Z score

 a numerical measurement that describes a

value's relationship to the mean of a group of
values.
 If a Z-score is 0, it indicates that the data point's score
is identical to the mean score.
A Z-score of 1.0 would indicate a value that is one
standard deviation from the mean
Z-scores may be positive or negative, with a positive
value indicating the score is above the mean and a
negative score indicating it is below the mean.
Why are z-scores important?

• (a) it allows researchers to calculate the probability of

a score occurring within a standard normal
distribution;

• (b) and enables us to compare two scores that are from

different samples (which may have different means and
standard deviations).
Where:
= raw score
= mean
= standard deviation
 Example:
• Deviation IQ scores, sometimes called
Wechsler IQ scores, are scores with mean
of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. what
percentage of the general population have
IQ’s lower than 92?
Given:
= 92, = 100, = 15

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Z = -0.53

z = - 0. 53
P = .2981 or 29. 81%
 Example: Larger than = to the right
Subtract the probability
• Deviation IQ scores, sometimes called from 1
Wechsler IQ scores, are scores with mean
of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. what
percentage of the general population have
IQ’s larger than 130?
Given:
= 130, = 100, = 15

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Z=2

z=2
P = 1 – 0.9772 = 0.0228 or 2.28%
Try!

1. In a recent year, the NAT score for high school students

with a 3.50 to 4.00 GPA were normally distributed with a
mean of 24.2 and standard deviation of 4.2. A student who
took the NAT during this time is selected. Find the
probability that the student’s NAT score is less than 20.
Try!

2. In a recent year, the NAT score for high school students

with a 3.50 to 4.00 GPA were normally distributed with a
mean of 24.2 and standard deviation of 4.2. A student who
took the NAT during this time is selected. Find the
probability that the student’s NAT score is greater than
31.
Task 1
1. Scores on a history test have average of 80 with standard deviation of 6.
What is the z-score for a student who earned a lower than 75 on the test?
What is the probability of getting lower 75?
2. Scores on a history test have average of 80 with standard deviation of 6.
What is the z-score for a student who earned greater 90 on the test? What is
the probability of getting greater 90?
3. The weight of chocolate bars from a particular chocolate factory has a mean
of 8 ounces with standard deviation of .1 ounce. What is the z-score
corresponding to a weight of greater 8.17 ounces? What is the probability of
greater 8.17 ounces?
4. The weight of chocolate bars from a particular chocolate factory has a mean
of 8 ounces with standard deviation of .1 ounce. What is the z-score
corresponding to a weight of lower 6.5 ounces? What is the probability of lower
6.5 ounces?
5. The temperature is recorded at 60 airports in a region. The average
temperature is 67 degrees Fahrenheit with standard deviation of 5 degrees.
What is the z-score for a temperature of less than 63 degrees? What is the
probability of less than 63 degrees?
Making Decisions with
Z and T Tests
• With the increased threats of terrorism, it is not
uncommon to walk through a mental detector, which
tries to discriminate between the hypothesis “this
person is not carrying a weapon/ bomb” and the
hypothesis “this person is carrying a weapon/ bomb” on
the basis of electromagnetics field measurements in
the detector. Such a detection system is not fool proof:
the system cannot determine with perfect accuracy
whether a person passing through carries a
weapon/bomb. The system can either set off the alarm
when you do not have weapon/ bomb, or fail to set off
the alarm when, in fact, you are carrying a weapon/
bomb.
• A doctor tries to make a judgement between the
hypothesis that the subject being tested has a certain
disease and the hypothesis that he/she does not on the
basis of a clinical test. Measurements taken from
clinical tests are actually subject to uncertainties. The
test can indicate that one has the disease when, in fact,
one does not, or fail to indicate that one has the
disease when, in fact, one does. The chance of testing
positive when you do have the disease and the chance
of testing negative when you do not have the disease
are called the clinical test’s sensitivity and specificity,
respectively. We would like to have these chances as
high as possible, and consequently, let the chances of
the other two misdiagnoses be as small as possible.
Statistical Hypothesis Testing
• Involves having two competing claims.
• Hypothesis testing is an act in statistics whereby an
analyst tests an assumption regarding a population
parameter. (Investopedia)
• Hypothesis testing is generally used when you
are comparing two or more groups.
What is more appropriate One
tailed or two tailed?
• A two-tailed test is appropriate if you want to determine if there
is any difference between the groups you are comparing. For
instance, if you want to see if Group A scored higher or lower
than Group B, then you would want to use a two-tailed test. This
is because a two-tailed test uses both the positive and negative
tails of the distribution. In other words, it tests for the possibility
of positive or negative differences.
• A one-tailed test is appropriate if you only want to determine if
there is a difference between groups in a specific direction. So, if
you are only interested in determining if Group A scored higher
than Group B, and you are completely uninterested in possibility
of Group A scoring lower than Group B, then you may want to
use a one-tailed test.
• Five Steps in Hypothesis Testing:
1. Specify the Null Hypothesis
2. Specify the Alternative Hypothesis
3. Set the Significance Level (a)
4. Calculate the Test Statistic and Corresponding P-Value
5. Drawing a Conclusion
Step 1: Specify the Null
Hypothesis
• The null hypothesis (H0) is a statement of no effect,
relationship, or difference between two or more groups or
factors. In research studies, a researcher is usually interested
in disproving the null hypothesis.
• Examples:
1. There is no difference in intubation rates across ages 0 to 5
years.
2. The intervention and control groups have the same survival
rate (or, the intervention does not improve survival rate).
3. There is no association between injury type and whether or
not the patient received an IV in the prehospital setting.
Step 2: Specify the Alternative Hypothesis

• The alternative hypothesis (H1) is the statement that there is an effect

or difference. This is usually the hypothesis the researcher is interested
in proving. The alternative hypothesis can be one-sided (only provides
one direction, e.g., lower) or two-sided. We often use two-sided tests
even when our true hypothesis is one-sided because it requires more
evidence against the null hypothesis to accept the alternative hypothesis.
• Examples:
1. The intubation success rate differs with the age of the patient being
treated (two-sided).
2. The time to resuscitation from cardiac arrest is lower for the
intervention group than for the control (one-sided).
3. There is an association between injury type and whether or not the
patient received an IV in the prehospital setting (two sided).
Step 3: Set the Significance
Level () margin of error
• The significance level (denoted by the Greek letter
alpha— a) is generally set at 0.05. This means that
there is a 5% chance that you will accept your
alternative hypothesis when your null hypothesis
is actually true. The smaller the significance level, the
greater the burden of proof needed to reject the null
hypothesis, or in other words, to support the
alternative hypothesis. (10% or 1%)
Step 4: Calculate the Test Statistic and
Corresponding P-Value
• Hypothesis testing generally uses a test statistic that compares
groups or examines associations between variables. When
describing a single sample without establishing relationships
between variables, a confidence interval is commonly used.
• The p-value describes the probability of obtaining a sample
statistic as or more extreme by chance alone if your null hypothesis
is true. This p-value is determined based on the result of your test
statistic. Your conclusions about the hypothesis are based on your p-
value and your significance level.
• Example:
1. P-value = 0.01 This will happen 1 in 100 times by pure chance if
your null hypothesis is true. Not likely to happen strictly by chance.
2. P-value = 0.75 This will happen 75 in 100 times by pure chance if
your null hypothesis is true. Very likely to occur strictly by chance.
 Cautions About P-Values
• Your sample size directly impacts your p-value. Large sample sizes produce
small p-values even when differences between groups are not meaningful. You
should always verify the practical relevance of your results. On the other
hand, a sample size that is too small can result in a failure to identify a difference
when one truly exists.
• Plan your sample size ahead of time so that you have enough information
from your sample to show a meaningful relationship or difference if one exists.
• Example:
1. Average ages were significantly different between the two groups (16.2 years vs.
16.7 years; p = 0.01; n=1,000). Is this an important difference? Probably not, but
the large sample size has resulted in a small p-value.
2. Average ages were not significantly different between the two groups (10.4 years
vs. 16.7 years; p = 0.40, n=10). Is this an important difference? It could be, but
because the sample size is small, we can't determine for sure if this is a true
difference or just happened due to the natural variability in age within these two
groups.
Step 5: Draw a Conclusion
• If

P - Value Interpretation
P < 0.01 Very strong evidence against the null hypothesis

0.01 0.05 Moderate evidence against the null hypothesis

0.05 P < 0.10 Suggestive evidence against the null hypothesis

0.10 P Little or no real evidence against the null

hypothesis
Z test
• A z-test is a statistical test to determine whether
two population means are different when the
variances are known and the sample size is large.
• A z-test is a hypothesis test in which the z-statistic
follows a normal distribution.
• A z-statistic, or z-score, is a number representing the
result from the z-test.
•Z or
• Using the significance level of 0.05, we reject the null
hypothesis if z is greater than 1.96 or less than -1.96
One- Sample t- test
• The one-sample t-test is a statistical hypothesis test used to
determine whether an unknown population mean is different from
a specific value.

where:
Observed = estimated from the sample
Expected = hypothesized value of the parameter
SE = Standard Error
• Using the significance level of 0.05, we reject null hypothesis if is
greater than the critical value from a t-distribution with df = n-1
Example:
• Consider a manufacturing process that is known to
produce bulbs that have life lengths with a standard
deviation of 75 days. A potentials customer will decide
to purchase bulbs from the company that manufactures
these bulbs if she is convinced that the average life of
the bulbs is 1550 days. To this end, a random sample of
50 bulbs is taken from a large pool of these bulbs, and
the sample yields an average life of 1535 days,. Is there
sufficient statistical evidence to show that the bulbs in
fact have less than 1550 functional days?
Step 1: Ho: There is no sufficient statistical evidence to show that the
bulbs is less than 1550
Step 2: Ha: There is a sufficient statistical evidence to show that the
bulbs is less than 1550
Step 3:
Step 4: Given: = 1535 = 1550 = 75 n = 50
Z
a) 1535 = -15
b)

Step 5: Using the significance level of 0.05, we reject the null

hypothesis if z is greater than 1.96 or less than -1.96

since -1.41 > -1.96 then accept Ho

 P - Value Interpretation

Another way
P < 0.01 Very strong eviden
against the null
hypothesis
0.01 0.05 Moderate evidenc
z = -1.41 against the null
hypothesis
P = 0.0793 0.05 P < 0.10 Suggestive evidenc
against the null
P value = 0.0793 (2) = 0.1586 hypothesis
0.10 P Little or no real evi
against the null
hypothesis

0.1586 > 0.10, then failed to

reject Ho (accept Ho)
Try!
• 1,500 women followed the Atkin’s diet for a month.
A random sample of 29 women gained an average of 6.7
pounds. Test the hypothesis that the average weight gain
per woman for the month was over 5 pounds. The standard
deviation for all women in the group was 7.1.
Try! Using T test
• 1,500 women followed the Atkin’s diet for a month.
A random sample of 29 women gained an average of 6.7
pounds. Test the hypothesis that the average weight gain
per woman for the month was over 5 pounds. The standard
deviation for all women in the group was 7.1.
Example: • Step 1: Ho: All the energy bar contains
20 grams of protein
• We have collected a random
sample of 31 energy bars • Step 2: Ha: The energy bar contains
from a number of different different amount of protein
stores to represent the Step 3:
population of energy bars
Step 4: Given: = 21.40 = 20 s=
available to the general
2.54 n = 31
consumer. The table labels
on the bars claim that each
bar contains 20 grams of a) 21.40 = 1.40
protein.

b) = 3.07
Step 5: df = n – 1
df = 31 – 1 = 30
Since 3. 07 > 2.042 then reject Ho
Try!
• A diet clinic test claim that there is an average loss of
24 pounds for those who stay on the program for 20
weeks. The standard deviation is 5 pounds. The clinic
tries a new diet, reducing a salt intake to see whether
that strategy will produce a greater weight loss. A
group of 40 volunteers losses an average of 16.3
pounds each over 20 weeks. Should the clinic change
the new diet? Use
Task 2:
1. The manufacturer of a certain brand of auto batteries
claims that the mean life of these batteries is 45 months.
A consumer protection agency that wants to check this
claim took a random sample of 36 such batteries and
found that the mean life for this sample is 43.75 months
with a standard deviation of 4 months. Using 0.05
significance level, would you conclude that the mean life
of these batteries is less than 45 months?
2. A sociologist find that for a certain population, the mean
number of years of education is 13.20, while the standard
deviation is 2.95 in one region, a random sample of 60 people
is drawn from this population, and the sample mean is 13.87
years. At the 0.05 level of significance, test claim that mean
for this is the same as the mean of the population.
3. A principal at a school claims that students in his school
are above average intelligence. A random sample of thirty
students IQ score have a mean score of 112.5. Is there a
sufficient evidence to support the principal’s claim? The
mean population IQ is 100 with a standard deviation of 15.