Volcanology and Geothermal

Resources
 Course Aim
• Helps students to study the earth and its
hidden geothermal resources.
• Detail knowledge about volcanology and the
associated resources and geothermal energy.
 Learning outcomes
• Identify different volcanoes
• Identify and understand the relationship between
d/f volcanoes and geothermal resources
• Volcanoes and geothermal solutions
• Energy and other resources
• Tectonic environment and volcanic structures
• Able to observe, record and interpret a wide
variety of geological phenomenon in related to
volcanology
 CHAPTER 1

Application of Volcanological
Observation to Geothermal Exploration
Volcanology
Introduction
– The scientific study of
volcanoes, including their
formation, signs of an
eruption, and other aspects
of volcanic activity.
– Became a sub-discipline
of Earth Science in the
first quarter of the 19th
century
– Leopold von Buch,
Alexander von Humboldt
and Poulett Scrope wrote
first textbook on
volcanology.
What is a volcano?
Volcano Word Origin: The word volcano is derived from the name of
Vulcano Was named after Vulcan, the Roman god of FIRE.

Volcano: is a vent or fissure in the earth's crust through which molten

magma, hot gases, and other fluids escape to the surface of the land,
or in certain cases, to the bottom of the sea.

Volcanology is the study of volcanoes, lava, magma, and related

Geological, Geophysical and Geochemical phenomena.
• Volcanology has largely been an outgrowth of the larger discipline of
Geology and is mostly a qualitative science.
 • A volcano is a vent or
vent that connects molten
rock (magma) from
within the Earth’s
cone crust to the Earth's
surface.
• The volcano includes
conduit the surrounding cone
of erupted material.

magma chamber
 Volcano Origins
Volcanoes are found on top of magma chambers and have
large central vents through which the tephra and gases erupt.
The top of the central vent is a crater.
Tephra, from the Greek meaning
ash, rock fragments and particles
ejected by the volcanic eruption.
Or
Tephra = Pyroclastic materials

• Each eruption adds a new layer to the

volcanoes.
 active, dormant and extinct volcano

• In general a volcano is classed as “active” if

it erupts lava, rock, gas or ash, or if it shows
seismic (earthquake) activity.
• A volcano is dormant if it hasn't erupted for
a long time (less than 1 million years) but
could erupt again one day.
• An extinct volcano will never erupt again.
 Volcanism
volcanism :is the processes involved in the formation
of volcanoes, and in the transfer of magma and
volatile material from the interior of the Earth to its
surface.
• Geologists must known about volcanoes,
1) their structure, eruption phenomena, and
composition, to reveal necessary information
2) the heat sources and settings of groundwater—
key factors in formation of a hydrothermal
system.
 How do volcanoes erupt?
• Hot, molten rock (magma) is buoyant (has a lower
density than the surrounding rocks) and will rise up
through the crust to erupt on the surface.
– Same principle as hot air rising, e.g. how a hot air
balloon works
• When magma reaches the surface it depends on how
easily it flows (viscosity) and the amount of gas (H2O,
CO2, S) it has in it as to how it erupts.
• Large amounts of gas and a high viscosity (sticky)
magma will form an explosive eruption!
– Think about shaking a carbonated drink and then
releasing the cap.
• Small amounts of gas and (or) low viscosity (runny)
magma will form an effusive eruption
– Where the magma just trickles out of the volcano
(lava flow).
 MAGMA
• Is
– Naturally occurring liquid (mobile rock material)
– generated within the earth,
– capable of intrusion and/or extrusion from which
igneous rocks have been derived by solidification and
other processes.
• Magma contain:
– Liquid
– Solids
– Gases
 Where do Magmas form?
• Magmas are not likely to come from the only part of the Earth that is in a
liquid state, the outer core, because it does not have the right chemical
composition.
• The outer core is made mostly of Fe with some Ni; note that
magmas are silicate liquids.
• In the ocean basins, magmas are not likely to come from melting of the
oceanic crust, since most magmas erupted in the ocean basins are
basaltic.
– To produce basaltic magmas by melting of the basaltic oceanic crust
would require nearly 100% melting, which is not likely.
• In the continents, both basaltic and rhyolitic magmas are erupted and
intruded. Basaltic magmas are not likely to have come from the
continental crust, since the average composition is more siliceous,
– but more siliceous magmas (andesitic - rhyolitic) could come from
melting of the continental crust.
• Basaltic magmas must come from the lower crust and upper mantle.
Thus the conditions that are to be fulfilled for the generation of
magma in the upper mantle seems to be.
a) Availability of water;
b) Localized high temperatures and
c) Reduced pressure in the upper mantle.
 MANTLE MELTING
• Magmas are ultimately derived by melting in the
mantle or within the crust and rise by buoyancy.
• Partial melting is the phenomenon in which (at
any particular pressure) a rock melts over a range
of temperatures, because different minerals have
different melting points.
– The more silica-rich minerals begin to melt at lower
temperatures, so the first melt to form is richer in silica
than the average composition of the starting material.
 Partial Melting
• There are two fundamentally different modes of partial melting:
– Equilibrium (batch) partial melting:
• Melt is continually formed and equilibrates with the crystalline
residue until the moment of segregation.
• Up to this point the bulk composition of the system remains the
same.
• produces a continually evolving compositional series.
– Fractional or Rayleigh melting:
• Melt is continuously extracted from the system as soon as it is
formed; no reaction with the residue can therefore occur.
• Thus the bulk composition of the system is continually
changing.
• Releases magmas with specific compositions, that is each
fractional melt is distinguishable from the previous melt.
 The initiation of partial melting in the
mantle
• If the mantle is solid beneath oceans and continents
under normal conditions, why does partial melting
take place?
• There are at least three possible alternatives
– Anomalous thermal perturbation of the geotherm: e.g.
concentration of radioactive isotopes; long-lived hotspots.
– Adiabatic (isentropic) decompression melting (pressure
release melting).
– Lowering the mantle Solidus (and Liquidus) by the
addition of volatiles (CO2, H2O, halogens)
There are two major style of Effusive Eruptions
volcanism
 Effusive eruptions
 Explosive eruptions • Effusive eruptions are characterized by
outpourings of lava on to the ground.
• This happens either because there is
not enough gas (volatiles) in the
magma to break it apart upon escaping,
or the magma is too viscous (sticky) to
allow the volatiles to escape quickly.
• Although not generally as hazardous as
explosive eruptions,
• Lava flows can burn and bury
buildings and forests and do pose a
danger to people living on or near an
Hawaii active volcano.
 Explosive Eruptions
• Explosive volcanic eruptions
pyroclastic jet
can be catastrophic
• Erupt 10’s-1000’s km3 of
magma
• Send ash clouds >25 km into
the stratosphere
• Have severe environmental
and climatic effects
• Hazardous!!!

Mt. Redoubt
• Three products from
an explosive
eruption
– Pyroclastic fall
– Pyroclastic flow
– Pyroclastic surge

Pyroclastic flows on Montserrat, buried the

capital city.
 Pyroclastic fall

• The fallout of rock, debris and ash from an

explosive eruption column.
• An explosive volcanic eruption will propel large
volumes of volcanic rock, ash and gas into the
atmosphere.
• The larger (most dense) particles will fall out of
the air quickly and close to the volcanic vent.
• Thicker deposits closer to the vent.
• Particles decrease in size as distance from vent
increases.
• The smaller particles (ash) can be suspended in
the atmosphere for days to weeks before they
fall back to Earth.
• Whilst in the atmosphere the wind can transport
the ash particles large distances.
 Pyroclastic flow
• Pyroclastic flows are hot, turbulent, fast-
moving, high particle concentration clouds
of rock, ash and gas.
• Pyroclastic flows can reach > 100 km from a
volcano.
• They can travel 100s km/h and are
commonly >400°C.
• They will destroy everything in their path
including buildings, agriculture and forests.
• Although because they contain a high
concentration of particles and a low
concentration of gas, they are dense and
usually are confined to, and flow along,
topographic lows (valleys).
• It is extremely important to understand
them as they are often the most hazardous
component of an explosive eruption.
 Pyroclastic surge
• Pyroclastic surges are low particle concentration (low density)
flows of volcanic material.
• The reason they are low density flows is because they don’t
have a high concentration of particles and contain a lot of gas.
• Pyroclastic surges are very turbulent and fast (up to 300 km per
hour).
• They overtop high topographic features, and therefore are not
confined to valleys.
• Pyroclastic surges usually do not travel as far as pyroclastic flows,
but pyroclastic surges can travel up to at least 10 km from the
source.
 Lahars
• Lahar – a dense river of mud that
happens when loose tephra mixes with
rain or groundwater.
• They are very dense and powerful and
can destroy just about anything in their
path.
• They can literally carry away large bridges.
• Can also travel 10’s of km away from an
active volcano.
• Can generate lahars through diverse
mechanisms:
– Rapid melting of snow/ ice during eruptions
– Heavy rainfall on fresh pyroclastic deposits
– Eruption through crater lake…etc
 Volcanic Eruptions
Factors determining the flow/explosiveness of magma

 Viscosity of magma – factors

– Temperature (hotter magmas are
less viscous)
– Composition [Si02 (silica) content]
• High silica – high viscosity (e.g.,
rhyolitic lava)
• Low silica – more fluid (e.g., basaltic
lava)
Dissolved gases (volatiles)
– Mainly water vapor and carbon
dioxide
– Gases expand near the surface
 What is Plate Tectonics?
• If you look at a map of the world, you may notice that some of the
continents could fit together like pieces of a puzzle.
 Plate Tectonics
• The Earth’s crust is divided into 12 major
plates which are moved in various directions.
• This plate motion causes them to collide, pull
apart, or scrape against each other.
• Each type of interaction causes a characteristic
set of Earth structures or “tectonic” features.
• The word, tectonic, refers to the deformation
of the crust as a consequence of plate
interaction.
World Plates
 What are tectonic plates made of?
• Plates are made
of rigid
lithosphere.

• The lithosphere
is made up of
the crust and
the upper part
of the mantle.
 What lies beneath the tectonic plates?

• Below the
lithosphere
(which makes up
the tectonic
plates) is the
asthenosphere.
 Plate Movement
• “Plates” of lithosphere are moved around by the
underlying hot mantle convection cells
 Plate Margins
• Divergent zone volcanism: basalts
• Convergence zone volcanism: Ring of Fire
– OC-OC convergence: basalts and occasional
andesites
– OC-CC convergence: ash and rhyolite
• Interplate volcanism and Hot Spot Activity
 Convergent Volcanism
• Most volcanoes located on land result from ocean-continental
subduction
• Explosive eruptions

Oceanic-Continental
 Ocean plate is subducted
 Continental arcs generated
 Explosive andesitic volcanic eruptions

Oceanic-Oceanic
 Denser plate is subducted
 Deep trenches generated
 Volcanic island arcs generated

Continental-Continental
 No subduction
 Tall mountains uplifted
 as the oceanic crust descends into
the mantle, it is heated and
dehydrates. The fluid reduces the
melting temperature to cause
melting.

 oceanic crust and sediment sink into the

mantle
 they are subjected to increasing heat and
pressure causing breakdown of hydrous
minerals.
 The water released by this dehydration
rises into the overlying, hotter mantle
wedge causing partial melting.
 Divergent Volcanism
 hot mantle rock ascends from the ashenosphere and
moves to zones of lower pressure as the overlying
lithosphere splits and moves apart.
 This reduced pressure triggers melting even without
additional heat.
• Occurs at ocean ridges.
• Non-explosive, large amounts of lava.
• 2/3 of volcanism occurs underwater at divergent
boundaries.

More than 90% of terrestrial volcanism

occurs at mid-ocean ridges

The lava erupted there is particularly uniform

in composition and given the acronym MORB
(mid-ocean ridge basalt).

The lava is quickly quenched by seawater to

form pillows.
 Introduction on Geothermal
Resources
• Geothermal energy is an important and promising alternative energy
resource that has shown continual growth throughout this century
• many geothermal exploration projects in volcanic areas have suffered
from the lack of pertinent volcanological observations and
interpretations.
• So many clues regarding the location and magnitude of geothermal
systems are available from the volcanic structure and deposits that
one might say detailed interpretation of these observations
constitutes a type of "exploration drillhole."
• Therefore, we stress the need for careful field volcanology during
geothermal exploration projects in volcanic areas.
• During the last 10 years, the field of volcanology
has been growing rapidly; the resulting new
observations and ideas are providing us with
numerous hypotheses on volcanic structure and
processes.
• In magma genesis, movement, and eruption
phenomena, as well as volcanic structure and
thermal histories, there have been many new
discoveries that have engendered a better
understanding of igneous systems and their
relationship to high-grade geothermal systems.
 What has to be integrated?
• In applying volcanological observations, one should
integrate:
1) the observations (for example, mapping and sample
analyses) with other information
2) surface springs and fumaroles, water chemistry and
hydrology, and
3) geophysical surveys, including gravity, electrical
resistivity, seismicity, and heat flow.
• Geologist, hydrochemists, geophysicists and reservoir
engineers, must talk to each other and work as teams to
successfully develop geothermal resources.
 A basic methodology for geothermal exploration in
volcanic fields
• A basic methodology for geothermal
exploration in volcanic fields was
developed in 1983 by an
international team of experts for the
Latin American Energy
Development Organization
(OLADE, 1983).
• The field approach involves:
– learning everything possible
about a volcano or volcanic
field:
• including structure,
Flow diagram showing steps of the LAEDO
structural setting, eruption methodology for a geothermal project.
phenomena, composition,
and ages of eruptions (see
 step 1) Evaluation of available Information about the
area to be studied
• The initial phase of a project, all existing information is collected and
evaluated, including:
topographic and geological maps at large and small scales
regional geological syntheses, including stratigraphy, structural
geology, and history of volcanism;
satellite images and aerial photography;
all published and unpublished reports on geology, geochemistry,
geophysics, hydrology and meteorology.;
information on the presence and characteristics of hot springs,
fumaroles, and hydrothermal alteration;
information on drillholes or coreholes from any source, including
water well drilling, petroleum drilling, and coring by mining
companies;
 Step 2, Field and laboratory investigations
• Field and laboratory investigations should be designed to answer specific questions
regarding:
a) the possible presence of shallow thermal anomalies,
b) regional hydrologic conditions, and
c) the nature of thermal manifestations.
• In volcanic regions, it is important to focus geological observations on
a number of points.
– Identify those areas where there are episodes of recent volcanism.
– Evaluate the relative quantities of silicic and mafic or intermediate
volcanic products.
– Define, on a regional scale, the present relationship between the
volcanic structure and the regional tectonic framework.
– Identify phreatic explosion craters.
– Systematically collect samples of all lithologic types for laboratory
analysis, including petrographic and chemical analyses.
– Collect lithic clasts (xenoliths) from pyroclastic units for
petrographic analysis.
– Determine the absolute ages of representative lithologic units.
– Study (in preliminary form) all possible reservoir and caprock
units.
Step 3, Detailed Field and Laboratory Studies: Geology and
Volcanology

• Detailed field and laboratory studies begin with

(a) interpretation of aerial photography,
(b) preliminary identification of faults and volcanic structures,
(c) hypotheses concerning the regional volcanotectonic setting,
and
(d) integration of information from existing maps. Following
this work is a detailed field study is needed
• A detailed field study that comprises:
– (1) A search for thermal anomalies in the upper crust
involves mapping and sampling
• young volcanic eruption sequences, especially rock
types indicative of shallow magma bodies.
• All areas of hydrothermal manifestations, both fossil
and active, are mapped and sampled in conjunction with
hydrogeochemical sampling.
• All volcanic structures are mapped, including craters,
domes, phreatic craters, and associated faults.

– (2) In areas with surface hydrothermal manifestations,

potential caprocks are mapped and sampled, and their
origin is determined. In volcanic zones, the search for
phreatic explosion craters is emphasized.
• (3) The extent of potential geothermal reservoirs can be
estimated through
• A study of lithic clasts (xenoliths) in pyroclastic deposits;
these clasts provide information on the nature of rock units
underlying the volcano.
• Identification and mapping of recent faults. This effort is
essential because active faults frequently represent zones
of fracture permeability.
• Determination of the degree of hydrovolcanic activity
responsible for pyroclastic deposits in the volcanic field.
This work may identify aquifers beneath the volcano
during recent eruptions. These aquifers could be current
hydrothermal reservoirs.
• (4) In tropical countries where soils form rapidly and outcrops
are soon covered by vegetation, geological mapping is
considerably more difficult. In these situations, several
additional approaches are necessary:
– Landform mapping.
• These maps are based primarily on the interpretation of
aerial photographs and satellite images, especially in
young volcanic fields.
• The interpretations are field checked along road cuts,
stream bottoms, and shorelines, as well as in quarries.
– Side-looking airborne radar (SLAR) imagery. Such images
are extremely useful in mapping faults and volcanic
landforms in tropical areas, although they may be relatively
expensive to acquire.
• A basic approach to volcanological exploration
includes
• good geological mapping by whatever means
is available.
• Also, systematic descriptions of tephra
deposits and rocks are vital, especially for core
logs from exploration holes.
• A basic methodology for geothermal
exploration in volcanic fields
 Chapter 2
Recent Practical Advances in Volcanology
Introduction
• Quantitative methods for studying volcanoes and their products are gaining
importance in the evolving field of volcanology.

• Using increasingly more precise and accessible laboratory techniques to determine

chemical compositions of rocks and minerals, petrologists have developed
methodologies to understand the origins and evolution of magma
.
• The constraints on temperature and pressure estimated from chemical data are
enhanced by results of geophysical surveys;
together, these efforts have led to a better understanding of magma-chamber
dimensions and locations.

• Simultaneously, the development of computer capabilities has allowed volcanologists

to systematically quantify field observations that can be numerically modeled by
using fluid mechanics.
 Quantitative Methodology and Volcanology
• The consequence of maps as the fundamental method of data representation
is perhaps unique to the science of geology.
• Volcanology certainly relies heavily upon maps to graphically portray research
problems, their geographic locations, physical and chemical trends, and
hypothetical arguments.

• On a map, many types of quantitative data can be portrayed. For example,

– mapping contours of deposit thickness or
– clast diameters within the deposit is a common technique in tephra deposit
studies.

• The mathematical representation of these contours is a valuable method for

– locating vent areas and
– estimating the volume of eruptive products as well as
– their emplacement mechanism.
• The first step in analyzing a map-oriented data
set, is statistical analysis of data trends.
– trend-surface analysis of stratigraphic units and
topography,
– diagrams of structural fabrics,
– geographic correlation of absolute and relative
rock ages,
– areal density of specific surface features, and
– cluster analysis of geochemical data to define
major variations.
 Statistical Methods
• Data correlation and analysis, more than any other quantitative
approach, have grown in consequence as a result of enhanced
computer techniques for handling statistics and data bases.

• In both the chemical and physical aspects of volcanology, statistical

approaches are vital in the development of quantitative models.
• Subsequent analysis of frequency distributions is particularly
important in pyroclastic studies

• Because particle-size distributions are indicative of physical

processes involved in eruptions processes such as the eruptive
energy and the origin of volatile gases in the magma system.

• Data correlation makes it possible to assess underlying

physical or chemical controls in cases where independent and
dependent variables are hypothesized.
 Physical Processes
• Energy transfer through the earth's crust (and heat flow in particular) is a basic
component of geothermal systems and volcanoes.
• In general, heat flow is influenced by several processes that sum in the following
equation

• where temporal heat flow (r = density, C = specific heat, T = temperature, and t =

time) is equal to the sum of the
– adiabatic temperature gradient (α = the coefficient of thermal expansion, p =
pressure),
– heat conduction (r = radial distance, k t = the thermal conductivity),
– radioactive decay heat (Hi = heat liberated by decay of the ith isotope, li = decay
constant), and
– heat of reaction (Ji = the heat produced or liberated for the i th chemical
reaction).
• Studies of mass transfer associated with volcanism generally focus on
movement of magma and magmatic volatiles from the magma chamber to
the surface of the earth.

• Two extreme cases of these processes are

– eruptions that result in effusions of lava, and
– explosive eruptions in which the expansion of gases determines mass
transfer processes.
 Chemical Processes
• Volcanic petrologists have made great strides in understanding the complex
origins of magma chemistry as revealed by analyses of phenocryst and
glassy components of volcanic products.

• Because these analyses provide abundant quantitative data, mathematical

approaches are particularly suited for modeling the origins of chemical
signatures.
• Magma composition generally evolves with time as a result of
– assimilation
– Fractional crystallization caused by cooling and the loss of volatile
constituents, and
– Comingling/mixing with magmas of different composition

• The behavior of chemical species during these three important

differentiation processes can be quantitatively modeled by using
chemical data provided through bulk and modal analyses in which
trace element behavior is most indicative of the differentiation
mechanism.
 Rayleigh equation
• The Rayleigh equation applies to fractional crystallization and predicts
– The concentration of a particular chemical species remaining in the liquid (c1 )
after crystallization of a specific fraction of crystalline phase when the original
species concentration is co:

– kd = the Nernst distribution coefficient, which expresses the fraction of the

chemical species in the liquid that enters
the crystalline phase.
– F = the fraction of original melt remaining.
– For cases in which the chemical species enters two or
more phases, kd is replaced by Do , the weighted average of solid-liquid
partition coefficients of all the phases.
• For conditions of partial melting, in which the liquid phase
remains in equilibrium with the residual solid phases until it is
removed, the Berthelot-Nernst equation predicts c1 by

– Here P = the bulk partition coefficient for the phases that

melt, and
– F = the fraction of melted material
– When only one phase is melted, P = Do
• For situations in which chemical evolution trends are the result of
mixing two magmas of different compositions,
• A mass balance equation predicts the resulting
• concentration in the magma (cx) of some species;
• Mm1 and mm2, and are the magma mass and c1 and c2 species
concentration of magma 1 and magma 2, respectively:
• Isotopic tracers are also very useful for determining the origin and
evolution of magmas.
• As in the case of stable isotopes such as oxygen, the isotopic composition
is related to a standard.
• For oxygen, the heavy-isotope 18O abundance is expressed

where the subscripts s and smow denote

the sample and standard mean ocean
water isotopic ratios.
 Magma Generation, Accumulation and
Differentiation in Chambers, and Eruptions

• Recent geochemical studies in igneous petrology have focused on

the processes of magma
– generation,
– evolution, and
– collection in subsurface reservoirs called magma chambers. and

• Major fields of interest have been the tectonic setting and origin
of magma, processes of chemical differentiation, and magma-
chamber dynamics.
• Non basaltic volcanic rocks are considered to be products of evolved
magmas.
• Hildreth (1981) stated, "every large eruption of non basaltic magma
taps a magma reservoir that is thermally and compositionally zoned,"
and "most small eruptions also tap parts of heterogeneous and
evolving magmatic systems.

• One general hypothesis is that evolved or otherwise differentiated

magmas have a crustal reservoir.
•
• Consequently, differentiated volcanic products—especially where
they are several cubic kilometers in volume—are good indicators of
a crustal magma chamber.
 Tectonic Setting and Origin of Magmas
• Because ~95% of all volcanoes occur at plate margins, their locations
are consistent with the theory of plate tectonics.
• Perhaps the most significant aspect of a tectonic setting is its effect
on observed magma compositions and chamber development.
Tectonic Regional Magma Dominant Chamber
Setting Stress Volume Composition Depth

Island Arcs Mafic–Inter Intermediate

Continental Arcs Inter–Silicic Shallow
25.6

Rifts Extensive 62.5 Mafic–Silicic Deep–Shallow

Intraplate Various 5.5 Mafic Deep–Shallow

 A primary characteristic for geothermal potential is the
– Chamber depth, size and volume which provides information about
the magma source and the geothermal heat source depth.

• For mantle-derived magmas, which are mafic and bear mantle signatures
of trace elements and isotopic ratios, source depths of > 50 km are
expected and

• In the cases of continental, intraplate volcanoes may show no crustal

reservoirs.

• On the other hand, in rifts and extensional terrains, deep mantle magmas
promote melting of crustal rocks so that shallow silicic magma chambers
can develop during long periods of magma flux from the mantle.
 Magma Chambers
• Volcanic products are generally
classified by their major-element
chemistry or their modal
phenocryst content.
• These classification schemes are
useful in relating volcanic rocks
to magma types.
• Accordingly, the origin and
evolution of magma types can be
interpreted in a general manner by
considering igneous compositional
trends:
– Tholeiitic,
– Transitional,
– Alkalic,
– Potassic, and
– Calcalkalic
• Rock classification has been a traditional exercise for volcanologists,
and today the results of this work can be used to determine the nature
of the magma source: its shape, depth, and volume.

• All of which(shape, depth, and volume) are important components

when evaluating geothermal potential.

• One of the most significant recent advances in volcanology is the

development of a system for relating the chemical aspects of
volcanic rocks to magma-chamber dynamics.
• This effort has been most
fruitful in the cases of
volcanoes that have
developed calderas
• A direct correlation
between caldera area and
the volume of products
expelled during the
caldera-forming eruption
• This simple concept has
profound implications in
the search for geothermal
heat sources because by
using eruption age
constraints, cooling
models can predict the
residual heat left in and
around the magma
chamber.

• There is growing
evidence that zonation of
magma chamber
chemistry can be
documented by analyses
of time-series chemical
trends in eruption
products.
 Hydrovolcanism
• Hydrovolcanism is a broad term that encompasses the role of external
(non magmatic) water in volcanic activity;

• Water plays such a fundamental role in geothermal systems.

• The study and characterization of hydrovolcanic features is chiefly

used to make quick estimates of the abundance of water in a
hydrothermal system.
• Detailed studies of water/magma interaction constrain
subsurface conditions that have evolved within a geothermal
system; for example,
– depth and lithology of aquifers and permeable formations,
– temperature of hydrothermal alteration, and
– spatial and temporal variations in subsurface
hydrothermal behavior.
 Nature of Hydrovolcanic Phenomena
• During its ascent to the surface, magma commonly
encounters groundwater; connate water; marine,
fluvial, or lacustrine water; ice; or rain water.

• The physical phenomena of Hydrovolcanism belong

to a class of well-studied physical processes termed
fuel-coolant interactions (FCI).
• A hypothetical geologic system
in which magma (fuel)
explosively interacts with water-
saturated sediments (coolant).
 fuel-coolant interactions (FCI)
process occurs in stages of
– (a) initial contact and steam-
film development,
– (b) coarse mixing of magma
and water or water-rich rock,
– (c) vapor expansion and flow,
and finally
– (d) explosion and fine
fragmentation of the magma.
 Hydrovolcanic Products
• Hydrovolcanic solid products are generally fragmental and are
termed hydroclasts, instead of pyroclasts, which refers
solely/only to the fragmental products of magmatic eruption.

• Hydrovolcanic solid products include tephra, explosion

breccia, pillow lava, palagonitic and zeolitic tuff, lahars,
blocks and bombs, silica sinter and travertine, and intrusive
breccia and tuff.
• Petrographic studies of hydrovolcanic products involve
– determining the grain-size and textures of tephra and
the chemical signatures caused by rapid and slow
alteration.
• These data are indicators of the degree and type of water
interaction. For example,
– the grain size of hydroclasts is a function of the mass
ratio of interacting water and magma;
– Grain textures are indicative of the type of interaction—
passive, explosive, or extensive.
• Field characterization of hydroclastic products focuses on

– (a) analysis of various ejecta deposit characteristics, including

textural analysis of bed forms, Lithification, and deposit thickness
vs distance from the vent, and
– (b) correlation of these observations with vent type (for example,
composite cone, tuff ring, or caldera).

• In general, hydrovolcanic tephra are distinguishable from magmatic

tephra by their much finer grain size.

• Quantitative analyses of these features can document the relative

importance of hydrovolcanic (wet) and magmatic (dry) mechanisms
in samples from deposits of mixed origins.
 Hydrovolcanic Cycles and Geothermal Energy
• Hydrovolcanic phenomena occur in regular patterns at some
volcanoes and thus can assist in defining cycles that in turn
are useful in both predictions of future activity and estimates of
subsurface hydrological conditions.
• The eruptive cycles, for example, show the changing availability of
groundwater during periods of activity at several volcanoes.
• Cycles can be documented by careful field and laboratory analyses
of volcanic products.
• The abundance of erupted steam and its temperature are
constrained by
– textural indicators of grain cohesion,
– deposit mobility as a function of moisture abundance, and
– degree of clast alteration.
• Cycles are characterized as "wet" when the volcanic
products indicate an increase of water during the eruptions;
• "dry" cycles produce tephra that indicate decreasing water
abundance throughout the eruption.
• The nature of these water indicators also demonstrates
whether the erupted steam is saturated (wet) or super-heated
(dry).
 As a general rule, locations that show wet cycles might be
better candidates for geothermal exploration because they
prove that water is sufficiently abundant in the volcanic
system to quench the magma to water-vaporization
temperatures.