NEW LABOR FORCE(C-2) (2)

Chapter Two
Labor Supply
1
2.1. Measurement of the Labor force Participation
• Labor force (LF) = Unemployed + Employed
• Unemployed:
 Aged 15/16 or older
 temporary layoff from a job
 Have no job, but actively looking for work
 Applied/attempted to apply for a job in the four-week period prior to the data collection
• Employed:
 Aged 15/16 or older
 Worked at least an hour paid job per week or 15 hours or more (per week) on a nonpaid
job (such as the family business.
• Not in the labor force
• Aged 15/16 or older
• Permanent layoff
• Do not applied for or searched job in the last 4 weeks prior to the data collection
• Gave up looking for a job
• The labor force participation rate = LF/P; P = population size
2
• The employment rate (also called the “employment–population ratio”) gives the
fraction of the population that is employed:
 Employment rate = E/P
• The unemployment rate gives the fraction of labor force participants who are
unemployed:
 Unemployment rate = U/LF
• Which one of the above to use as a measure of the extent of the healthiness of the
overall economy?
• Unemployment rate: - excludes the hidden unemployed - during severe recession, laid-
offs become discouraged to look for job and considered as ‘out of labor force’, in that the
unemployment rate underestimates the depths of the recession and economic hardships.
• Employment rate: it may decrease as school enrolment increases and as fertility
increases  employment rate may not show the true economic performance.
• The most widely used measure of the labor market and the performance of the economy
is the unemployment rate.
• Unemployment rate serves as a measure of the extent of the healthiness of the overall
economy.
3
• It is however, important to note that there are sizeable flows of workers
between groups. We can identify four major flows of people between
groups:
1. From the employed to unemployed groups: - some workers may be
voluntarily quitting or laid off
2. From the unemployed to the employed groups: - some unemployed
workers may be newly hired or recalled from temporary layoff
3. From the labor force to out of the labor force: - some employed or
unemployed workers may retire or drop out of work
4. From out of the labor force to the labor force (new graduates, for
example) and some of the drop outs may reenter the labor force
4
Overtime labor force participation: USA – men
(Borjas, 2016)
5
Overtime labor force participation: USA – women
(Borjas, 2016)
6
Overtime Working hours: USA (Borjas, 2016)
7
Overtime labor force : Ethiopia (complied from the
WB data)
Labor force
60,000,000
51,400,821 53,021,350 52,799,403

48,237,030 49,794,802
50,000,000
46,716,419
40,000,000
39,198,185
30,000,000 28,473,849
20,024,656
20,000,000
10,000,000
-
1990 2000 2010 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
8
Overtime labor force participation rate : Ethiopia
(complied from the WB data)
100
89.6 89.9 88.4
90
79.7 82.0
74.440002441406 81.2
77.9 73.419998168945
80 73.2 70.339996337890 3 3
66.400001525878 6
69.2 9 66.6
70
60 57.9
51.6
50
40
30 Total Female (> 15 yrs old) Male (>15 yrs old)
20
10
0
1981 1987 1994 1999 2005 2013
9
Overtime labor force participation rate : Ethiopia
(complied from the WB data)
100
89.6 89.9 88.4
90
79.7 82.0
74.440002441406 81.2
77.9 73.419998168945
80 73.2 70.339996337890 3 3
66.400001525878 6
69.2 9 66.6
70
60 57.9
51.6 Seems sth. is
50
wrong?
40
30 Total Female (> 15 yrs old) Male (>15 yrs old)
20
10
0
1981 1987 1994 1999 2005 2013
10
2.2. The Work-Leisure Decision Model
• Of the 24-hours a day available to us, if we allocate 8 hours for biologically and culturally
determined activities like sleeping, eating and others, the remaining 16 hours will be at
our disposal.
• We can spend them either for work or for leisure, or some combinations of them.
• To analyze the workers’ behavior in allocating the discretionary hours between work and
leisure, economist employ the neoclassical work-leisure decision model.
• Having the goal of identifying the factors that determine whether to work at all and, if so,
how long to work, the model helps us
• understand the facts about labor supply
• predict the influence of complex policy issues on the labor supply behavior.
• The model regards workers as having the objective of utility maximization in which
preferences of a worker and budget constraints are key concepts.
11
• The representative person in our model gets satisfaction both from the consumption of
goods & services (denoted by C ) and from the consumption of leisure time (L).
• Q#1. How we aggregate food, cloth, car, etc. to denote all by C?
• The notion that individuals get satisfaction from consuming goods and leisure is
summarized by the utility function:
• The utility function transforms the person’s consumption of goods and leisure into an
index U (called utility) that measures the individual’s level of satisfaction or happiness.
• The higher the level of index U, the happier the person.
• We make the sensible assumption that buying more goods or having more leisure hours
both increase the person’s utility, i.e., C & L are normal good.
12
Fixed hours per day

(time constraint)
Work
(labor market activity)
Leisure
(non–labor market activity
• Work is time devoted to a paying job.

• Leisure includes all kinds of activities for which a person does not get paid: time spent on consumption,
education, commuting, rest, relaxation, and so forth.
• Two sets of information are necessary to determine the optimal distribution of an individual’s time
between work and leisure.
• First, we require subjective, psychological information concerning the individual’s work–leisure
preferences. This information is embodied in indifference curves .
• Second, we need the objective market information that is reflected in a budget constraint. 13
• C and L, are to some extent substitutes for each other.

•  various combinations of C and L can provide identical level of satisfaction - if a worker
is made to forgo some hours of leisure for work, s/he would enjoy an increment on his
money income so that his/her satisfaction could keep unchanged.
• The locus of points that stand for equal utility is termed as an indifference curve.
• We can construct an indifference curve for every level of utility  indifference map.
14
Income per day
Indifference curve (IC)
0 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hours of leisure (per day) Hours of work (per day)
15
Income per day

Indifference map
0 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
16
Properties of indifference curves:

1. Indifference curves are downward sloping. More L and/or C means nothing otherwise 
contradicts the assumption that L and C are normal goods.
2. Indifference curves do not intersect. Why?
3. Indifference carves are convex. Why? W/c good you would like to give up more to get
another good: the good that you have large amount or little?
4. Higher indifference curves indicate higher levels of utility
17
Different Preferences for Work (Income) and Leisure: w/c one depicts ‘leisure lover’. How
do you know this?
18
Different Preferences for Work (Income) and Leisure: w/c one depicts ‘leisure lover’. How
do you know this?
19
Slope of the IC
• Measures the rate at which a person is willing to give up some leisure time in return for
additional consumption, while holding utility constant.
• The slope tells us how many additional dollars’ worth of goods it would take to induce
the person into giving up some leisure time.
• A movement from east to west along the indifference curve reduces utility by the
product of the number of leisure hours being given up, ΔL and the associated loss of
marginal utility
• The Forgone leisure hour is used to work and earn additional income to be used for
consumption, w/c increases utility by the product of ΔC, and the marginal utility derived
from the consumption of additional good purchased by using the additional money
income
• Since the movement along the indifference curve involves no charge in total utility, the
loss is exactly compensated by the gain.
20
Slope of the IC
• That is,
( 𝛥 𝐿 × 𝑀 𝑈 𝐿 ) + ( 𝛥 𝐶 × 𝑀 𝑈 𝐶 ) =0
• Upon rearranging, we have

• Slope of IC =
• The absolute value of the slope of an indifference curve, which is also called the marginal
rate of substitution (MRS) in consumption, is the ratio of marginal utilities.
• Convexity implies that the slope of an indifference curve is steeper when the worker is
consuming a lot of goods and little leisure, and that the curve is flatter when the worker is
consuming few goods and a lot of leisure  diminishing MRS.
21
Slope of the IC
22
The budget constraint
• If the resources were not scarce, every worker would like to enjoy the ideally highest utility.
• But the discretionary hours available for leisure and work are limited.
• The resource that is under the command of the worker is constituted from the money income and
leisure time.
• The money income may be obtained from various sources including
A. non-labor income such as property rent, dividends , interest, remittance, profit and lottery
B. labor income – employment compensation
• Assume
• that of the total available daily time, T, the person allots h hours of for work
• Wage rate is independent of hours worked.
• So, the person earns wh amount of income from work, where w is wage rate per unit of
time, e.g., hour/week/month
• Thus, the person’s budget constraint can be
• , where V is income from non-labor sources
23
The budget constraint (BC)
• The total time allocated to each of activities must equal the total time available in the period:
T = h + L  h = T-L; where L is leisure time
• The BC can be re-written as

• Slope = -w. Show.
• Draw the BL.
24
The budget constraint (BC)
• Draw the BL.
The figure indicates
that the worker has
various alternatives
allo ork
All T
for
on how to allocate
tted
w
his discretionary time.
All T
allotted
for leisure
25
The Hours of Work Decision (Utility maximization)
• The individual’s optimal or utility-maximizing position can be determined by bringing together

 The subjective preferences embodied in the indifference curves and
 The objective market information contained in the budget line.
• Recall that the farther the indifference curve is from the origin, the greater the person’s total utility.
• Therefore, given the budget constraint, an individual will maximize total utility by attaining the
highest possible indifference curve
• The optimal work–leisure position is achieved where MRS L, C (the slope of the indifference
curve) is equal to the wage rate (the slope of the budget line).
• By definition, these slopes are equal only at the point of tangency.
• Implying that
 the rate at which a person is willing to give up leisure hours in exchange for additional consumption (i.e.,
MRS) equals the rate at which the market allows the worker to substitute one hour of leisure time for
consumption (the wage rate).
 the last dollar spent on leisure activities buys the same number of utils as the last dollar spent on consumption
goods.
26
The Hours of Work Decision (Utility maximization)
Why A and P are not optimal solutions?
Optimal solution
L
h
27
Exercise
• Suppose that a person earns $1 per hour from working as a manager
at a firm. Her utility function from consumption of goods and leisure
is given by
• The person must sleep 8 hours of the day.

1. Draw the BL
2. Find the utility maximizing allocation of hours of a day.
28
Scenarios: Change in wage rate
• Suppose that the wage rate increases.
• # Implications
A. Leisure time becomes expensive – the person wishes to substitute some of leisure hours for
work.  an increase in wage rate induces substitution effect that increases working hours at
the expense of leisure hours.
B. Income increases as the increased wage rate applied to all worked hours. The person becomes
wealthier, and wishes to allot more hours for leisure, reducing working hours.  an increase in
wage rate triggers income effect that increases leisure hours at the expense of working hours.
 Net effect?
 Opportunity set of the person increases, i.e., utility increases
 On hours of work depends on the whether SE or IE dominates: an IE pushing toward less work while a SE
pushing toward more work
• Which effect dominates on hours of work? Depends, among others, on
 The initial income level
 The prefers for leisure Vs money
 external (to the person) factors, e.g., institutional factors
29
• Graphical illustration of wage rate increases
• Suppose that the person is leisure lover - steep IC
• To show the income effect, assume that the new BL is achieved from
non-labor source where wage rate remains unchanged as the original
wage rate.
• To show the substitution effect, consider the new IC w/c can be
achieved from two differently slopped BLs: the new BL & another BL
drawn parallel to the original BL.
30
IC0
0 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
31
IC1
IC0
0 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
32
IC1
IC0
0 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
33
IC1
IC0
0 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
34
IC1
IC0
0 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
35
Scenarios: What Happens to Hours of
Work When Nonlabor Income Changes?
• What is the impact on:
• Opportunity sets (utility)
• Hours of leisure
• SE? IE?
36
Scenarios: What Happens to Hours of
Work When Nonlabor Income Changes?
• Graphical illustration the effect of a loss in nonlabor income source
• The relative price of leisure (to work) remains unchanged as wage is
unaffected.
• No SE
• Income effect
• The person becomes poorer now
• Work hours increase; leisure time decrease
• Utility decrease
37
Scenarios: Decrease in nonlabor income
IC0
IC1
0 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
38
Exercise
• Graphically show the effect on (A) total utility and (B) work hours of a
wage rate decrease when
i. IE dominates SE
ii. SE dominates IE.
39
Reservation wage: to work or not to work
• What factors motivate a person to enter the labor force in the first place?
• One of the main factors affecting the decision to whether to work is wage rate while
availability of alternative source of income and unemployment insurance plays also key
role
• Reservation wage: the market wage at which the worker becomes indifferent between
taking a job or not. It is the lowest wage rate at which one would decide to work.
• A worker places a value on the marginal hour of leisure time. If the offered wage rate is
greater than this value, the worker will be willing to enter the labor force; otherwise not.
40
Reservation wage
C
Maximum Utility at
W0 wage rate
=w 0
Slope
E
T L
41
Reservation wage
Working at W0 makes
the person worse off.
She does not enter
the labor market
=w 0
Slope
E
42
Reservation wage
At W1, the person is
better of working as
U1 >Uo
p e = W1
Slo
U1
p e = W0
Slo
E U0
43
Reservation wage
p e = W1
Slo
W0 U1
op e =
Sl
E
U0 ati o n wage
p e Re se r v
Slo
44
Reservation wage
•The reservation wage gives the minimum increase in income that would make the person
indifferent between remaining working and not working.
•Some implications of the reservation wage:

1. The decision to take a job is made by comparing the reservation wage and the market
wage. If the market wage is greater (less) than the marginal value of leisure time, the
worker will (will not) participate in the labor market.
2. Since the reservation wage depends on the person’s taste for work, as the worker’s non
labor income increases, his/her reservation wage becomes higher and consequently the
person is less likely to enter the labor force
3. There is a positive relation between the market wage and the probability of working.
4. An increase in the wage of a nonworker does not generate an income effect.
5. The wage increase makes leisure time more expensive and hence is likely to draw the
nonworker into the labor force.
45
2.3. The labor supply
• The reservation wage constitutes the starting point for labor supply decision.
• Once the market wage starts to increase above the reservation wage, the worker starts to
allocate positives hours of work.
• Such a relation between the market wage rate and the number of hours allocated for work
provides the labor supply.
• Labor supply:
• Individual labor supply
• Market labor supply
• We use the utility-maximization framework to derive individual labor supply curve
• The market labor supply is horizontal aggregation of individual LS at a given wage rate.
46
Individual labor supply
• Consider a continuous marginal increase in wage rate.
• At RW, Ls =0, but as wage rate marginally increases, initially the SE dominates the IE and
LS increases. However, if the wage rate keeps on increasing, then SE = IE, and then SE < IE
and LS declines.
• This gives backward-bending labor supply curve because it eventually bends around and
has a negative slope in the bended segment
• When is the LS curve positively sloped? When SE > IE or IE > SE?
• To find the individual Ls, record the hours of work for each wage rate, then present the Ls
by
• Graph
• Table
• Equation
47
Determinants of Ls
• Factors that induce shift in Ls include
1. Non-labor income
2. Change in work-leisure preference
• Factor that induce movement along the LS
• Wage rate
• Income tax
Q#: Will LS shift to the left or right, and what happens to LS when:
1. A spouse fired from job?
2. Children school fees increase for families having children
3. Preference for leisure increases
4. Government decreases dividend tax for shareholders
5. An improvement in working conditions,
6. Availability of child care service
48
Exercise
• Q#2:
1. Graphically derive individual labor supply.
2. Given the following information
1. Draw individual LS curves
2. Draw the market labor supply
3. Drive the slope of the market LS
Wage rate 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Mr. X hours 0 0 0 2 3 5 7 8 7
of work
Mr. Y hours of 0 2 5 7 7 5 4 3 2
work
49
Wage Elasticity of Labor Supply
• The elasticity of labor supply measures the extent of responsiveness of hours of
work to changes in the wage rate.
• Gives the percentage change in hours of work associated with a 1% change in the
wage rate.
• Over specific ranges of an individual’s labor supply curve, the elasticity

coefficient could be
• Zero (perfectly inelastic) – horizontal LS curve
• Infinite (perfectly elastic) -
• Less than 1 (relatively inelastic),
• greater than 1 (relatively elastic),
• or negative (backward-bending).
50
Wage Elasticity of Labor Supply
• The elasticity will depend on the relative strengths of the IE and SE.
• > 0 if SE --------- IE?
• = 0 if SE --------- IE?
• < 0 if SE --------- IE?
• Example: suppose that a person works 8 hours per week at $100 wage
rate. A 10% imposition of tax induces the worker to reduce working
hours by half. Find .
51
Empirical evidence
Sharp gender difference in wage elasticity of LS.
Women Men
Time allocation
Time allocation
Market work
Market work
Pure leisure
Pure leisure
Work at home
52
Empirical evidence
• There is usually limited substitution b/n pure leisure time and hours
of work for a working person.
• Wage rate increase does not significantly affect hours of working for
men.
• Both SE and IE are small for men, where usually SE >= IE
• A nearly vertical labor supply curve for men.
• The labor market participation rate for women is significantly less
than that for men; many women work part-time, and women assume
major responsibility for work within the home.
53
Empirical evidence
• For many married women, work in the home and work in the labor market are highly
substitutable.
• When wage rates increase, many women substitute labor market work for work in the
home.
• Hire housecleaners
• Hire babysitter or child care service
• Purchasing prepared meals
• A strong SE, which implies an upward-sloping labor supply curve for married women.
54
Empirical evidence
• However, the gender gap in wage elasticity of LS is declining overtime since
A. Women market work participation is increasing overtime
B. Men and women more equally sharing home and market responsibilities
C. Technological changes such as stoves, washing machines, microwave, oven, etc.
drastically reduce women time for home work activities,
freeing up time for leisure activities and for work in the labor market, and
 reduce women specialization in home activities
D. Decline in fertility
E. Changes in cultural and legal attitudes toward working women
• Increase in the number of children raises a woman’s reservation wage and reduces the
probability that the woman will work.
• It is also likely, however, that the rise in the market wage made childbearing a very
expensive household activity, reducing fertility – reverse causality problem.
55
Empirical evidence
• It has been estimated that about 60% of the total growth in the female labor force between
1890 and 1980 can be attributed to the rising real wage of women.
• Husband wage Vs wife’s Ls: the labor force participation rates and hours of work of
married women respond to changes in the husband’s wage. A 10 percent increase in the
husband’s wage lowers the participation rate of women by 5.3 percentage points and
reduces the hours that working wives allocate to the labor market by 1.7 percent.
• Wife wage Vs husband’ Ls: little evidence
• Narrowing wage gap within the household further weakens the incentives for
specialization (of women in home activities and men as bread-winner)
56
2.4. Policy Applications of the theory
• A) The Labor Supply Implications of Welfare Programs. Also called

• income maintenance programs
• public assistance programs
• Purpose of these programs – supporting the poor by providing some minimum level of
income to all families and individuals.
• Income maintenance programs should
1. Effectively get poor people out of poverty,
2. maintain incentives to work, and
3. Achieve goals 1 and 2 at a reasonable cost
57
2.4. Policy Applications
• The Labor Supply Implications of Welfare Programs. Also called

• Examples
• Safety net program (e.g., Ethiopia)
• Unemployment insurance
• Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC)
• Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF)
Q# What are the impacts on Ls of these programs?
58
A) The Labor Supply Implications of Welfare Programs
1. Consider a take-it-or-leave-it cash grant for eligible persons

• Eligibility: remain outside the labor force.
• If these persons enter the labor market, the government immediately drops the person
from the welfare rolls (regardless of how much they earned from employment).
• Suppose that the person has no other source of income, and receives $1,000 if not
working and zero from the gov’t if she works.
• Suppose also that the person works 40 hrs per week with $10 per hour wage rate as shown
in the graph below.
• Q# Assuming 110 discretionary weekly hours, show the impact of the grant on labor
supply
59
Labor supply without the grant
C
1 0
e =
o p
S l
U0
L
70 110
60
Labor supply with the grant
Max. utility
C when
• Working makes this person worse-off
working
• The support induces him to quit job and apply
for the benefit
1 0
= Max. utility
o pe when not
Sl
working
1000
U0
L
70 110
61
Impact of take-it-or-leave-it cash grant
• The grant increased the reservation wage rate, reducing the likelihood that a low-wage
person will enter the labor market.
• Thus, the grant induce low-wage workers to drop out of the labor market, not because
these workers lack a “work ethic”, but b/c they are better off with the grant.
• This problem has been the main challenge in welfare programs.
• The cash grant attracts low-wage earning workers to stop work and receive the grant
• Challenge: how to support the poor with little or no effect on their Ls?
62
2. The Benefit Reduction Rate
• One solution is, instead of take-it-or-leave-it cash grant, use the benefit reduction rate approach
 reduce the grant amount as the recipients income increases.
• , where
• S - is the amount of grant
• B - is the maximum amount of support,
• t - is benefit reduction rate and
• Y - is income.
• As the person’s earned income increases, the amount of subsidy declines, and becomes zero as
income keeps on increasing  The Break-Even Level of Income.
• The break-even income is the level of earned income at which the actual subsidy payment
received by an individual or family becomes zero, and dropped from an income maintenance
program. =0  B = tY
63
• Q#: Assuming B = 1000, W =10 and t = 50%, show
1. The effect of the program on Ls relative to
A. take-it-or-leave-it cash grant
B. Without the support (grant)
2. Disentangle the IE and SE and show that they reinforce each other to increase
leisure time.
64
IE: P to Q
SE= Q to R
65
• Even this liberal “workfare” program, therefore, seems to have work disincentives
because she works fewer hours than she would have worked in the absence of welfare.
• It is difficult to formulate a relatively generous welfare program without substantially
reducing work incentives.
• These programs reduce both
1. the probability of a person working and
2. the number of hours worked by those who remain on the job.
66
3. The Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC)
• Aims to give public support by with no (or little) impact on working hours.
• Designed to incentivize work.
• Applied in USA
• Eligibility:
1. Work
2. Earned income is below a certain amount
• Support: eligible persons can ask a tax return
• The benefit is a certain percentage of earned income.
67
• It applies d/t approaches: E.g., in USA
1. First, support for
2. Then,
3. S = 0 if

Where is wage income, , and are ceiling values of income determined by the
government to provide the support by both reducing cost of the programs and
incentivizing work.
• Gives a budget line with many spikes (kinks).
68
• Example: practical examples from USA (Borjas, 2016).

• Eligible person could claim a tax credit of up to 40% () of her earnings as long as she
earned less than $11,000 per year (=11,000).
• This maximum credit would be available as long as she earned between $11,000 and
$14,370 ( =14,370).
• After reaching the $14,370 threshold, the credit would begin to be phased out.
• Each additional earned dollar greater than 14,370 reduces the credit by 21.06 cents ()
• This formula implies that the credit completely disappears once the woman earns $35,263
().
• Question.
1. Draw the budget line and
2. Discuss the impact of the EITC implications on labor force participation and hours
of work.
69
Total Income = Y - 0.211(Y-14370)+ 0.4(11,000)
Total Income = Y + 0.4(11,000)
Total Income = Y + 0.4Y
70
• Impact of the program on Ls:

C
SE + IE
SE =0; IE
SE + IE
Leisure
71

C
SE + IE; both decrease Ls
SE =0; IE decreases Ls
SE + IE; Ls increases if SE > IE
Leisure
72
EITC impact on hours of work
Not working is inferior when

there is EITC.
So, EITC increases labor force
participation
73

C
SE + IE SE + IE, net effects

depends; more likely
that SE > IE
SE =0; IE
Leisure
74
EITC has only income

effect  EITC reduces
hours of work
75

C
Both SE and IE reduce

hours of work
SE =0; IE
Leisure
76
• Prediction of the Theory:
1. EITC increases labor force participation rate of low-wage workers since the tax credit is
granted only to persons who work, more persons will enter the labor force to take
advantage of this program.
2. EITC may change the number of hours worked by persons who would have been in the
labor force even in the absence of the program. It may reduce hours of work for at least
some group of the workers. The net impact depends on which of the SE and IE
dominates.
Empirical evidence:
• The available evidence confirms the theoretical prediction that the EITC draws many new
persons into the labor force.
77
Other mechanisms to reduce undesired impact of
public support programs
1. Limit the period (time) of support so that individuals who are able to work will likely
work, reserving the support for future unforeseen income shocks while the needy
ones will demand the support anyway.
2. Reduce the benefit reduction rate, but it increases the cost of the program and makes
more people eligible for the support.
3. Demand beneficiaries to provide public work so that persons who are able to work
may prefer employment if the paid work pays more.
4. Work requirements to get support – after providing support for a given period, some
gov’t/companies induce recipients to work some hours per week to get the support. If
the beneficiary couldn’t get a paying job,
• s/he can work for free, which may induce the employer to hire her/him if they are
pleased with the performance.
• Attain trainings that increase skill and lead to employment
• Attend school 78
Standard Working Hours Requirement
• Our discussion so far has implicitly assumed that workers can individually determine the number
of hours they work. This is typically not the case.
• E.g. working hours in Ethiopia 40 - 48 hours per week. Employers need to pay for hours worked
> 48 hours per week. This is the same in many countries.
• This standard (fixed) hours of work may result in #3 groups of workers
1. Overemployed:
A. for individuals who prefer to work less hours than the standard hours
B. May lead to absenteeism; he may more or less habitually miss a day of work every
week or so. For instance, the ratio of full-time workers with absences in a typical week
to total full-time employment—was 3.2 percent in 2006.
C. Labor turnover
2. Underemployed:
1. Prefer to work more hours
2. May lead to moonlighting – taking a second job. In fact, in 2005 approximately 5.3% of all employees—
held multiple jobs.
3. Satisfied with the standard work – most of the worker.
79
Standard work
hours = HD.
Max. Utility for
satisfied workers
80
Standard
work
hours = HD
Overemployed
81
Underemployed
Standard
work
hours = HD
82
Premium Wage & Straight Time Equivalent Pay
A. Premium pay refers to the higher wages given to employees who work less desirable
hours (e.g., night, holidays, evening) or for overtime standard working hours.
Example, Ethiopia
• Normal hours of work shall not exceed 8 hours a day or 48 hours a week.
• In principle, overtime works are prohibited with exceptions in the occurrence of
acute or imminent accident, force majeure, urgent work and substitution of absent
workers assigned on work that runs continuously without interruption, in that workers
are required to work overtime, but at higher wage rate
• Overtime work shall not exceed four hours in a day and 12 hours in a week.
• Premium rate 1.5*W (for work b/n 6 am and 10 pm) and 1.75*W (for work b/n 10 pm
and 6 am), 2*W (weekly rest days), 2.5*W (public holidays)
B. Straight Time Equivalent Pay – identical wage rate paid daily/weekly or monthly.
83
Straight Time Equivalent Pay
B. Straight Time Equivalent Pay – identical daily or weekly/monthly income from the same
number of hours of work.
• Question: Does it matter to pay $6 per hour for the first 8 hours of work and $9 per hour
for an additional 2 hours of overtime work or to pay $6.60 per hour for each 10 hours of
work?
84
Premium Wage Vs Straight Time Equivalent Pay
• Both payment plans yield the same daily income of $66, but payment arrangement differs.
• So one is inclined to conclude that it makes no difference, but it does make a difference.
• This is because the two payment arrangements trigger different value for leisure, i.e., the
• Question:
• Why?
• Show graphically?
85
0 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
86
SE > IE in premium pay since IE exists in this case only

if the persons works overtime, and IE applies only for
overtime worked hours
0 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
87
0 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
88
C
Straight-time pay makes the BL flatter than the premium
pay as the premium pay is distributed for the whole worked
Hours. SE increases leisure time relative to premium pay;
IE applies to all hours worked and increases also leisure time.
The person reduces work hours relative to premium pay
arrangement. But, still the person has to work overtime to be
eligible to the new wage arrangement ($6.6/hr instead of $6/hr).
0 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
89
• Premium wage rates for overtime work will call forth more hours of work than a straight-
time wage rate that yields the same income at the same number of hours as that actually
chosen by an individual paid the overtime premium.
• The use of premium pay will have a relatively small income effect because it applies only
to hours worked in excess of standard hours .
• In comparison, the straight-time equivalent wage will have a much larger income effect
because it applies to all hours of work.
• This is the labor market analog of price discrimination in the product market. Sellers of
some products can obtain more revenue by charging different prices for different
quantities of output.
• Similarly, an employer can obtain a greater amount of labor for a given outlay by paying
different wage rates for different hours of work.
90
2.5. Labor Mobility
1. Determinants of Labor Mobility

2. Labor Market Effects of Migration
91
2.5. Labor Mobility
Labor Mobility –
• Movement of workers from one employer to another
• The movement can be between:
1. Employers
2. Locations
3. Occupation
4. Any combination of the above three
• It is one of the striking features of labor markets.
92
2.5. Labor Mobility
• Determinants of mobility
1. Age – ceteris paribus, the older that a person is, the less likely he or she is to migrate.
2. Family Factors - The potential costs of migrating multiply as family size increases. Ceteris
paribus, married workers have less tendency to migrate than single people.
3. Education - The higher one’s educational attainment, all else being equal, the more likely it is
that one will migrate.
4. Distance - The probability of migrating varies inversely with the distance a person must move.
5. Unemployment Rates – (1) Families headed by unemployed people are more likely to migrate
than others , and (2) the rate of unemployment at the origin positively affects out-migration
6. Other Factors –
i. Language spoken at the destination
ii. home ownership deters migration
iii. State and local government policies may influence labor migration (e.g., tax rate)
iv. location characteristics
93
Labor Market Effects of Migration
• Labor mobility contributes to allocative efficiency by relocating labor resources away
from lower-valued and toward higher-valued employment.
• Under certain conditions, workers of a given type will relocate until the net value of the
marginal product of labor (VMP) is the same in all similar employments.
• Immigrants may have an adverse impact on the job opportunities of the native workers
whose skills resemble those of the immigrants
• Immigration of high-skill workers can be hugely beneficial.
• High-skill immigrants generate human capital externalities. The presence of high-skill
immigrants exposes natives to new forms of knowledge, increases their human capital,
and makes them more productive.
94

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Chapter Two

51,400,821 53,021,350 52,799,403

Fixed hours per day

• Work is time devoted to a paying job.

• C and L, are to some extent substitutes for each other.

Income per day

Indifference curve (IC)

Income per day

Properties of indifference curves:

• Upon rearranging, we have

• The individual’s optimal or utility-maximizing position can be determined by bringing together

Why A and P are not optimal solutions?

• The person must sleep 8 hours of the day.

•Some implications of the reservation wage:

• Over specific ranges of an individual’s labor supply curve, the elasticity

• A) The Labor Supply Implications of Welfare Programs. Also called

• The Labor Supply Implications of Welfare Programs. Also called

Q# What are the impacts on Ls of these programs?

1. Consider a take-it-or-leave-it cash grant for eligible persons

• Example: practical examples from USA (Borjas, 2016).

Total Income = Y - 0.211(Y-14370)+ 0.4(11,000)

Total Income = Y + 0.4(11,000)

Total Income = Y + 0.4Y

• Impact of the program on Ls:

• Impact of the program on Ls:

SE + IE; both decrease Ls

SE + IE; Ls increases if SE > IE

Not working is inferior when

• Impact of the program on Ls:

SE + IE SE + IE, net effects

EITC has only income

• Impact of the program on Ls:

Both SE and IE reduce

SE > IE in premium pay since IE exists in this case only

1. Determinants of Labor Mobility

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