -- - -
• The ionic bond is the + ++ + ++ + ++
- - --- - --- - --
+ ++ + ++ + ++
- - -- - -- - -
electrostatic attraction ++ ++++ ++++ ++
- - -- - -- - -
between oppositely + ++ + ++ + ++
- - --- - --- - --
charged ions. + ++ + ++ + ++
- - -- - -- - -
+ +++ +++ ++
-- -- --
+ + +
- - -
• An ionic bond forms
between two elements
with a difference in
electronegativity of Ionic compounds have a lattice structure.
equal to or greater The lattice is held together by the electrostatic
than 1.8 units. attraction between the oppositely charged ions.

• Ionic bonds form Each Na+ ion is surrounded by six Cl- ions and
between metal and each Cl- ion is surrounded by six Na+ ions.
non-metal elements. Ionic compounds are solids under standard
conditions.
Writing ionic formulae
 Properties of ionic
compounds
• High melting and boiling points
Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points because the
electrostatic forces holding the ions together are strong and require a lot of
energy to break. The smaller the ionic radius and the greater the charge, the
higher the melting and boiling points.

• Brittleness

Due to the crystalline structure of opposingly charged ions, when a force

causes the structure to move the opposing charged particles are lined up and
repel each other. This causes them to break rather than bend.
 Properties of ionic
compounds
• Poor electrical conductivity when solid / good
electrical conductivity when molten or dissolved

Electrical conductivity requires Free Moving Charged Particles – these can be

electrons (metals) or ions. However, ionic compounds do not conduct
electricity in their solid state because the ions are held in a fixed position and
cannot move to conduct electricity.

The electrical conductivity of ionic compounds changes when they are melted
or dissolved because the ions become free to move, allowing them to
conduct electricity.
HW
Learn the dot and cross diagrams of…
• CO2
• H3O+
• NH4+
• Cu(NH3)42+
Hybridization sp3
CH4 has 4 sigma bonds. However, as the
boning electrons in C come from P orbitals and
the ones in H are from S orbitals, the resulting
orbitals
2P2 are sp hybrids
Carbon’s 2s orbital and 2P orbitals
hybridize. As the orbitals are a blend
of an s and 3 p orbitals, they are
termed sp3 hybrids.
The energy of the
sp orbitals is
2S2
SP3 hybridized between the 2s and
orbitals the 2p.
Hybridization sp2
CH2O has 3 sigma bonds and a pi bond.

This time we are going to hybridize an s

2P2 orbital and 2 of the p orbitals
Oxygen’s p orbital forms a pi bond
with carbon’s p orbital creating the
double bond
Oxygen makes the last
2S2 sigma bond with carbon
SP2 hybridized
orbitals

Each H atom provides the

electrons to make sigma bonds
Hybridization sp
HCN has 2 sigma bonds and a 2 pi bonds.

We are going to hybridize the s orbital and 1 of the

2P2 p orbitals
Nitrogen’s p orbitals forms 2 pi bonds
with carbon’s p orbital creating the
triple bond
Nitrogen makes the last sigma
2S2 bond with carbon
SP
hybridized
orbitals
H provides the electron to make
a sigma bond with carbon
 More about hybridization
sp2

sp2 sp2
sp 3
sp 3 sp 2 sp

Can you notice any

pattern in the sp
sp3 same types of
hybridization in
this molecule? sp

(Vid 1) (Vid 2) (Vid 3)

Review Questions

1.B 2.A 3.A 4.A 5.A 6.B 7.C 8.D