OROMIA STATE UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF COMMON COURSES

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills

Course Code: (FLEN 2012) Credit Hours: 3

By: Endale Tola

OSU, 2024
Unit1: Constructing Different Types of Sentences
 What are clauses?
 What are the types of clauses? Can you give
examples for each?
 What roles do they play in writing effective
sentences?
In order to construct effective and grammatical sentences
that give variety to your writing, you need to know the
necessary grammatical structure of sentences.
To identify sentence types based on their structures and
functions, it is also important to look at clauses because
sentences can be classified based on the number and
kinds of clauses they contain.
Cont….
A clause is a group of words that has a subject
and a predicate.
 There are primarily two types clauses namely: main
clause (also called independent clause) and
subordinate clause (also called dependent clause).
 An independent clause has a subject and a predicate
and can stand by itself as a sentence. Example:
Most of the guests left the party at nine, but we stayed
to help clean up. (‘Most of the guests left the party at
nine.’ and ‘We stayed to help clean up.’ are both
independent clauses and they can stand as
independent sentences)
 …cont…
A dependent clause has a subject and a predicate, but it
cannot stand by itself as an independent clause but has
to depend on another clause for the full meaning of the
sentence.
 Dependent clause usually begins with subordinate
conjunction or relative pronoun. Example:
Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928 while he
was growing some cultures of common germs.
(‘Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928’ is
an independent clause. ‘While he was growing some
cultures of common germs.’ is dependent clause.)
 …cont…
 Sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete
thought (Littell,1985: 44).
Constituent elements of a sentence
 Sentence has two main constituent elements. These
are:
 Subject is a part of a sentence about which a statement
is made. It is a noun or pronoun, with any of its
modifiers, or it is the topic of the sentence.
Some times, some people say:
A subject is a doer of an action.
A subject is the owner of a sentence, etc.
Cont….
 However, sometimes a subject is not a doer of an
action. For instance, we can look at the following
sentences and understand that a subject can be
something else.
1. The rat was eaten by the cat= (the rat is the subject, not
doer of action)
2. I have a car= (I is the subject, not doer of action)
II. A Predicate
 Predicate is the statement made about the subject .It is
a verb or verb phrase, with any modifiers or words
used to complete its meaning. In other words, it is the
information about the subject.
Cont...
Example:
The rat was killed by the cat
Subject Predicate
Variant forms of subject and predicate
Every sentence should have a subject and a predicate.
One of these parts or both of them can be either simple or
compound.
1. Simple Subject-Simple predicate
For example: 1. John fights. 2. They run.
In sentence 1, John is a simple subject, and fights, is a
simple predicate.
In sentence 2, they is a simple subject and run is a
simple predicate.
Cont...
2. Simple subject-Compound predicate
For example:
The man hunted and fished in Dembel Lake.
3. Compound subject-Simple predicate
For example:
The man and his son hunted in Dembel Lake.
4. Compound subject-Compound predicate
For example:
The man and his son hunted and fished in Dembel Lake.
 1.1. Types of Sentences
There are two major types of sentences in English language
based on their purpose/function and structure/construction.
1.1.1. Classifications of Sentence depends on its Purpose/function
There are four different types of sentences, and each type
has a function. These are:
i. Declarative Sentence: is used to make a statement. It
always ends with a period. For example:
I’m going to town.(I’ve declared something I’m going to
do.)
I don’t like the new mayor. (I’ve expressed my opinion.)
Cont…
ii. Imperative Sentence: gives anything from a command
or order, to a request, direction, or instruction. If the
command or the request is mild, the sentence ends with
period. If the command or the request is strong the sentence
ends with the exclamation mark. Example:
Stop right there!
b. Submit the revised specifications of your plan by
Friday.
c. Please turn out the lights.
d. After separating them from the yolks, beat the whites
until they are light and fluffy.
iii. Interrogative Sentence: is used to ask questions. It
always ends with question mark. For example:
Did you use a question mark?
Did you write proper sentences?
Cont...
iv. Exclamatory Sentence: is used to express strong
feeling. It often begins with the modifier ‘what’ or ‘how’.
An exclamatory sentence always ends with exclamation
mark. Examples:
Hurrah/Bravo! We have won the match.
What a wonderful day!
How beautiful is it!
Here comes the parade!
1.1.2. Classifications of Sentence depends on its
Structures/Constructions

Sentences can be categorized in to four types based on their

structures; namely: simple, compound, complex, and
compound-complex.
a. Simple Sentence is a sentence consisting of one subject
and one predicate. In other words, it contains one main
clause/independent clause . In a simple sentence we may
have a compound subject, a compound predicate or both.
Example:
1.My brother reads magazines. (Simple sentence with a
single subject)
2.Abebe and Gutema read fictions. (Simple sentence with
compound subjects)
Cont…
3.Dr. Kemal cleaned the patient’s teeth and examined them.
(Simple sentence with compound predicate)
3.Almaz and her brother listened carefully but missed the
announcement. (Simple sentence with compound subjects
and compound predicate)
b. Compound Sentence is a sentence that contains two or
more independent clauses that are joined/connected by
coordinating conjunctions: FANBOYS (for, and, nor, but,
or, for, yet, so). In other words, compound sentences are
formed by linking simple sentences.
When forming compound sentences, a comma or semi-
colon is usually placed before coordinating conjunction.
Cont…
A compound sentence is most effective when you use it
to create a sense of balance or contrast between two or
more equally important pieces of information in your
writing. Examples:
 Kansa rang the bell door several times, but no one
answered.
 She took dance classes, but she had no natural grace or
sense of rhythm, so she eventually gave up the idea of
becoming a dancer.
 The sun was setting over the mountains, and the
shadows were growing long.
Compound sentence has also independent clauses joined
by conjunctive adverbs such as therefore, otherwise,
nevertheless or semicolon.
Cont…
Examples:
 Nuclear accidents can happen; therefore, nuclear
power plants should have strict safety control.
 Sustainable development would require industry to
reduce pollution output and resource use; as a result,
technical innovation will be stimulated.
c. Complex sentence: consists of one independent/main
clause and one or more dependent/subordinate clauses. It
often has a subordinator such as because, since, after,
although, or when or a relative pronoun such as that, who,
or which.
Cont…
Examples:
1. Because of the diversified climatic condition of the
country, Ethiopia hosts many important varieties of
plants.
This is a complex sentence because it is constituted from
one independent clause and one dependent clause.
‘Because of the diversified climatic condition of the
country,’ is dependent or subordinate clause.
‘Ethiopia hosts many important varieties of plants.’
Independent or main clause
2. The story that was told us by a little boy and that
seemed almost unbelievable turned out to be true on
enquiry.
Cont…
This is a complex sentence because it is constituted from
one independent clause and two dependent clauses.
‘The story turned out to be true’ is independent or the
main clause.
‘That was told us by a little boy’ is dependent or
subordinate. It is an adjective clause qualifying the noun
‘story’ in the main clause.
‘That seemed almost unbelievable’ is also dependent or
subordinate. It is an adjective clause qualifying the noun
‘story’ in the main clause. It is coordinate to the
subordinate clause ‘that was told us by a little boy.’
Cont…
d. Compound complex sentence consists of two or more
independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.
1. Ocean currents contain a great deal of energy, and they will
produce electricity once we learn to harness them.
This is a compound complex sentence because it is constituted
from two independent clauses and one dependent clause.
Ocean currents contain a great deal of energy. (Independent
clause)
They will produce electricity. (Independent or main clause)
Once we learn to harness them. (Dependent or subordinate
clause)
1. 2. Common Mistakes in Sentence Construction
The most common sentence errors are sentence fragments,
run-on sentences, comma splices, misplaced, dangling
modifiers and agreement errors, etc. Thus, this section
discusses those sentence errors and ways of correcting them.
1. 2.1.Sentence Fragment: is a group of words that does
not express a complete idea.
It looks like a sentence, but is not. It may begin with a
capital letter and end with a period, but its construction fails
to satisfy the reader’s expectation of a meaningful statement.
It may lack a subject, or a verb, or the dependent clause
unattached to the independent clause.
Cont…
Examples:
Genealogy, the study of family history. (Lacks verb)
Although several large rivers have been cleaned up. (Lacks
independence)
When you come to school. (Lacks independence)
Shouted with delight. (Lacks subject)
Ialways stay at library up to 6: pm. attempting to score 4.0.
(Dependent clause unattached to the Independent one)
Ways of correcting Sentence fragments :
 Adding a subject and /or a predicate to make the sentence complete.
 Attaching the fragment to an adjacent sentence and making it an
integral part of the sentence.
 Omitting some elements and making a separate sentence.
Examples:
1. Fragment: In many families, both parents work. Need to incomes.
(Lacks a complete predicate)
Corrected: In many families, both parents work because the family
needs to incomes. Or
Corrected: In many families both parents work. The family needs to
incomes.
2. Fragment: Sometimes two or three generations of one family living
together.(lacks a complete verb)
Corrected: Sometimes two or three generations of one family live
together.
Cont…
3. Fragment: The simplest family group is the nuclear family. This
consists of parents and children. ( subordinate Clause unattached to the
main clause)
Corrected: The simplest family group is nuclear family, which
consists of parents and children.
4. Fragment: She wins an award every winter. For looking after many
helpless street children.(subordinate clause unattached to the main
clause)
Corrected: She wins an award every winter for looking after many
helpless street children.
5. Fragments: Although she works hard .(has subordinate clause only)
Corrected: She works hard.
1.2.2. Choppy Sentences
If you overload your writing with sentences of the same length or
choppy sentences, it becomes monotonous. To avoid this monotony,
use a variety of sentence structures in your writing. You may make
choppy sentences effective by combining some simple sentences into
compound or complex sentences; by varying sentence beginnings or by
combining some short sentences in to longer ones.
Examples:
Choppy: Senait graduated in 1994. She graduated in English language.
She became a teacher. It was in 1994. She teaches English. She teaches
in a private school.
Effective: Senait graduated in English language in1994.In the same
year, she became English language teacher in a private school.
1.2.3.Misplaced modifiers
It occurs when it is unclear what a modifying phrase or
clause modifies. So, it is important to make sure that the
modifier clearly refers to the element you want it to modify.
Logically, modifiers should be placed with words, phrases
or clauses they modify because they make the sentence
ambiguous.
To correct a sentence with misplaced modifier, put the
modifier as close as possible to the word it modifies.
Example:
Cont…
Examples:
MM: The council advises physicians at regular intervals to administer
the drug.
Corrected: The council advises physicians to administer the drug at
regular intervals.(administering the drug at regular intervals) Or
Corrected: At regular intervals, the council advises physicians to
administer the drug.(the council advising physicians at regular
intervals)
MM: My brother nearly studies for five hours every day.
Corrected: My brother studies nearly for five hours every day.
MM: My friend’s mother held the ticket tightly in her hand that I
gave her.
Corrected: My friend’s mother held the ticket that I gave her tightly
in her hand.
1.2.4. Dangling Modifiers
A dangling modifier modifies a word which has been left out of the
sentence or that is not clearly stated in the sentence. It does not modify
any word in the sentence in which it appears.
Examples:
D: Following the guidelines carefully, the soup was made.
Correct: Following the guidelines carefully, the woman made the soup.
D: After trying several times, the lock finally opened.
Correct: After trying several times, the officer finally opened the lock.
1.2. 5. Run- on Sentences (fused sentences)
It is a construction where two or more independent
sentences are written and punctuated as if they were one
sentence. Usually it is the absence of punctuation marks.
Example:
Run on: He drove the car fast it was a beautiful day.
Correct: He drove the car fast; it was a beautiful day. Or
Correct: He drove the car fast, and it was a beautiful day.
Methods of correcting run-on sentences

i. Placing/Using a period/full stop (.) between the two clauses,

making two complete sentences
Example: It was raining heavily. I did not take an umbrella.
ii. Placing/Using a semicolon (;) between the two clauses.
Example: It was raining heavily; I did not take an umbrella.
iii. Using comma and adverbial conjunctions with semi-colon.
Example: It was raining heavily; however, I did not take an umbrella.
iv. Using comma and the coordinating conjunctions between the
two clauses.
Example: It was raining heavily, but I did not take an umbrella.
v. Adding the subordinate conjunctions and make one clause
dependent and then join to the independent clause.
Example: Although it was raining heavily, I did not take an umbrella.
The most common run-on sentence errors are of three kinds:

 When there is comma splice. It occurs when two main clauses are
punctuated by a comma rather than a semi colon or a period since
comma cannot separate sentences.
Example: Human nature is not as simple as it appears, hasty
judgments are often wrong. (Run-on)
 When no punctuation separates two independent clauses.
Example: My father is the chairman of the committee on foreign
relations. He also heads the warrant commission. (Run-on)
 When there is no comma before a coordinating conjunction
joining two main clauses.
Example: I listened to the football game all afternoon but my wife
went to the movies. (Run-on)
1.2.6. Comma Splices

Comma splice or comma fault occurs when a comma is used

between two independent clauses without a coordinating conjunction.
Example:
CS: The examination is approaching, you should study day and night.
Correct: The examination is approaching; you should study day and
night. Or
Correct: The examination is approaching; therefore, you should
study day and night. Or
Correct: The examination is approaching, and you should study day
and night.
CS: It was raining heavily I would not take an umbrella. (Incorrect)
Correct: It was raining heavily; however, I would not take an
umbrella.
1.2.7. Faulty parallelism
 Parallel construction or structure is the use of similar structure in a
pair or series of successive expressions in a sentence.
 Parallelism helps the flow of a sentence and emphasizes the
relationships of the ideas in parallel elements.
 This means, it keeps a sentence balanced by making these elements
grammatically equal: nouns are paired with nouns, verbs with verbs,
and the like.
 Faulty parallelism occurs when two or more parts of a sentence are
parallel in meaning, but not parallel in form.
Examples:
1. FP: The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word
meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings and looking up
irregular verbs.
Cont…
Revised: The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word
meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings and irregular verbs.
2. FP: The students want to learn how to write with simplicity, clearly
and logically.
Revised: The students want to learn how to write with simplicity,
clarity and logic.
3. FP: He enjoys playing football and to read different fictions. (Non-
parallel)
Revised: He enjoys playing football and reading different fictions.
4. PF: This book is not only broader, but also the most difficult one.
(Non- parallel)
Revised: This book is not only broader, but also more difficult.
5. PF: The girls in Ontario are prettier than California.(Non- parallel)
Cont…
Revised: The girls in Ontario are prettier than the girls in California.
1.2.8. Faulty Agreement (Errors)
When the agreement between the subject and a verb, a pronoun and its
antecedent and a number of the subject and a verb is not maintained it
results in faulty agreement.
Examples:
1. FA: Every scrap of soil and photo scan were analyzed for signs of
past life on Mars. (Faulty)
Correct: Every scrap of soil and photo scan was analyzed for signs of
past life on Mars.
2. FA: Almaz and her cousin has been studying mechanical
engineering. (Faulty).
Correct: Almaz and her cousin have been studying mechanical
engineering.
Cont…
3. FA: He teach technical report writing. (The singular pronoun ‘He’
and the plural verb ‘teach’ doesn’t agree in number)
Correct: He teaches technical report writing. (The singular pronoun
‘He’ and the singular verb ‘teaches’ agree in number).
1.2.9. Shifts in Points of Views
A shift in a sentence can be described as an abrupt, unneeded change
in subject, voice, tense, mood, person, number or direct or indirect
discourse.
These unnecessary shifts can confuse readers and make it difficult for
them to follow what you write.
Hence, you are intended to use consistent verb tense (past or present),
person (second or third), voice (active or passive), and mood
(statements or commands) so that you can convey your messages
effectively.
Cont…
Examples:
1. I am studying chemistry, although laboratory work does not
especially appeal to me. (The subject shifts from I to laboratory work)
Revised: I am studying chemistry, although I do not especially like
laboratory work.
2. The first draft of my research paper was completed, and then I
started the second draft. (Shift from passive to active)
Revised: I completed the first draft of my research paper, and then I
started the second draft.
3. In history, Harriet Tubman was a pioneer for the freedom of
slaves. She is an awesome woman. (Shift from past to present tense)
Revised: In history, Harriet Tubman was a pioneer for the freedom of
slaves. She was an awesome woman.
1.2.10. Wordiness
It refers to excessive use of words in a sentence.
Examples:
Wordy: Writing allows us to further our knowledge of the world
around us and become aware of our social surroundings and physical
surroundings. This can be rewritten as:
Revised: Writing furthers our knowledge and awareness of physical
and social surroundings.

Wordy: Students will often write required writings that fulfil a grade
requirement towards graduation.
Revised: For many students, writing is a graduation requirement.
1.2.11. Diction
It refers to choice and use of words both in speech and written texts.
To avoid improper use of words, use the following guidelines.
Choose understandable and clear words.
Avoid ambiguity.
Use specific/precise words.
Choose and emphasize strong words.
Avoid over use of words.
1.3. Punctuation and Capitalization
1.5.1. Punctuation
It is used to indicate the pauses and gestures that we use in speech to
clarify and emphasize meaning.
In English, the most frequently used punctuation marks are:
i. Period (Full stop) (.): is a punctuation mark that is used to end a
declarative or an imperative sentence.
Example:
Money is necessary, but you need not sell your soul for it.
(Declarative)
Send me your address as soon as possible. (Imperative)
It is also used after abbreviations like Mr., Ms., Dr., St. as in Mr.
Ones, Mrs. Smith, Ms. Evans, Dr. Peter and St. Louis.
Cont…
ii. Comma (,): is used more frequently in a piece of writing than any
other punctuation marks. It has different functions. Its main role in a
given sentence or groups of words or phrases is to indicate readers a
slightest pause.
iii. Question Mark (?): closes an interrogative sentence or other
sentences with interrogative meaning. It is used for different purposes.
Eg: Are you student? Do you know this man?
Have you done your assignment?
To indicate direct question:
Eg: Can you go with me to the movies tonight?
Used at the end of a statement that has an interrogative meaning:
Eg: You think you will be able to get away?
Used after a title that is interrogative phrase or sentence.
Eg: After Graduation – what?
Cont…
iv. The Semi-colon (;): is used to join two closely related independent
(main) clauses that are not connected by coordinating conjunctions.
Sometimes, a semi-colon can also replace a full stop (a period) in
separating two independent clauses.
Example:
The project began slowly; additional staffs were assigned to it.
Right means straight; wrong means twisted.
A semicolon is also used to separate elements in a series when some
of the elements already contain commas.
Example: Chala wishes us to attend the first, third, and fifth sessions
on Wednesday; the second, fourth and sixth sessions on Thursday;
and the first only on Friday.
Cont…
Besides, semi-colon separates main clauses joined by transitional
devices like furthermore, therefore, nevertheless, however, for
instance, for example etc.
Example:
Money is necessary; nevertheless, you shouldn’t sell your life for it.
v. The Colon (:): is usually used to introduce and prepare the reader
for something to follow.
Example: To write an essay, follow these steps: think of the topic you
write about, plan how you write, write the first draft, and then read to
edit.
It is also used to introduce formal quotations and long explanations.
Example: He began his speech with these words: “My fellow
countrymen, I want you to hear me.”
Cont…
vi. The Exclamation Point (!): is used to show strong feeling. It also
indicates a forceful command. It is used after any statement,
command or question to which a writer wants to add emotional force.
Example:
Help me!
What do you know about that!
What a beautiful sunset it is!
What a pretty dress you bought!
Oh! The man I was talking about is coming.
vii. The Quotation Marks (“ ”): is used to enclose any word, phrase,
sentence or text of other body’s less than four lines, and to enclose
unfamiliar slang and other unusual or original expressions.
Examples: Gabriel Garica Marquez once said, “It is much more
important to write than to be written about.”
Cont…
viii. Ellipsis (…): are three dots used to indicate omission of materials
from a quotation. They could be used anywhere in a given text
(quotation) where the omission is made. They can appear at the
beginning, in the middle or at the end of a quotation. When they are
used at the end, the number of dots will be four. The last (fourth) dot
is a full stop (period) that closes the sentence.
Example: A split infinitive has a word or several words between the
‘to’ and the ‘verb’ following it. Splitting an infinitive is generally
considered incorrect….
1.4. Joining Sentences/Conjunctions
Joining sentence is one of the mechanisms to keep the interest of our
readers is by varying the length of our sentences.
There are four types of conjunctions in English language. These are:
i. Coordinating Conjunctions are conjunctions that are used with
comma to join two or more complete sentences. The most commonly
used coordinating conjunctions are: FANBOYS
For: shows a result-cause relationship between two independent
clauses. It shows logical consequence; it has the same meaning as
because, the reason why.
And: shows the addition of two positive ideas. It has the same
meaning as in addition, along with, moreover, further more.
Nor: shows equality of two negative ideas. It shows an addition a
negative point. (Note: you must reverse the normal subject-verb
positions in the second clause when using nor).
Cont….
 But: shows opposition or contrast between two ideas. It has the
same meaning as however, except on the other hand
 Or: shows alternatives or choices.
 Yet: shows oppositions, also shows emphasis (a stronger but)
 So: shows cause and effect relationship. It has the same meaning as
therefore, as a result.
Example: Azeb studied hard, so she scored a good grade.
You must come early, or you will miss the bus.
She studied hard, but she failed the exam.
 Cont…
ii. Correlative Conjunctions are coordinating words that work in pairs to
join words, phrases and sentences. The most common correlatives are:
Correlative Conjunctions Meaning
Either….or one of the two
Neither…nor none of the two
Both….and Both
Whether….or dilemma/hesitation/confusion
Not only….but also Both
Example:
Both my sister and my brother work with computers.
She wanted neither cake nor ice cream.
Teachers should be not only intelligent but also friendly.
Cont…
iii. Adverb Conjunctions: are adverbs used to relate and connect main
clauses in a sentence. The common ones are: also, still, consequently,
however, indeed, hence, then, otherwise, thus, instead, furthermore,
moreover, likewise, therefore, nevertheless, etc.
Example:
Our muscles were tired and sore; nevertheless, we kept on jogging.
I ordered the concert tickets by mail; therefore, I didn’t have to stand in
line.
2. Subordination is the joining of an independent clause and a
dependent clause in the same sentence by using subordinators. In
subordination, the status of one of the sentences to be combined is
reduced to a subordinate clause. The subordinators we use in
subordination are:
Cont…
iv. Subordinating Conjunctions: are kinds of conjunctions that join
subordinate clauses with independent clauses. When subordinating
conjunctions are added at the beginning of independent clause, the
independent clause becomes dependent.
Expression Subordinating Conjunctions
Cause Because since, as

Time Since, as, after, as soon as, before, when, while, once, whenever, as
long as
Condition If, as if, as long as, provided that, unless, as though

Contrast Although, even though, though, even if, whereas, while

Result That, so that, in order that

Place Where, wherever

Comparison As, than, as……as

Cont…
Example:
I arrived late to work because the train was late.
After they finished studying, Getu and Ali went to the movies.
If I were a bird, I would fly.
v. Relative Pronouns: Like the other subordinating conjunctions
relative pronouns are used to join subordinate clauses with independent
clauses. They also introduce relative clauses. What makes the
subordinate clause in relative clause different from the other type of
subordinate clauses is that it is an adjective clause. In relative clauses,
the adjective clauses which are dependent clauses and modify a noun or
pronoun in the main clause usually begin with relative pronoun are
who, whom, whose, which or that. The adjective clauses may be
restrictive (essential) or non-restrictive (non- defining) clauses. In the
following sentence the underlined parts are adjective clauses.
Cont…
Example:
The movie that I saw yesterday won a Grammy Award. (Restrictive
adjective)
New York, which is America’s populous city, is one of the world’s
leading commercial centres. (Non- restrictive)
The boat that was owned by Mr. Ongaye sank in the harbour.
(Restrictive)
UNIT TWO: WRITING EFFECTIVE PARAGRAPHS

Brainstorming activities:

What is a paragraph?

How many sentences can a paragraph have?

How many topics should a paragraph talk about?

What is a topic sentence?

Where do you usually find a topic sentence of a paragraph?

What are supporting details?

Cont…

2.1. Definition of paragraph

A paragraph is a combination of sentences that deal with a distinct unit
developing one major idea or a topic sentence.

A paragraph can be written for any of several purposes, but all paragraphs
have one thing in common: each sentence logically relates to the same topic.
In other words, a group of unrelated sentences is not a paragraph. A good
paragraph is well organized, properly linked and adequately developed.

Generally, to understand a paragraph:

Is a group of sentences;

The sentences are logically related;

Cont…
 All sentences deal with the single main idea or topic sentence giving detailed
and relevant information.

 In other words, this is to mean that an effective paragraph has unity,

coherence, and adequate development or completeness. These will be
discussed in detail under the topic the basic characteristics of an effective
paragraph.

2.2. Basic Structure of a Paragraph

Structure of a paragraph refers to the components of a paragraph.

Most of the paragraphs have three basic structures: the introduction/topic

sentence, the body/Supporting sentence , and the conclusion/Concluding
sentence.
Cont…
That means most paragraphs are made up of a topic sentence, a series of
detailed or supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence.

2.2.1. The introduction/topic sentence:is a sentence that expresses the

main idea of a paragraph/ central or controlling idea of a paragraph.

It tells the reader what to expect about the information that will follow.
Without the use of a topic sentence, developing a paragraph can be
extremely difficult

Topic sentence is usually the first sentence of a paragraph, but not

necessarily. It may come, for example, after a transition sentence; it may
even come at the end of a paragraph.
Cont…
 In other words, topic sentences can appear at several points in a
paragraph.

Example:

Suppose you want to write a paragraph about Police Work. The topic
sentence of your paragraph might look like:

Police officers perform many important services.

2.2.2. The body/Supporting sentence: is the part of the paragraph

which provides details that refer back to the introductory sentence.

The body is the main part of a paragraph which is developed

sequentially.
Cont…
 The detailed or supporting sentences in the body explain or discuss
the controlling idea stated in the topic sentence by providing enough
and specific supporting details, using facts, arguments, analysis,
examples, and other information.

For Example:

Police officers perform many important services. They may be

involved in solving crimes. They may find themselves helping lost
children. Often police officers are also called upon to calm frightened
people or to assist someone who has been wronged. They may give
aid to motorists whose cars have broken down or who have been in
accidents.
Cont…
2.2.3. Conclusion/Concluding sentence: is the final section which
summarizes the connections between the information discussed in the
body of the paragraph and the paragraph’s controlling idea through the
concluding sentence.

The concluding sentence reminds the readers of what they have to

value by summing up what the topic sentence and the supporting details
talk about.

Here is a sample paragraph in which the concluding sentence

summarizes the information presented by the supporting sentences.
Cont…
There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in
the world. First, Canada has an excellent health care system. All
Canadians have access to medical services at a reasonable price.
Second, Canada has a high standard of education. Students are taught
by well–trained teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at
university. Finally, Canada’s cites are clean and efficiently managed.
Canadian cities have many parks and lots of space for people to live.
As a result, Canada is a desirable place to live.
2.3. Position of a Topic Sentence in a Paragraph
A topic sentence can be placed:

I. the beginning of the paragraph

II. the middle of the paragraph

III. the end of the paragraph

IV. the beginning and the end of the paragraph

Cont…
However, it is always better to use the topic sentence at the beginning
of a paragraph for it is a very useful guide to both the writer and the
reader. When the topic sentence is placed at the beginning of a
paragraph, it helps a writer to see what information to include and what
information to exclude in a paragraph. The readers also understand
what is going to come in that particular paragraph once they find the
topic sentence at the beginning.
For Example
There are a number of steps to take if you are stung by a bee or a
hornet. The first thing to do is remove the stinger. A stinger contains
venom. It will continue to release venom as long as it is contacted with
skin. When the stinger is removed, put ice on the wound. This will
reduce the swelling. Then, apply a small amount of baking soda. It
contains enzymes that will weaken the venom. Finally, look for signs
of an allergic reaction such as difficulty in breathing. People have died
from strong allergic reactions to stings. When such a reaction occurs,
the victim should be taken to the hospital for treatment.
2.4. Essentials/Characteristics of a Good Paragraph
The basic characteristics of an effective paragraph: unity, coherence, and
adequate development or completeness.

2.4.1. Unity: refers to the idea that all points and the sentences in a
paragraph are related to and aimed at developing the topic sentence of
the paragraph. Unity is achieved by advancing a single point and sticking
to that point with examples, details, steps or definitions.

For Example:
Topic sentence: My friend Meaza is generous.
Supporting sentences: She often lets travellers stay in her home. She
has hosted many students temporarily. She sends money to her family in
Jimma every month to help them with their bills. She always brings food
or items to her friends when they are sick or have a need.
Cont…
Concluding sentence: Generally, Meaza is one of the most generous
people I know.

Notice that all sentences are about Meaza’s generosity. A sentence

about the way she looks or about her job will not support the unity of the
paragraph unless it somehow relates to her generosity.

2.4.2. Coherence
Coherence: refers to the logical flow/ proper linkage of ideas in a
paragraph, and this can be maintained by appropriate use of linking
devices.
Cont…
Note: Cohesion can be achieved by the using linking devices such as
transitional expressions, pronouns, synonyms and repeated words.

Cohesive devices have different functions. But generally they help to

make writing clear, natural and easy to read. They are used to link parts
of a sentence or separate sentences and in showing the relationship
between the ideas or facts the writer is expressing.

A paragraph must have coherence. This means that the supporting details
are organized so that information that goes together appears together. A
true paragraph is not just a set of sentences put together, but sentences
which are interlinked with each other. These interlinked sentences
provide coherence to the paragraph.
Cont…
For Example :

(1)When I was a freshman in high school, I enjoyed most of my courses.

(2) Physical education, to be sure, I didn’t like, probably because I was
small for my age then, and rather frail. (3) But English was easy for
me, as I had always been a great reader. (4) I found algebra mostly fun,
even, as I am naturally good at figures and logically relationships. (5)
It was biology, however, that I enjoyed most of all; this study of
animals and plants opened a whole new world to me. Generally
speaking, I performed well in most of the subject.
 Cont…
There are four significant ways of achieving paragraph coherence.

2.4.2.1. Using connectives: are words and phrases that writers use to
make smooth transition from one idea to another within a paragraph.
They are also called transitional devices or cohesive devices. Some of
them are mentioned below with their functions.

i. Addition : and, furthermore, moreover, besides, again, likewise,

similarly, also, in addition, what is more, what is worse, next, the other
reason

ii. Contrast : but, however, nevertheless, on the other hand, on the

contrary, though, even though, although Result/conclusion: therefore,
hence, thus, consequently, as a result, in summary,
Cont…
iii. Enumeration: firstly, second,(ly)

iv. Sequence : first, second, third, last, then finally, next

v. Time : in the meantime, then, later, soon, next, after, before, as, while,
now, during, finally

vi. Space : above, below, beside, behind, in front of, next, across, the
opposite side, to the left, nearby

vii. Illustration : Namely, that is, for instance, for example, specifically,
such as

2.4.2.2. Repeating words :You might have been taught not to repeat
words in writing. However, repeating key words helps you tie together the
2.4.2.3. Using pronouns
Pronouns (he, she, it, they and others) are another ways to connect ideas
in a paragraph. Pronouns have transitional values by referring to their
antecedents. Also using pronouns in place of other words can help you
avoid needless repetition.

For Example:

Pasteur proved that he was right by a very simple and clever experiment.
He put some soup in to some bottles and then he boiled it in order to
destroy any germs that might already be in the soup. After that, he
heated and pulled out the neck of each bottle until it formed a long
narrow neck with a big bend in the middle.
2.4.2.4. Using Synonyms
Synonyms are words alike in meaning. Using synonyms can also help
you move easily from one thought to the next. In addition, the use of
synonyms increases variety and interest by avoiding needless repetition.
Note how the writer used synonyms to achieve paragraph coherence in
the following example.

Generally, coherence in a paragraph means that the ideas have a logical

flow: the relationship between the sentences is clear and one idea
connects to the next. All the ideas fit together in a logical flow.
2.4.3. Completeness or Adequate Development

Completeness or adequate development is related to how explanation

an idea requires and it depends on how much the reader needs. When
there is incompleteness, there is an error by giving either too much
explanation or not enough. Giving a reader unnecessary explanation
may be boring, but giving too little may block communication.
2.5. Organization of a Paragraph
An effective paragraph is the result of carefully selected and properly
ordered details. Different techniques of organizing details create
different effects. In writing a paragraph, you may order details by using
one of these orders: spatial order, order of importance, or order of
impression.

2.5.1. Spatial Order:is a way of organizing a paragraph with respect

to spatial relations between ideas.

2.5.2.Time (Chronological) Order: is a way of organizing a

paragraph in relating with time. This means that it is presenting ideas
based on their happenings one after the other.
2.5.3. Emphatic Order (Order of Importance)
Emphatic Order (Order of Importance): is a method of organizing
details which writers use when they want to show readers that some
details are more significant than others. Details can be written
(sequenced) by placing the most important ones before the least
important.

2.5.4. Size Order: is a way of organizing ideas based on the size of

objects or things to be developed in a paragraph.
2.6. Types of paragraphs
There are four basic types of paragraph in English. They are descriptive,
narrative, expository and argumentative (persuasive) paragraph.

2.6.1 Descriptive Paragraph: is a paragraph which clearly and vividly

portrays the image of an object, a place, a scene, a person or spiritual
aspects of a person (feeling, emotion, attitude etc). It uses details that
concentrated on the five senses such as hearing, smell, taste and touch.

When writing a descriptive paragraph, writers use appropriate words

which clearly describe the image and nature of the thing described. The
most appropriate and commonly used words and expressions are
describers such as adjectives, adverbs, adverbial phrases etc.
Cont…
 In descriptive writing, a person, a place or object can be described.

2.6.1.1. Describing a person

When describing a person, it is possible to describe him or her in terms

of his or her physical appearance, behaviour, particular characteristics
(such as intelligence, wisdom, creativity and social interaction) etc. It
is also possible to describe a person based on the role and
responsibilities he has in the family, society, organization etc.

2.6.1.2. Describing an Object

In describing objects, you can deal with either the physical appearance
or the function, or both. When you describe an object in terms of the
Cont…
physical appearance, you describe it mentioning its attributes as size,
shape, colour, texture, material, type etc. when you describe it in terms
of its function you mention its uses in detail.

2.6.1.3. Describing a Place

In describing places, the main issues you raise in the description are
the location of the place described, things that are found in the place,
the position of the things and the appearance of the place.
2.6.2. Narrative Paragraph

Narrative paragraph is a type of discourse writing that reports an

account of events in the past. It is a reporting of a series of happenings,
incidents, actions and events. Since it is concerned with time and action,
it is presented following chronological order. The most commonly used
verb forms in narrative writing are simple past and past perfect though
it is possible to use other verb forms too.

2.6.3. Expository/Explanatory Paragraph

Expository/Explanatory Paragraph is the other type of paragraph in

which facts are presented, information is explained and concepts or
ideas are expressed in detail. As its name implies, expository paragraph
exposes and explains topics, ideas, thoughts or issues.
Cont…

It is the most frequently used type of written discourse. When students

answer essay questions, when they give written instructions, define
terms, express the cause and effect of something, when explaining
process; comparing and contrasting things, and when classifying
topics, they often use expository writing. Since it is usually factual,
expository paragraph is free from the emotion of the writer.

2.6.4. Argumentative (Persuasive) Paragraph

Argumentative paragraph is a paragraph in which you try to show that

your idea or belief is more acceptable than another idea. In this kind of
paragraph, writers attempt to influence readers to accept their idea and
think or act in certain way. In developing an argumentative paragraph,
Cont…

you need to employ logical reasoning and concrete evidences by stating facts,
giving sound reasons, using examples or/and quoting experts.

When we state evidences, hearsays, personal opinion, speculations are not

effective. Thus, in argumentative paragraph, using reliable evidences which are
relevant, unbiased, up-to-date, complete and verifiable is very important.
Example:

Americans have developed a throwaway mind-set. We are too accustomed to

throwing away everything. You name it; we throw it away. Many people think
recycling is the answer, but it is not enough. We need to reduce the amount of
waste we produce as well. We need to change our disposable lifestyle. And one
way to do that is to discourage the throwaway habit by charging households
and businesses for the amount of trash they create.
2.7. Methods/Techniques of Paragraph Development
There are various paragraph developing techniques according to the nature of the
topic.

2.7.1. The Method of Definition: is used when a term in a topic sentence is

explained at some length. Mostly the terms defined at length are abstract, unfamiliar
or unknown words. When defining such kinds of words, a writer describes or
explains the unknown term by relating it to something known or concrete.
Example:
Empathy is the ability to completely understand another person’s point of view. It is
a great asset in a police work. By practicing empathy, police officers can avoid being
closed-minded. It will help them to see all sides of a traffic accident or a criminal
incident. Empathy eliminates bias; instead, introduces tolerance, understanding and
sympathetic human relations.
2.7.2. Method of Illustration

It is a paragraph developing technique which writers employ to help

readers understand a more general idea with something specific. It is a
method of developing paragraph by giving examples to readers to help
them understand an idea easily.

Example:

Science has helped us get rid of many sicknesses of the mind and the body.
For example, advancement in the field of psychology have enabled effective
cures for many mental elements like claustrophobia, schizophrenia etc.
Similarly, many other discoveries in science have made it possible to cure
terrible diseases such as malaria, small pox, pneumonia and tuberculosis.
2.7.3. Method of Comparison
It is a paragraph developing technique which is used to show the
similarity between two things. It compares the similar aspects or
qualities of two subjects. Notice how a paragraph and an essay are
compared below.

2.7.4. Method of Contrast: is a way of developing a paragraph by

showing the differences exist between two subjects.

2.7.5. Method of Cause and Effect: is a method of developing idea that

looks for the relationship between two actions or two events of which
one is the reason and the other the result.
2.7.6. Method of Classification

It is a method of developing a paragraph by classifying subjects into

separate category. It presents ideas, objects, or issues to be discussed in
their respective category. The following sample paragraph illustrates
how the paragraph is developed by classifying illustrations used in
science and technology writing.

2.7.7. Method of Enumeration: is a method of paragraph

development which lists or enumerates details.

2.7.8. Method of Process Description : is a method which explains

how to do something step by step. It is a convenient method to enable
readers to be able to follow the step to get a desired result.
UNIT THREE: ESSAY WRITING
3.1 Definition of an Essay

An essay is a series of paragraphs organized in a well thought-out

manner which attempts to provide information on a certain topic. It is
not just a statement of facts but an effort to reveal the thought process,
ideas and personal feelings of a writer.

Essay may be descriptive, use narration, propose solutions to

problems, and elucidate the inner workings of complicated creations of
nature.

Essay has definable beginning, middle and ending. It was built

around central ideas, normally referred to as theses.
Cont…
 Writing an essay involves little more than applying the principles that
we have already discussed in the process of paragraph writing. What
you need to do is expanding the basic pattern of introduction, body
and conclusion.

 Essays can have three to five paragraphs or more. A typical essay

usually has five paragraphs. It is known as a five-paragraph essay.
Essays with three to four paragraphs are known as short essays.

 Like a paragraph, a short essay has three basic patterns/components:

an introduction, a body and a conclusion.
Cont…
 In a paragraph, the statement that states the controlling idea is called
a topic sentence. In a short essay, it is known as a thesis statement.

 The supporting sentences of a paragraph support the idea in the

topic sentence. Similarly in the short essay, the body paragraph(s)
support(s) the idea in the thesis statement. Each body paragraph has
a topic sentence. In a paragraph, a concluding sentence summarizes
the idea in the topic teachers and sentence. Likewise, the concluding
paragraph of an essay summarizes the idea in the thesis statement.
3.2. Structure of an Essay
 A five-paragraph essay follows a defined format. It consists of one-
paragraph introduction, a three-paragraph body and a one-paragraph
conclusion. The roles of these paragraphs are described and illustrated
below.

3.2.1. The introduction/introductory paragraph

 The introduction to a five-paragraph essay must have a hook,

background information, and the thesis statement.

 A hook is a statement that begins the introduction. It includes one or

two interesting sentences that engage the reader’s attention and
stimulates their curiosity.
Cont…
For example.

We all dream about our wedding celebration, but when it happens, we do not
know what to expect.

The example sentence provides the hook for an essay about a wedding
celebration.

3.2.2. Body Paragraphs

The three body paragraphs of a five-paragraph essay contain the supporting

details of the essay. Each paragraph has a topic sentence that states the content
of its paragraph. Each paragraph supports and expands on an aspect of the topic
and controlling idea of the thesis statement.
Cont…
 The topic sentences are often the first sentences of the body
paragraphs.

 Each body paragraph must develop a point presented in the topic

statement. All the supporting details in a body paragraph must clearly
relate to each other. They can be descriptions, definitions, examples,
anecdotes, statistics, and so on.

 The concluding sentences may either bring the ideas of the paragraphs
to a close or suggest the content of the next paragraph.

3.2.3. The concluding paragraph

 The conclusion brings the essay to an end. It is usually two to four

Cont…
It restates the thesis of the introduction in different words. This
restatement connects the conclusion to the introduction. The
conclusion may give advice or warning. It may make a prediction or
ask a question. It can provide new insights and discoveries that the
writer has gained through writing the essay.
3.3. Unity and Coherence within an Essay
3.3.1. Unity

Effective writing must have unity. Unity occurs when all the ideas in
an essay support each other. An essay has unity when all the body
paragraphs contain a topic sentence and supporting sentences that
reinforce the thesis of the essay. Without unity, the essay loses its focus
and stray from the topic.

In the example below, both topic sentences 1 and topic sentence 2
support the thesis statement. However, notice how topic sentence 3
deviates from the thesis statement.
Cont…

Topic sentence 1
Having my friends and family
together at my weeding was
an amazing experience
Thesis statement
Topic sentence 2
My wedding day
The band we hired played
was the most
music that the guests loved,
thrilling day of
and we danced for hours.
my life
Topic sentence 3
The preparations for the
wedding were so exhausting.
THE END!