THE ASIAN SCHOOL, KINGDOM OF BAHRAIN

GRADE11 CHEMISTRY

Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure

Chemical Bonding
A chemical bond is an attractive force which holds various constituents (such as atoms,
ions) together in different chemical species.

Kossel-Lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding

 Lewis postulated that atoms attain the stable octet when they are chemically bonded.

 Lewis symbols

 Notations to represent valence electrons in an atom

 Example:

 Significance of Lewis symbols − The number of dots represents the number of valence
electrons.

 Octet rule- Atoms tend to gain, lose or share electrons so as to have eight electrons in their
valence shells.

 Lewis dot structure

Representation of molecules and ions in terms of the shared pairs of electrons and the octet
rule

Steps to writing Lewis dot structure:

 Add the valence electrons of the combining atoms. This will give the total number of
electrons required to write the structure.

 One negative charge means the addition of an electron. Similarly, one positive charge
implies the removal of an electron from the total number of electrons.

 The chemical symbol of the atoms and the skeletal structure of the compound should be
known. Then, distribute the total number of electrons as bonding shared pairs between the
atoms in proportion to the total bonds.

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 The least electronegative atom occupies the central position of the molecule/ion. For
example in NF3, nitrogen occupies the central position whereas the three fluorine atoms
occupy the terminal positions.

 When the shared pairs of electrons have been accounted for single bonds, utilise the
remaining electron pairs for either multiple bonding or count them as lone pairs. Here, the
basic requirement is that each bonded atom gets an octet of electrons.

 Lewis representation of some molecules

(*- Each hydrogen atom attains the electronic configuration of helium i.e. a duplet of
electrons)

 Covalent bond

 Single covalent bond − Sharing of one electron pair

 Double bond − Sharing of two electron pairs

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 Triple bond − Sharing of three electron pairs

 Formal Charge

 Example:

Lewis structure of O3 is

F.C. on the O-1 atom

F.C. on the O-2 atom

F.C. on the O-3 atom

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 Smaller the formal charge on the atoms, lower is the energy of the structure.
 The concept of formal charge is based on covalent bonding in which electron pairs are
equally shared by neighbouring atoms.

 Limitations of the octet rule:

 Incomplete octet of the central atom

Examples: LiCl, BeH2, BCl3

 Odd electron molecules

Examples: NO, NO2

 Expanded octet

Examples: PF5, SF6, H2SO4

Some other drawbacks of octet rule:

 It is based upon chemical inertness of noble gases. However, some noble gases can combine
to form compounds such as XeF2, KrF2, XeOF2, etc.

 It does not account for shape of molecules

 It does not explain the relative stability of molecules

Conditions for Formation of Covalent Bond

 Presence of four or more electrons in the outermost shell of an atom (exception H, Be, B
and Al)

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 High electronegativity of both the atoms
 High electron affinity for both the atoms
 High ionisation energy of both the atoms
 Electronegativity difference between combining atoms should be zero or very low

Formation of Some Covalently Bonded Molecules

Type and Number of

Compound Molecule
Covalent Bonds
Hydrogen (H2) H−H One single bond
Chlorine (Cl2) Cl−Cl One single bond
Nitrogen (N2) N≡N One triple bond
Two single bonds between
Water (H2O) H−O−H
O and H

Three single bonds

Ammonia (NH3)
between N and H

Carbon tetrachloride Four single bonds between

(CCl4) C and Cl

Four single bonds between

Methane (CH4)
C and H

Difference between Properties of Ionic and Covalent Compounds

Ionic Compounds Covalent Compounds

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 The constituent particles are
The constituent particles are ions.
molecules.
They exist as gases, liquids or soft
They exist as hard solids.
solids.
They have high melting and They have low melting and boiling
boiling points points.
They are good conductors of
electricity in the aqueous or They do not conduct electricity.
molten state.
They ionise in solution and behave Only polar compounds form ions in
as electrolytes. aqueous solutions.
They undergo dissociation. They do not undergo dissociation.
They are soluble only in organic
They are soluble in water.
solvents.
They undergo fast chemical They undergo slow chemical
reactions. reactions.

Ionic or Electrovalent Bond & Bond Parameters

 Formation of ionic compound depends upon

 ease of formation of positive and negative ions

 arrangement of positive and negative ions

Ionisation Enthalpy (ΔiH)

 Enthalpy change when a gas phase atom in its ground state loses an electron

M(g) → M+(g) + e−

 Always positive

 Lower the ionisation enthalpy, more easily is the positive ion formed.

Electron Gain Enthalpy

 Enthalpy change when a gas phase atom in its ground state gains an electron

X(g) + e− → X−(g)

 May be positive or negative

 Higher the negative value of electron gain enthalpy, more easily is the negative ion formed.

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 Ionic bond is formed more easily between an element with low ionization enthalpy and
element with high negative value of electron gain enthalpy

Crystal Structure of NaCl (rock salt)

Lattice Enthalpy

 Energy required to separate completely one mole of a solid ionic compound into gaseous
constituent ions

 Higher the lattice enthalpy, more stable is the ionic compound.

Bond Parameters

Bond Length

 Equilibrium distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms in a molecule

Bond length (R) = rA + rB

 Covalent radius:

Radius of an atom’s core which is in contact with the core of an adjacent atom in a
bonded situation

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 Van der Waals’ radius:

Overall size of the atom which includes its valence shell in a non-bonded situation

 Covalent and van der Waals’ radii in a chlorine molecule:

Here, inner circles correspond to the size of the chlorine atom.

Bond Angle

 Angle between orbitals containing bonding electron pairs around the central atom in a
molecule/complex ion

Bond Enthalpy (ΔaH)

 Energy required to break one mole of a particular type of bond between two atoms in
gaseous state

 Example:

O2 (O=O)(g) → O(g) + O(g) ; ΔaHθ = 498 kJ mol−1

 Larger the bond enthalpy, stronger is the bond.

 Mean or Average Bond Enthalpy

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 Bond Order

 Represents the number of bonds between two atoms in a molecule

 Examples:

Molecule Bond Order

H2 1
O2 2
N2 3
CO 3

 Isoelectronic species have identical bond order.

 Examples:

Isoelectronic species Bond order

F2 and 1
N2, CO, and NO+ 3

 With the increase in bond order:

 bond enthalpy increases
 bond length decreases

Resonance Structures

 Equivalent Lewis Structures

 Also known as canonical structures

 Example:

 Resonance structures of ozone (O3)

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 Here, I and II are resonance structures. III is the resonance hybrid.

 Resonance structures of carbonate ion :

Here, I, II, and III are resonance structures.

 Resonance stabilises a molecule.

 Energy of resonance hybrid is less than that of any one of the resonance structures.

 Resonance averages the bond characteristics as a whole.

Important

 Canonical structure does not have real existence.

 Molecule does not exist in one canonical form for a certain fraction of time and in another for
other fractions of time.

 There is no equilibrium between canonical forms.

 A molecule has only a single structure which is the resonance hybrid.

Polarity of Bonds

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 Dipole moment (μ) = Charge (Q) × Distance of separation (r)

 Unit = Debye (D)

1 D = 3.33564 × 10−30 C m

 Example: Dipole moment of H2O

Net Dipole moment, μ = 1.85 D

 Example: Dipole moment of BeF2

Net Dipole moment, μ = 0

 Example: Dipole moment of BF3

Net Dipole moment, μ = 0

 Comparison between the dipole moments of NH3 and NF3

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 Resultant dipole moment in NH3 = 4.90 × 10−30 C m

Resultant dipole moment in NF3 = 0.80 × 10−30 C m

 Covalent character of ionic bond in terms of Fajan’s rule:

 Smaller the size of the cation and larger the size of the anion, greater is the covalent
character of ionic bond.

 Greater the charge on the cation, greater is the covalent character of the ionic bond.

 Cations with outer electronic configuration of the type ns2np6nd10 (typical of transition
metal cations) have greater polarising power than the ones with a noble gas
configuration, ns2np6 (typical of alkali and alkaline earth metal cations).

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory

 Shapes of covalent molecules can be predicted with the help of this theory.

 Postulates:

 The shape of a molecule depends upon the number of valence shell electron pairs (bonded
or non-bonded) around the central atom.
 Pairs of electrons in the valence shell tend to repel each other as their electron clouds are
negatively charged.
 The electron pairs tend to occupy those positions in space, which minimize repulsions and
thus maximize distance from one another.
 The valence shell is taken as a sphere with the electron pairs localizing on the spherical
surface at maximum distance from one another.
 A multiple bond is treated as a single electron pair and the two or three electron pairs of a
multiple bond are treated as a single super pair.
 The VSEPR model is applicable to any such structure where two or more resonance
structures can represent a molecule.

 Decreasing order of repulsive interaction of electron pairs:

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 Lone pair (lp) − Lone pair (lp) > Lone pair (lp) − Bond pair (bp) > Bond pair (bp) − Bond
pair (bp)

 Reason for greater repulsion between lp − lp: The lone pairs occupy larger space than the
bond pairs.

 Molecules are classified into the following two categories to predict the geometrical shapes
of molecules using VSEPR theory.

 Molecules in which the central atom has no lone pair

 Molecules in which the central atom has one or more lone pairs

Geometry of molecules in which the central atom has no lone pair of electrons:

Number of electron Arrangement of electron Molecular Examples

pairs pairs geometry
2 BeCl2,
HgCl2

3 BF3

4
CH4,

5 PCl5

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6 SF6

Shape (geometry) of some simple molecules/ions with central ions having one or
more lone pairs of electrons (E):

Molecule No. of No. of Arrangement of Shape Examples

type bonding lone electron pairs
pairs pairs
AB2E 2 1 Bent SO2, O3

AB3E 3 1 Trigonal NH3

pyramidal

AB2E2 2 2 Bent H2O

AB4E 4 1 See saw SF4

AB3E2 3 2 T-shape ClF3

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 AB5E 5 1 Square BrF5
pyramid

AB4E2 4 2 Square XeF4

planar

Shapes of molecules containing bond pair and lone pair:

Molecule No. of No. of Arrangement of Shape Examples

type bonding lone electron pairs
pairs pairs

AB2E 2 1 Bent Theoretically, the shape

should have been
triangular planar. However,
in actuality, it is bent or v-
shaped. The reason for this
is that the lone pair−bond
pair repulsion is greater
than the bond pair−bond
pair repulsion. Therefore,
the angle is reduced to
119.5° from 120°.
AB3E 3 1 Trigonal If there had been a bp in
Pyramidal place of a lp, the shape
would have been
tetrahedral. However, one
lone pair is present, and
the repulsion between lp
and bp (greater than the
bp−bp repulsion) causes
the angle between the bond
pairs to reduce to 107°
from 109.5°.

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AB2E2 2 2 Bent The shape would have been
tetrahedral had there been
only bp. However, two lps
are present, so the shape is
distorted tetrahedral or
angular. The reason for this
is that the lp−lp repulsion
is greater than the lp−bp
repulsion, which in turn is
greater than the bp−bp
repulsion. Thus, the angle
reduces to 104.5° from
109.5°.
AB4E 4 1 See-saw The lp is present at the
axial position in (a). So,
there are three lp−bp
repulsions at 90°.
The lp is at the equatorial
position in (b), and there
are two lp−bp repulsions.
Therefore, the
arrangement shown in (b)
is more stable. This shape
is described as a distorted
tetrahedron, a folded
square or a see-saw.
AB3E2 3 2 T-shaped The lp is at the equatorial
position in (a). As a result,
there are lesser lp−bp
repulsions as compared to
the others where the lone
pairs are at the axial
position. Therefore, the
shape in (a) is the most
stable (T-shaped).

Valance Bond Theory and the Concept of Hybridisation

Limitations of Lewis approach

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 It failed to explain:

 the formation of a chemical bond

 the shapes of polyatomic molecules

 difference between bond dissociation energies and bond lengths of various molecules
containing same kind of bonds. For example, both H2 and F2 contain a single covalent bond,
but have different values of the same quantities.

Limitations of VSEPR theory

 Although it gave the geometry of simple molecules, it could not explain them.

 It was not useful in predicting shapes of many compounds, like transition metal complexes.
Thus, it had limited applications.

To overcome these limitations, two new theories were given. These were-

 Valence bond theory

 Molecular orbital theory

Valence Bond Theory

Introduced by Heitler and London (1927); developed further by Pauling and others

Theory:

 Consider two hydrogen atoms A and B approaching each other to form a covalent bond. NA,
NB, eA, and eB represent the nucleus and electrons of atoms A and B respectively.

 When the atoms are at large distance from each other, there is no force of attraction
between them.

 As the distance reduces, the following forces start developing in them:

Attractive forces −

1. Between the nucleus and the electron of the same atom (NA- eA, NB - eB)

2. Between the nucleus and the electron of different atoms (NA- eB, NB - eA)

Repulsive forces −

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 1. Between the electrons of the two atoms (eA - eB)

2. Between the nuclei of the two atoms (NA - NB)

 Experimentally, the attractive forces are found to be stronger than the repulsive ones.
Therefore, the two atoms approach each other, and the potential energy also drops during
the process.

 When the two forces balance each other, a state of minimum energy is attained. At this
point, the two atoms are said to be bonded. The distance between them is called the bond
length (in case of H-atoms, the bond length is equal to 74 pm).

 Also, during bond formation, energy is released. This released energy is called bond
enthalpy. The minimum of the given curve represents bond energy, which is 435.8 kJ for
hydrogen.

 It can be observed in the above figure that when the two H-atoms form a bond, they
overlap each other slightly. This represents overlapping of atomic orbitals. (Hence, this
theory introduces the concept of atomic orbitals, stating that covalent bonds are formed by
the overlapping of singly filled atomic orbitals containing electrons having opposite spins.)

 More the extent of the overlapping, stronger will be the bond.

Overlapping of Atomic Orbitals

 The overlap between various atomic orbitals can be positive, negative or zero. The given
figure shows the various possible overlappings for s and p orbitals.

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 Two types of covalent bonds can be formed based on the type of overlapping:

 Sigma bond (head-on or axial overlap) − bond formed by head-to-head overlap along the
inter-nuclear axis. This type of overlapping results in the formation of sigma bonds. It is of
the following types

(i) s-s

(ii) s-p

(iii) p-p

 Pi (π) bond (sideways overlap) − lateral overlapping takes place as the axes of the orbitals
remain parallel to each other, and perpendicular to the inter-nuclear axis

 As the extent of overlapping in the case of a sigma bond is more than it is in the case of a pi
bond, the sigma bond is stronger.

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 Now, we know that

 s orbital is spherical in nature and can overlap from any direction.

 p orbitals are arranged in x, y and z directions, and have an angle of 90° among themselves.

In the case of methane (CH4), 1s orbitals of 4 H atoms overlap with 2s, 2px, 2py and
2pz orbitals of C. Thus, three bonds (formed by the overlapping of 1s and 2p orbitals)
should be at an angle of 90° with each other, and the position of the fourth bond (formed by
the overlapping of 1s and 2s orbitals) cannot be known. However, we know that the
geometry of CH4 is tetrahedral, and all the bond angles are equal (109.5°).

Therefore, it is not possible to explain the geometry of various molecules (like H2O, CH4,
and NH3) only on the basis of overlapping.

To overcome this problem Pauling introduced the concept of hybridisation.

Hybridisation

It states that atomic orbitals of slightly different energies combine to form a new set of
equivalent orbitals (having the same energy and shape) known as hybrid orbitals.

These hybrid orbitals are more stable than atomic orbitals, and participate in bond
formation.

Salient features:

1. Number of hybrid orbitals obtained = Number of atomic orbitals undergoing

hybridisation

2. Hybrid orbitals are always identical in all respects.

3. To minimise electronic repulsion, they orient themselves in a preferred manner. Thus,

the type of hybridisation indicates the geometry of a molecule.

Conditions required for hybridisation:

1. Orbitals in the valence shell should be hybridised.

2. Orbitals undergoing hybridisation should have almost equal energy.

3. Promotion of electrons is not essential prior to hybridisation.

4. Half as well as fully filled orbitals of the valence shell can take part in hybridisation.

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 Types of hybridisation:

 sp

 Involves mixing of one s and one p orbital to give two sp orbitals

 Hybrid orbitals have 50% s and 50% p character.
 Also known as diagonal hybridisation. The molecules with sp hybridisation possess linear
geometry.
 Example: BeCl2 possesses sp hybridisation.

 sp2

 Involves mixing of one s orbital and two p orbitals to give three sp2 orbitals
 Hybrid orbitals have about 33% s and 67% p character.
 Three hybrid orbitals orient themselves in a trigonal planar fashion at an angle of 120°.
 Example: B in BCl3 undergoes sp2 hybridisation.

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 sp3

 Involves mixing of one s orbital and three p orbitals to give four sp3 orbitals
 Hybrid orbitals have 25% s and 75% p character.
 Four hybrid orbitals orient themselves in such a manner that each orbital is directed
toward the four corners of a tetrahedron.
 Example: C in CH4 undergoes sp3 hybridisation.

The geometry of H2O and NH3 can also be explained using sp3 hybridisation. In a water
molecule, the oxygen atom undergoes sp3 hybridisation. Among the four hybrid orbitals,
two contain the two lone pairs present on the O-atom, and the remaining two are involved
in bonding. Similarly, in the case of NH3, one sp3 hybrid orbital contains a lone pair, and the
remaining three are involved in bonding.

Some Other Examples of sp3, sp2 and sp hybridisation

 Hybridisation in C2H6

 In C2H6, both the carbon atoms are sp3 hybridised.

 One hybrid orbital from each C-atom is involved in C−C sigma bond.
 Remaining six hybrid orbitals form sigma bonds with six H-atoms.

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 Hybridisation in C2H4

 In C2H4, both the carbon atoms are sp2 hybridised.

 One hybrid orbital from each C-atom is involved in C−C sigma bond.
 The p-orbital that has not participated in hybridisation, participates in C−C pi bonding.
Thus, C2H4 contains a C−C double bond.
 Remaining four hybrid orbitals form sigma bonds with four H-atoms.

 Hybridisation in C2H2

 In C2H2, both the carbon atoms are sp hybridised.

 One hybrid orbital from each C-atom is involved in C−C sigma bond.
 The two p-orbitals that have not participated in hybridisation, participate in two C−C pi
bonds. Thus, C2H2 contains a C−C triple bond.
 Remaining two hybrid orbitals form sigma bonds with two H-atoms.

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 Hybridisation involving d-orbitals

 Elements present in the third group contain the d-orbital in addition to the s and p orbitals.
Also, the energy of 3d orbitals is comparable to 3s and 3p as well as 4s and 4p orbitals.
Thus, the orbitals that can participate in hybridisation are

 3s, 3p, and 3d

 3d, 4s and 4p

 However, the energy gap between 3p and 4s orbitals is large enough to prevent them from
mixing.

 Important hybridisation involving d-orbitals are:

Shapes of molecules / ions Hybridisation Example

Square planar dsp2 [Ni(CN)4]2−

Trigonal bipyramidal sp3d PCl5

Square pyramidal sp3d2 BrF5

Octahedral sp3d2/d2sp3 SF6/[Co(NH3)6]3+

Formation of PCl5

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 The five sp3d hybrid orbitals orient themselves in a trigonal bipyramidal manner, which is
the geometry of PCl5.

 Notice that all the P−Cl bonds in the molecule are not equivalent. Three bonds that are
present in one plane are called equatorial bonds and have an angle of 120° between them.

 The other two bonds are called axial bonds and are at 90° with the equatorial plane.

Formation of SF6

 The six sp3d2 hybrid orbitals orient themselves in an octahedral manner, which is the
geometry of SF6.

Molecular Orbital Theory

Salient Features of Molecular Orbital (MO) Theory

 The electrons in a molecule are present in various molecular orbitals as the electrons of
atoms are present in various atomic orbitals.

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 Molecular orbitals are formed by the combination of atomic orbitals of comparable energy
and proper symmetry.

 An electron in an atomic orbital is under the influence of only one nucleus while in a
molecular orbital, it is under the influence of two or more nuclei depending upon the
number of atoms in the molecule. Thus, an atomic orbital is mono-centric while a molecular
orbital is polycentric.

 The number of molecular orbitals formed is equal to the number of combining atomic
orbitals. When two atomic orbitals combine, two molecular orbitals are formed. One is
called bonding molecular orbital and the other is called antibonding molecular orbital.

 The bonding MO has greater stability than anti-bonding MO as bonding MO has lower
energy than antibonding MO.

 A molecular orbital gives the electron probability distribution around a group of nuclei in a
molecule such as an atomic orbital that gives the electron probability distribution around a
nucleus in an atom.

 The molecular orbitals are filled in the same way as atomic orbitals are filled according to
the Aufbau’s principle obeying the Pauli’s exclusion principle and the Hund’s rule.

Formation of Molecular orbitals: Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO)

Application of LCAO to Homonuclear Diatomic Hydrogen Molecule

ψMO= ψA ± ψB

Where, ψMO= Wave function representing molecular orbital of hydrogen molecule

ψA, ψB= Wave functions representing atomic orbitals of hydrogen atoms A and B
respectively

 Two molecular orbitals

Bonding molecular orbital, σ= ψA + ψB

Antibonding molecular orbital, σ* = ψA − ψB

 Energy level diagram depicting formation of bonding and anti-bonding molecular orbitals
of hydrogen molecule:

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 The energy of a bonding MO is always lower than that of an antibonding M.O.

Conditions for the Combination of Atomic Orbitals

 The combining atomic orbitals must have the same or nearly the same energies.

 The combining atomic orbitals must have the same symmetry about the molecular axis.

 The extent of overlapping between the combining atomic orbitals must be maximum.

Types of Molecular Orbitals

 σ (sigma), π (pi), δ (delta), etc.

 σ −−− symmetrical

π −−− unsymmetrical

Energy Level Diagram for Molecular Orbitals

 Increasing order of energy for O2 and F2:

σ1s< σ*1s< σ2s< σ*2s< σ2pz< (π2px= π2py) < (π*2px= π*2py) < σ*2pz

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 Increasing order of energy for Li2, Be2, B2, C2, and N2:

σ1s< σ*1s< σ2s< σ*2s< (π2px= π2py) < σ2pz< (π*2px= π*2py) < σ*2pz

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 Electronic Configuration and Molecular behaviour

 Electronic configuration: Distribution of electrons among various molecular orbitals

 Information obtained from electronic configuration:

 Stability of molecules

If Nb= Number of electrons occupying bonding MO

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 Na= Number of electrons occupying antibonding MO

Then,

(i) The molecule is stable if Nb> Na

(ii) The molecule is unstable if Nb ≤ Na

 Bond order:

Bond order (b.o.) =

 Nature of bond:

Single bond, if b.o. = 1

Double bond, if b.o. = 2

Triple bond, if b.o. = 3

 Bond length:

Decreases with increase in b.o.

 Magnetic nature:

Diamagnetic, if all the MOs are doubly occupied; and paramagnetic, if one or more MOs are
singly occupied

Bonding in Some Homonuclear Diatomic Molecular

Bonding in some homonuclear diatomic molecules is as follows-

Hydrogen Molecule (H2)

 H−atom : 1s1

 H2 : (σ1s)2

 Bond order

 Bonded by single covalent bond

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 Diamagnetic: as no unpaired electron

Helium Molecule (He2)

 He-atom : 1s2

 He2 : (σ1s)2 (σ*1s)2

 Bond order =

 Unstable and does not exist

Lithium Molecule (Li2)

 Li-atom : 1s2 2s1

 Li2 : (σ1s)2 (σ*1s)2 (σ2s)2

or, KK(σ2s)2, where KK = closed K shell structure (σ1s)2 (σ*1s)2

 Bond order =

 Diamagnetic

 Exists in vapour state

Beryllium Molecule (Be2)

 Be−atom : 1s2 2s2

 Be2 : (σ1s)2 (σ*1s)2 (σ2s)2 (σ*2s)2

 Bond order =

 Unstable and does not exist

Carbon Molecule (C2)

 C-atom : 1s2 2s2 2p2

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 C2 : (σ1s)2 (σ*1s)2 (σ2s)2 (σ*2s)2 ( )

or, KK(σ2s)2 (σ*2s)2 ( )

 Bond order =

 Diamagnetic

 Both the bonds are pi bonds because four electrons are present in two pi molecular
orbitals.

Nitrogen Molecule (N2)

Oxygen Molecule (O2)

 O-atom : 1s2 2s2 2p4

 O2 : (σ1s)2 (σ*1s)2 (σ2s)2 (σ*2s)2 (σ2pz)2 ( )

Or, KK (σ2s)2 (σ*2s)2 (σ2pz)2 ( )

 Bond order

 Paramagnetic, because of two unpaired electrons

Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules of the Second Row

 Molecular orbital occupancy and molecular properties for B2 through Ne2

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 Hydrogen Bonding

 Attractive force between hydrogen atom of one molecule and electronegative atom (F, O, or
N) of another molecule

 Represented by dotted lines (------)

Cause of Formation of Hydrogen Bonds

Hydrogen bond formation takes place when hydrogen is bonded to a strong electronegative
atom. This formation is explained in the following flow chart:

Displacement of electron pair towards the electronegative atom

↓
Attainment of fractional positive charge by hydrogen atom and fractional negative
charge by the electronegative atom
↓
Formation of a polar molecule having electrostatic force of attraction

↓
Formation of hydrogen bond

Dependence of H-bonding

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 The magnitude of H-bonding depends upon the physical state of the compound.

Types of Hydrogen Bonds

Two types: Intermolecular hydrogen bond

Intra-molecular hydrogen bond

 Intermolecular hydrogen bond:

 Formed between two different molecules of the same or different compounds

 Example:

 Intra-molecular hydrogen bond:

 Formed within the same molecule when hydrogen atom is present in between two highly
electronegative atoms (F, O or N) within the same molecule

 Example:

Importance of Hydrogen Bonding

 At normal temperature, water gets evaporated at a much less rate; this happens due to the
formation of hydrogen bond. This helps in retaining a huge amount of water on the surface
of earth.
 Water is stored in animal cell and plant cell due to the hydrogen bond.
 Hydrogen bond is formed between the components of the soil and the molecules of water.

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 Clothes of artificial fibres, such as terrylene, etc. dry faster than clothes of cotton because of
hydrogen bond.

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