Human Physiology -I

Course Code : 09161204

The Respiratory System

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Sadia Afrin Md.Mehede MD.Shakibul
4 01
MD.Shifat 3
Mehbuba
Bintul Hassan Hossen Hasan Ovi Akter Tuly
Shourov Will describe
Will describe
Will describe Will describe Will describe
Organs of Gaseous exchange
Mechanism of pulmonary Hypoxia-
respiratory through lungs,
respiration. Ventilation & Carriage of O2 and causes and
system and its
Ventilation CO2 classification
structure
volumes
The Respiratory
System
The respiratory system is a group of organs and
structures in the body responsible for facilitating
the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
between the body and the environment. Its primary
function is to deliver oxygen to the body’s cells for
energy production and remove carbon dioxide, a
waste product of metabolism.
What is
Respiration?

Definition Energy
Respiration is the
Production
biological process by This energy is
which organisms essential for all
convert glucose and cellular activities and
oxygen into energy, is stored in the form
releasing carbon dioxide of adenosine
and water as by- triphosphate (ATP).
products.
Main Components of the
Respiratory System
The respiratory tract consists of a series of organs and
structures that facilitate breathing. They are:

(1) Upper Respiratory

Tract

Component Function
Nasal Cavity Filters, humidifies, and warms incoming
air.
Sinuses Lighten the skull, produce mucus, and
improve voice resonance.
Pharynx (Throat) A muscular tube shared by the
respiratory and digestive systems,
directing air and food to the
appropriate pathways. Have 3 types
Larynx (Voice Box) Contains vocal cords that produce
sound and prevents food and liquids
from entering the airways.
(2) Lower Respiratory
Tract
Component Function
Trachea (Windpipe) A tube made of cartilage rings to keep it
open, allowing air to pass to the lungs.
Bronchi Two primary branches from the trachea,
one leading to each lung, further dividing
into smaller branches called bronchioles.
Bronchioles Smaller airways that lead to the alveoli,
controlling airflow with smooth muscle
regulation.
Alveoli Tiny, balloon-like structures at the end of
bronchioles, sites of gas exchange where
oxygen enters the blood, and carbon
dioxide leaves it.

(3) Lungs

Right Lung Left Lung Pleura

Divided into three lobes Smaller and divided into The lungs are covered by a
(superior, middle, inferior). two lobes (superior, double-layered membrane
inferior) to accommodate called the pleura.
the heart.
(4) Diaphragm:
A dome-shaped muscle that separates the chest cavity from
the abdomen.
• It plays a key role in breathing by creating negative
pressure to pull air into the lungs.

(5) Intercostal Muscles:

Located between ribs, these assist in expanding and
contracting the chest cavity during breathing.

(6) Pulmonary Blood Vessels:

Arteries and veins that carry oxygen-poor blood to the
lungs and oxygen-rich blood back to the heart.
Anatomy Overview:

1. Airflow Pathway: Nose → Nasal Cavity →

Pharynx → Larynx → Trachea → Bronchi →
Bronchioles → Alveoli.
2. Gas Exchange: Happens in the alveoli with the
blood in capillaries.
3. Respiratory Muscles: Diaphragm and intercostal
muscles ensure effective air movement.
Respiration
 It is the movement of oxygen from the outside environment to
the cells and the removal of carbon dioxide in to the
environment.

Phases of respiration

 Respiration consist of two phases:

1. External respiration
2. Internal respiration

External respiration:

 Exchange of gases between lungs & blood is called

external respiration.

Environment Lungs Environment

Oxygen Exchange Co2
Internal respiration:

 It is the process of Exchange of gas between

blood & tissues (cells) called internal
respiration.

Lungs Tissue level Lungs

Oxygen Exchange Co2

Mechanism of respiration
 The mechanism of respiration, or breathing, involves-
1. Breathing mechanism
2. Exchange of gases.
What is Breathing?
 The process in which air moves in and out of the lungs
is known as breathing.

Mechanism of Breathing
The breathing mechanism involves two processes:
1. Inspiration
2. Expiration
 Inspiration or inhalation:

 Inspiration is the process of taking air into the lungs. It is an active process, because it
requires energy.

Mechanism of Inspiration

 Contraction of muscle of diaphragm (supplied by

phrenic nerve)
• (descend diaphragm 1 to 10cm., one cm during
quiet inhalation 10 cm during deep breathing) ,
 Contraction of diaphragm cause enlargement of
thoracic cavity.
 It results in negative pressure inside the thoracic
cavity.
(760 (environmental pressure)-758 (pressure into
lungs)=2 mm of Hg)
 Due to negative pressure inside the thoracic
cavity, air drawn into lungs
 Expiration or exhalation:

 The process in which air moves Outside of the lungs. It is a passive process (not
require energy). So, no muscular contraction are involved.

Mechanism of expiration

 When inspiratory muscle relaxed the

diaphragm moves superiorly (become dome
shaped)
 Ribs are depressed inward & up ward, which
cause decrease size of thoracic cavity and
increase pressure inside thoracic cavity
(762-760)= 2 mm of Hg
 Due to increase pressure inside the thoracic
cavity, air flow out.
Key Points on Mechanism of Breathing
 Normal respiratory rate of adult is (16-20) breaths/ min.
 Pleural cavity prevent friction during breathing.
 Intercostal muscle and diaphragm are the main respiratory muscle.
 11 pairs of intercostal muscles are found in humans.
 Exchange of gases between alveoli and blood is by the diffusion process.
Ventilation and Volume of Ventilation:
Ventilation

Definition:
Conversely, ventilation is a physiological process that describes the entry and exit of air in and out
of the lungs to allow the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the body and the outside
environment. This, therefore, forms an important basis of this physiological process for the
respiratory system, which maintains continuous cellular respiration and energy production.
 Types of Ventilation

1. Pulmonary Ventilation (Breathing):

 Refers to the movement of air between the atmosphere and the alveoli or air sacs in the lungs.
 It consisted of two phases:
 Inspiration (Inhalation): The active process of drawing air into the lungs.
 Expiration (Exhalation): Passive or active process in which air is pushed out of the lungs.
2. Alveolar Ventilation:
 Refers to air that reaches the alveoli and takes part in gas exchange.
 More significant in relation to the process of effective respiration, rather than the
volume of pulmonary ventilation, because a certain volume of air remains in the
so-called anatomical dead spaces, like the trachea and bronchi.

3. Minute Ventilation (VE):

 The amount of air transferred within or outside the lungs per minute.
Formula: VE = Tidal Volume (TV) × Respiratory Rate ( breaths/min).

Mechanisms of Ventilation
Ventilation is driven by pressure differences between the lungs and the atmosphere,
regulated by the following:

1. Muscles of Respiration:
 Inspiration: Diaphragm contracts (moves downward), and external intercostal muscles
elevate the rib cage, creating negative pressure in the thoracic cavity.
 Expiration: Diaphragm relaxes, and in forced exhalation, internal intercostal and
abdominal muscles contract.
2. Lung Compliance:
 Reflects the ease of lung expansion; determined by lung tissue
elasticity and surface tension within the alveoli.

3. Resistance of the Airways:

 Resistance within the respiratory tract, influenced by airway
diameter and the viscosity of inhaled air.

4. Pressure Gradient:
 Air moves from regions of higher pressure (atmosphere) to
lower pressure (lungs during inspiration) and vice versa during
expiration.

 Volume of Ventilation

Ventilation volume quantifies the amount of air movement

in the various phases of respiratory cycles. It means the
measurement of the volume of air exchanged between a
person and the atmosphere in one-minute time to diagnose
abnormalities in respiratory health.
 Elements of Ventilation Volume:
 Tidal Volume (TV): Air exchanged during normal breathing (~500
mL).

 Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): Extra air inhaled after normal

inspiration (~3,100 mL).

 Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): Extra air exhaled after normal

exhalation (~1,200 mL).

 Residual Volume(RV): Air left in lungs after full exhalation (~1,200

mL).

Lung Capacities Obtained from Ventilation Volumes:

1. Inspiratory Capacity (IC):

 Amount of maximum air inhaled after normal exhalation.

Formulae: IC = TV + IRV
( Average: ~3,600 ml)
2. Vital Capacity (VC):

 -Maximum amount of air exhaled after a maximal

inspiration.
Formula: VC = TV + IRV + ERV
(Average: ~4,800 ml.)

3. Total Lung Capacity (TLC):

 Total amount of air your lungs can hold.

Formula: TLC = VC + RV
(Average: ~6,000 ml.)

4. Functional Residual Capacity:

 Air remaining after normal exhalation.

Formula: FRC = ERV + RV
( Average: ~2,400 ml)
Gaseous Exchange in the Lungs
Definition:
Gaseous exchange is the process where
oxygen (O₂) enters the blood and carbon
dioxide (CO₂) is removed from the blood.
This process is vital for cellular respiration
and maintaining the body’s pH balance.

Location:
Occurs in the alveoli, thin-walled sacs
surrounded by capillaries.
Mechanism: (Steps)

1. Inhalation:
Air enters the lungs through the trachea and
branches into bronchi, bronchioles, and
finally the alveoli. The alveoli are surrounded
by a dense network of capillaries.
2. Diffusion of Oxygen:
The air in the alveoli is rich in oxygen.
Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood in the
capillaries because of a concentration gradient (high
O₂ in alveoli, low O₂ in blood).
3. Diffusion of Carbon Dioxide:
Blood returning from tissues is rich in CO₂.
CO₂ diffuses from the blood into the alveoli
because of the concentration gradient (high CO₂ in
blood, low CO₂ in alveoli).
4. Exhalation:
The CO₂-rich air is expelled from the lungs during
exhalation.

Importance of Gaseous Exchange :

 Provides oxygen for cellular respiration to produce
energy (ATP).

 Removes carbon dioxide, a metabolic waste product.

Gaseous exchange of O₂ & CO₂
 Regulates blood pH by controlling CO₂ levels.
Carriage of Oxygen
Transport in Blood:

1. Hemoglobin-Bound Oxygen (98.5%):

Each hemoglobin molecule can bind up to four O₂ molecules, forming
oxyhemoglobin. Efficient transport ensures adequate delivery to tissues.

2. Dissolved in Plasma (1.5%):

A small amount of O₂ is directly dissolved in plasma, influencing partial pressure.
Carriage of Carbon Dioxide
Transport in Blood:
CO₂ is transported from tissues to the lungs in three main forms:
1. Dissolved in Plasma (7%):
CO₂ is directly dissolved in the plasma and contributes to the partial pressure of
CO₂ in the blood.
2. Carbaminohemoglobin (23%):
CO₂ binds to hemoglobin at a different site than oxygen, forming
carbaminohemoglobin.

This binding occurs more efficiently in tissues where oxygen levels are low.
3. Bicarbonate Ions (70%):
CO₂ reacts with water in red blood cells to form carbonic acid (H₂CO₃), catalyzed
by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase.
Carbonic acid dissociates into bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) and hydrogen ions (H⁺).
Bicarbonate diffuses into plasma, while chloride ions (Cl⁻) move into red blood
cells (chloride shift) to maintain electrical neutrality.

In the Lungs:
The process is reversed:
Bicarbonate is converted back to CO₂, which diffuses into alveoli for exhalation.
Hypoxia
Definition:
Hypoxia refers to a condition in which there is an inadequate supply of oxygen to the
tissues to sustain normal physiological function. It can result from a variety of systemic or
localized factors.
Classification of Hypoxia:
Hypoxia is classified based on its underlying cause and mechanism. The main types are:

1. Hypoxic Hypoxia (Hypoxemic Hypoxia)

Definition:
Reduced oxygen in the blood due to inadequate oxygen availability or impaired oxygen
transfer from the lungs to the blood.
Causes:
 High altitudes (low atmospheric oxygen).
 Respiratory diseases (e.g., COPD, pneumonia).
 Ventilation-perfusion mismatch.
 Hypoventilation (e.g., due to drug overdose).

Key Feature: Low arterial oxygen tension (PaO₂).

2. Anemic Hypoxia

Definition:
Normal oxygen levels in the lungs but reduced oxygen-carrying capacity of
blood.
Causes:
 Anemia (low hemoglobin levels).
 Carbon monoxide poisoning (displacement of oxygen from hemoglobin).
 Methemoglobinemia (impaired hemoglobin function).

Key Feature: Normal PaO₂, but low oxygen content in the blood.

3. Stagnant (Circulatory) Hypoxia

Definition:
Inadequate oxygen delivery to tissues due to impaired blood flow or
circulation.
Causes:
 Shock (e.g., cardiogenic, septic, or hypovolemic).
 Congestive heart failure.
 Arterial or venous blockages.
Key Feature: Normal PaO₂ and oxygen content in blood, but reduced
delivery to tissues.
4. Histotoxic Hypoxia
Definition: Tissues are unable to utilize oxygen effectively despite adequate delivery.
Causes:
 Cyanide poisoning (blocks cellular respiration).
 Alcohol or narcotics impairing cellular metabolism.
Key Feature: Normal oxygen delivery but impaired oxygen utilization at the cellular level.

5. Demand Hypoxia
Definition: Increased metabolic demand surpasses oxygen supply.
Causes:
 Hyperthyroidism.
 Severe physical exertion.
 Fever or sepsis.
Key Feature: Increased oxygen consumption with normal supply unable to meet demand.

6. Ischemic Hypoxia
Definition: Localized form of circulatory hypoxia where blood flow to a specific area is
restricted.
Causes:
 Arterial blockage (e.g., myocardial infarction or stroke).
 Compartment syndrome.
Key Feature: Tissue-specific oxygen deprivation despite adequate systemic oxygenation.
 Reference

 "Human Anatomy & Physiology" by Elaine N. Marieb and Katja N. Hoehn: This textbook
provides comprehensive coverage of human anatomy and physiology, including detailed
sections on the respiratory system.

 "Respiratory Physiology: The Essentials" by John B. West: This book focuses on the
physiological aspects of the respiratory system, including gas exchange and transport.

 "Pathophysiology of Disease: An Introduction to Clinical Medicine" by Gary D. Hammer

and Stephen J. McPhee: This book discusses various diseases affecting the respiratory
system, including hypoxia and its causes.
Thank You