Homeostasis

Regulation of the
Internal Milieu
 What is Homeostasis? – Homeo (unchanged)
+ stasis(standing) – Greek origin
 Refers to a state of constancy in a system.
 In its normal, or resting, state, a system often is
said to be in homeostasis.
 Physiologists use the term homeostasis to refer to
maintaining a constant internal environment.

 A homeostatic system makes adjustments to lessen

the internal impact of major external disturbances.
 Example: During exercise, sweating increases to
maintain a constant internal temperature.
The Internal Milieu
 The “internal milieu” is the internal environment of an
organism, or the extracellular fluid environment.
 The fluid environment surrounds cells, exchanges

nutrients and wastes, and acts as a buffer.

 The cell is the simplest unit of life.
 Cells make up body systems; body systems maintain
homeostasis; and homeostasis is necessary for healthy cells.
 Each cell contributes to the maintenance of homeostasis and
each is cell is dependent on the overall maintenance of
homeostasis.
 The cell needs a constant internal environment.

 Cells obtain nutrients from, and remove wastes to, the

internal milieu.
 Cells have specialized functions that contribute to

homeostasis.
 History of Homeostasis

 Claude Bernard (1813-1878)

 French physiologist
 Developed the concept of the internal milieu.
 Recognized that many animals regulate their
internal environment even if the external
environment changes.
 Walter Cannon (1871-1945)
 Coined the term “Homeostasis” in 1926.
 Realized the importance of the autonomic
nervous system in maintaining a constant
internal environment.
 Homeostasis
 Organism’s Internal Regulation
 Examples of physiological conditions
requiring homeostasis:
 Temperature
 Concentration of Waste Products
 Gas Exchange
 pH
 Energy Requirements
 Water/Ion balance
 Volume/Pressure
Necessary Components of a Homeostatic
System

 Receptor
 Control Center
 Effector

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 The self-adjusting mechanism is called feedback
homeostasis regulation mechanism.
 The feedback mechanisms are of two types:
 Positive feedback mechanism or negative feedback
mechanism.
 When the response to a stimulus increases the
original stimulus, it is known as positive feedback
mechanism while when the response to a stimulus
reduces the original stimulus, it is the negative
feedback mechanism.
Homeostatic Mechanism
 Negative-Feedback Regulation
 The homeostatic mechanism

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COMPONENTS OF
HOMEOSTATIC SYSTEM
Homeostatic system in the
body acts through self
regulating devices, which
operate in a cyclic manner
(Fig. 4.1). This cycle includes
four components: 1.
Sensors or detectors,
which recognize the
deviation
2. Transmission of this
message to a control
center
3. Transmission of
information from the control
center to the effectors for
correcting the deviation
Transmission of the message
or information may be an
electrical process in the form
of impulses through nerves
or a chemical process mainly
in the form of hormones
through blood and body
fluids
Examples of Negative Feedback
Mechanism
 Insulin mediated control of blood glucose level is an
example of negative feedback. Blood glucose
concentration increases after meals (stimulus). This
releases insulin from pancreas, and it transports
glucose from the blood into tissues (the response).
Blood glucose concentrations then lowers down
which decreases the secretion of insulin into the
blood.
 Increase concentration of carbon dioxide in
the blood, stimulates the chemoreceptors; which
further stimulates the respiratory centre to increases
the rate and depth of breathing. The increased
ventilation removes more carbon dioxide and CO2
level comes down
Examples of Positive
Feedback Mechanism

Clotting cascade:
When the blood vessel
gets damaged, platelets
adhere to the injured
site and release
chemicals which further
attract more platelets.
The platelets continue
to pile up and initiate
clotting cascade. The
clotting factor which is
activated further acts as
enzyme to activate the
other clotting factors
until a clot is formed.
 Parturition reflex: At the full
term of pregnancy at end of
the third trimester the head of
the fetus gets engaged and
exerts pressure over the cervix
and the sensory information of
mechanical stretch of the
cervix is relayed to the
hypothalamus which further
increase the secretion of
oxytocin from the posterior
pituitary. Oxytocin acts on the
myometrium which stimulates
uterine contractions, and this in
turn further increases pressure
on the cervix until the fetus is
delivered.
External Factors Influencing Homeostasis
 Lifestyle modification such as balanced diet and
regular physical activities also aid in
maintenance of homeostasis.
 Diet devoid of iron may lead to anaemia while
balance diet will restore iron level.
 The regular physical activity improves mental
and physical wellbeing, increases muscular mass
and stability, and increases the ability of the
cardiovascular system to deliver oxygen to the
tissues.
 NEED?
 Concept of homeostasis forms basis of physiology because it
explains why various physiological functions are to be maintained
within a normal range and in case if any function deviates from this
range how it is brought back to normal.
 The concept of homeostasis also forms the basis for clinical
diagnostic procedures. For example, increased body temperature
beyond normal range as in the case of fever, indicates that
something is wrong in the heat production-heat loss mechanism in
the body. It induces the physician to go through the diagnostic
proceedings and decide about the treatment.
Cell Structure
& Function
 The (1635-1703) word cell (L. cella-a storeroom, a chamber) was first
introduced in the biology by Robert Hooke (1635-1703).

• The cell is the structural and

functional unit of the living
matter and is capable of
carrying on the processes of
life independently.
• All living things are made up
of cells.
• Cells are the smallest
working units of all living
things.
• All cells come from pre-
existing cells through cell
division.
 Examples of Cells

Amoeba Proteus

Plant Stem

Bacteria

Red Blood Cell

Nerve Cell
Two Types of Cells

Prokaryotic
•

• Eukaryotic
 Prokaryotic
 Do not have structures
surrounded by
membranes
 Few internal structures
present
 One-celled organisms,
eg-Bacteria
Eukaryotic
 Contain organelles surrounded by membranes
 Most living organisms
Plant Animal

http://library.thinkquest.org/C004535/eukaryotic_cells.html
“Typical” Animal Cell
“Typical” Plant Cell
 Structure of the Cell

 Each cell is formed by a cell body and a membrane

covering the cell body called the cell membrane. Cell body
has two parts, namely nucleus .and cytoplasm surrounding
the nucleus, Thus, the structure of the cell is studied under
three headings:
 1. Cell membrane
 2. Cytoplasm
 3. Nucleus.
CELL MEMBRANE
 Structural detail of plasma membrane was proposed in 1935 by Hugh
Davson and James Danielli. They proposed that lipid membranes are
layers composed by proteins and lipids and the membrane has pore-
like structures which allow specific permeability for certain
molecules.
 Cell membrane is a protective sheath, enveloping the cell body.
 It is also known as plasma membrane or plasmalemma.
 This membrane separates the fluid outside the cell called extracellular
fluid (ECF) and the fluid inside the cell called intracellular fluid (ICF).
 The cell membrane is a semipermeable membrane. So, there is free
exchange of certain substances between ECF and ICF.
 COMPOSITION OF CELL MEMBRANE
 -It is composed of three types of
substances: 1. Proteins (55%) 2. Lipids
(40%) 3. Carbohydrates (5%).

 Structural Model of the Cell Membrane

1. Danielli-Davson model - ‘Danielli ­Davson
model’ was the first proposed basic model
of membrane structure. It was proposed
by James F Danielli and Hugh Davson in
1935. And it was accepted by scientists for
many years. This model was basically a
‘sandwich of lipids’ covered by proteins on
both sides.
2. Fluid mosaic model - Later in
1972, SJ Singer and GL Nicholson
proposed ‘The fluid mosaic model’.
According to them, the membrane
is a fluid with mosaic of proteins
(mosaic means pattern formed by
arrangement of different colored
pieces of stone, tile, glass or other
such materials). This model is
accepted by the scientists till now.
In this model, the proteins are
found to float in the lipid layer
instead of forming the layers of the
sandwich-type model
Lipid Layer of Cell Membrane
 The characteristic feature of lipid layer is that, it is fluid in nature and
not a solid structure.
 The portions of the membrane move from one point to another point
along the surface of the cell. The materials dissolved in lipid layer also
move to all areas of the cell membrane.
 Major lipids are: 1. Phospholipids 2. Cholesterol.
 1. Phospolipids- the lipid substances containing phosphorus and fatty
acids.
 Phospholipid molecules are arranged in two layers
 Each phospholipid molecule resembles the headed pin in shape.
 The outer part of the phospholipid molecule is called the head
portion and the inner portion is called the tail portion.
 Head portion is the polar end and it is soluble in water and has strong
affinity for water (hydrophilic).
 Tail portion is the non-polar end. It is insoluble in water and repelled
by water (hydrophobic).
 Two layers of phospholipids are arranged in such a way that the
hydrophobic tail portions meet in the center of the membrane.
Hydrophilic head portions of outer layer face the ECF and those of
the inner layer face ICF (cytoplasm).
 2. Cholesterol – its molecules are arranged in
between the phospholipid molecules.
 Phospholipids are soft and oily structures and cholesterol helps to
‘pack’ the phospholipids in the membrane.
So, cholesterol is responsible for the structural integrity and fluidity of
lipid layer of the cell membrane.

Functions of Lipid Layer in Cell Membrane

-It is a semipermeable membrane and allows only the fat-
soluble substances to pass through it like oxygen, carbon
dioxide and alcohol which can pass through this lipid
layer.
-The water-soluble substances such as glucose, urea and
electrolytes cannot pass through this layer.
 Protein Layers of the Cell Membrane
 Protein layers of the cell membrane are electron-dense layers.
 These layers cover the two surfaces of the central lipid layer.
 Protein layers give protection to the central lipid layer.
 The protein substances present in these layers are mostly
glycoproteins.
 Protein molecules are classified into two categories:
 1. Integral proteins or transmembrane proteins.
 2. Peripheral proteins or peripheral membrane proteins.
Protein Layers of the Cell Membrane
 1. Integral proteins are the proteins that pass through entire
thickness of cell membrane from one side to the other side.
 Examples of integral protein:
 i. Cell adhesion proteins
 ii. Cell junction proteins
 iii. Some carrier (transport) proteins
 iv. Channel proteins
 v. Some hormone receptors
 vi. Antigens
 vii. Some enzymes.
 2. Peripheral proteins - are the proteins which are partially embedded
in the outer and inner surfaces of the cell membrane and do not
penetrate the cell membrane.
 Peripheral proteins are loosely bound with integral proteins or lipid
layer of cell membrane.
 So, these protein molecules dissociate readily from the cell membrane.
 Examples of peripheral proteins:
 i. Proteins of cytoskeleton
 ii. Some carrier (transport) proteins
 iii. Some enzymes
 Functions of Protein in Cell Membrane
•Provide the structural integrity of the cell membrane
•Help in the diffusion of water soluble substances like
glucose and electrolytes
•Help in the transport of substances across the cell
membrane by means of active or passive transport
•Pump: Some carrier proteins act as pumps, by which
ions are transported actively across the cell membrane
•Receptor proteins serve as the receptor sites for
hormones and neurotransmitters
•The integral proteins are responsible for attachment of
cells to their neighbors
Carbohydrates of the Cell Membrane
• Carbohydrate molecules present
in cell membrane are attached to
proteins and form glycoproteins
(proteoglycans).

• Some carbohydrate molecules

are attached to lipids and form
glycolipids.

• Functions- they are negatively

charged and do not permit the
negatively charged substances to
move in and out of the cell

• Glycocalyx from the neighboring

cells helps in the tight fixation of
cells with one another
  FUNCTIONS OF CELL MEMBRANE
 1. Protective function: Cell membrane protects the cytoplasm and the organelles
present in the cytoplasm
 2. Selective permeability: Cell membrane acts as a semipermeable membrane,
which allows only some substances to pass through it and acts as a barrier for other
substances
 3. Absorptive function: Nutrients are absorbed into the cell through the cell
membrane
 4. Excretory function: Metabolites and other waste products from the cell are
excreted out through the cell membrane
 5. Exchange of gases: Oxygen enters the cell from the blood and carbon dioxide
leaves the cell and enters the blood through the cell membrane
 6. Maintenance of shape and size of the cell: Cell membrane is responsible for the
maintenance of shape and size of the cell

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fJfTDc3WzQ8
 CYTOPLASM
 It is the jelly­like material formed by 80% of water. The cytoplasm is
the protoplasm which surrounds the nucleus and is bounded
peripherally by the cell membrane.
 Contains a clear liquid portion called cytosol
 Various particles of different shape and size. These particles are
proteins, carbohydrates, lipids or electrolytes in nature.
 Cytoplasm also contains many organelles with distinct structure and
function.
 Cytoplasm is made up of two zones:
1. Ectoplasm: Peripheral part of cytoplasm, situated just beneath the
cell membrane
2. Endoplasm: Inner part of cytoplasm, interposed between the
ectoplasm and the nucleus.
A CELL
 Organelles are considered as small organs of the cell.
 Some organelles are bound by limiting membrane and others do not
have limiting membrane
 Organelles with Limited Membrane
 1. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
 A network of tubular and microsomal vesicular structures which are
interconnected with one another.
 It is covered by a limiting membrane which is formed by proteins and
bilayered lipids.
 The lumen of ER contains a fluid medium called endoplasmic matrix.
 It forms the link between nucleus and cell membrane by connecting
the cell membrane with the nuclear membrane.

 Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum

Smooth Rough
Endoplasmi Endoplasmi
c Reticulum c
Reticulum
 Both the types are interconnected and continuous with one another.
 Depending upon the activities of the cells, the rough endoplasmic
reticulum changes to smooth endoplasmic reticulum and vice versa.

 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

 It is the endoplasmic reticulum with rough, bumpy or bead-like
appearance.
 Rough appearance is due to the attachment of granular ribosomes to
its outer surface.
 Also k/a Granular Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Functions of RER
1. Synthesis of proteins
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum is concerned with the synthesis of
proteins in the cell which are secreted from the cells such as insulin
from β ­cells of islets of Langerhans in pancreas and antibodies from B
lymphocytes. Ribosomes arrange the amino acids into small units of
proteins and transport them into the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
2. Degradation of worn-out organelles
Rough endoplasmic reticulum also plays an important
role in the degradation of worn-out cytoplasmic
organelles like mitochondria.
It wraps itself around the worn out organelles and
forms a vacuole which is often called the
autophagosome.
 Autophagosome is digested by lysosomal enzymes
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
 It is the endoplasmic reticulum with smooth appearance. It is also
called agranular reticulum.
 It is formed by many interconnected tubules.
Functions of Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
1. Synthesis of non-protein substance – it is responsible for synthesis
of non-protein substances such as Lipids - cholesterol and steroid.
This type of endoplasmic reticulum is abundant in cells that are
involved in the synthesis of lipids, phospholipids, lipoprotein
substances, steroid hormones, sebum, etc.
 2. Role in cellular metabolism
Outer surface of smooth endoplasmic reticulum contains many
enzymes which are involved in various metabolic processes of the cell
 3. Storage and metabolism of calcium
It is the major site of storage and metabolism of calcium. In skeletal
muscle fibers, it releases calcium which is necessary to trigger the
muscle contraction.
 4. Catabolism and detoxification
It is also concerned with catabolism and detoxification of toxic
substances like some drugs and carcinogens (cancer-producing
substances) in the liver.
2. GOLGI APPARATUS
 The Golgi apparatus was first discovered in 1898 by Camillo Golgi.
 The structure looks like a network of fine threads (Golgi network) or
irregular granular material.
 It is involved in the processing of proteins.

Camillo Golgi
 It is present in all the cells except red blood cells.
 Usually, each cell has one Golgi apparatus.
 Golgi apparatus is situated near the nucleus. It has two ends or faces,
namely cis face and trans face.
 The cis face is positioned near the endoplasmic reticulum. Reticular
vesicles from endoplasmic reticulum enter the Golgi apparatus
through cis face.
 The trans face is situated near the cell membrane.
The processed substances make their exit from Golgi apparatus through
trans face.
 Functions
1. It is probably concerned with synthetic process of the cell, specially
secretions. The secretory substance (glycoprotein & glycolipids), being
synthesized by the endoplasmic reticulum

passes to the Golgi apparatus

possibly modifies the products of synthesis by concentrating and

chemically altering it to some extent.
2. Packaging of materials
All the processed materials are packed in the form of
secretory granules, secretory vesicles and lysosomes

they are transported either out of the cell or to another part

of the cell

Golgi apparatus is called the ‘post office of the cell’

3. Labeling and delivery of materials
It sorts out the processed and packed materials and
labels them (such as phosphate group), depending
upon the chemical content for delivery (distribution)
to their proper destinations.
Hence, the Golgi apparatus is called ‘shipping
department of the cell’.
3. Lysosomes
 In 1955, Christian de Duve first postulated its existence.
 Lysosomes are the membrane-bound vesicular organelles found
throughout the cytoplasm
 They are formed by Golgi apparatus
 The enzymes synthesized in rough endoplasmic reticulum are
processed and packed in the form of small vesicles in the Golgi
apparatus

vesicles are pinched off from Golgi apparatus and become the
lysosomes.
 Lysosomes have the thickest covering membrane.
 It has many small granules which contain hydrolytic enzymes
 The lysosomes are present in all animal cells except in the
erythrocytes
 The enzymes of lysosomes are potent enough to digest its own
cellular contents in which it inhabits but in ordinary conditions it is
not so happened.
 Under certain conditions it may digest its own cellular content and
for this reason it is sometimes described dramatically as suicide bag
 Types of Lysosomes -
1. Primary lysosome- which is pinched off from Golgi apparatus. It is
inactive in spite of having hydrolytic enzymes
2. Secondary lysosome - which is the active lysosome. It is formed
by the fusion of a primary lysosome with *phagosome or endosome

*a phagosome is a vesicle formed around a particle engulfed by a phagocyte via phagocytosis

 Functions of Lysosomes
 Lysosomes are often called ‘garbage system’ of the cell because of
their degradation activity.
 About 50 different hydrolytic enzymes, known as acid hydroxylases
are present in the lysosomes, through which lysosomes execute their
functions.
 Important lysosomal enzymes
1. Proteases, which hydrolyze the proteins into amino acids
2. Lipases, which hydrolyze the lipids into fatty acids and glycerides
3. Amylases, which hydrolyze the polysaccharides into glucose
4. Nucleases, which hydrolyze the nucleic acids into mononucleotides.
 Mechanism of lysosomal function
Lysosomal functions involve 2 mechanisms:
1. Heterophagy: Digestion of extracellular materials engulfed by the
cell
2. Autophagy: Digestion of intracellular materials such as worn-out
cytoplasmic organelles.
 Specific functions of lysosomes
1. Degradation of macromolecules –
Macromolecules are engulfed by the cell by means of endocytosis. The
macromolecules such as bacteria, engulfed by the cell via
phagocytosis are called phagosomes or vacuoles. The other
macromolecules taken inside via pinocytosis or receptor-mediated
endocytosis are called endosomes.
-The primary lysosome fuses with the phagosome or endosome to form
the secondary lysosome.
-The pH in the secondary lysosome becomes acidic and the lysosomal
enzymes are activated. The bacteria and the other macromolecules
are digested and degraded by these enzymes. The secondary
lysosome containing these degraded waste products moves through
cytoplasm and fuses with cell membrane. Now the waste products
are eliminated by exocytosis.
 2. Degradation of worn-out organelles
- The rough endoplasmic reticulum wraps itself around the worn-out
organelles like mitochondria and form the vacuoles called
autophagosomes.
One primary lysosome fuses with one autophagosome to form the
-

secondary lysosome. The enzymes in the secondary lysosome are

activated. Now, these enzymes digest the contents of autophagosome.
 3. Secretory function – secretory lysosomes
- Recently, lysosomes having secretory function called secretory
lysosomes are found in some of the cells, example- of immune
system.
- The conventional lysosomes are modified into secretory lysosomes by
combining with secretory granules (which contain the particular
secretory product of the cell).
Examples of secretory lysosomes:
i. Lysosomes in the cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer (NK) cells
secrete perforin and granzymes, which destroy both viral-infected
cells and tumor cells.
ii. Secretory lysosomes of melanocytes secrete melanin
iii. Secretory lysosomes of mast cells secrete serotonin, which is a
vasoconstrictor substance and inflammatory mediator.