Module-2

Optical Sources and detectors: Light Emitting Diode: LED Structures, Light source materials, Quantum efficiency and LED power, Laser Diodes:
Modes and threshold conditions, Rate equations, External quantum efficiency, Resonant frequencies, Photodetectors: The pin Photodetector, Avalanche
Photodiodes

WDM Concepts: Overview of WDM, Isolators and Circulators, Fiber grating filters, Dielectric thin-film filters, Diffraction Gratings.
Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
LED Structures

• LEDs used for fiber transmission require high radiance, fast emission response times, and high quantum efficiency
to effectively couple optical power into fibers.

• High radiance allows sufficient optical power to be transmitted, while emission response time determines the
maximum modulation bandwidth.

• Quantum efficiency measures the proportion of electron-hole pairs that recombine radiatively, influencing overall
performance.

• Double-heterostructure designs, which confine charge carriers and the optical field within the active layer, enhance
both radiance and efficiency.

• Two primary LED configurations for fiber optics are surface emitters, which emit isotropically, and edge emitters,
which produce a more directional beam.
Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
LED Structures
Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
LED Structures

a high-radiance surface-emitting LED

Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
LED Structures

• edge-emitting double-heterojunction LED.

Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
Light Source Materials

• Optical sources require semiconductor materials with a direct bandgap to allow

efficient electron-hole recombination and produce adequate optical emission.
• III-V compounds, made from group III and group V elements like Al, Ga, In, P,
and As, are commonly used in optical sources as they possess direct bandgaps.
• GaAlAs alloys are typically used for wavelengths between 800-900 nm, with the
aluminum content determining the bandgap and peak emission wavelength.
• InGaAsP alloys are used for longer wavelengths (1.0 to 1.7 µm) and offer
flexibility by varying the mole fractions of indium and gallium.
• Matching lattice parameters between heterostructure materials reduces defects,
improving radiative efficiency and device performance over varying temperatures.
Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
Light Source Materials

• Using the fundamental quantummechanical relationship between

energy E and frequency

• the peak emission wavelength l inmicrometers can be expressed as a

function of the bandgap energy Eg in electron volts by the equation
Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
Light Source Materials
Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
Quantum Efficiency and LED Power

• In semiconductor light sources, excess electrons and holes (minority carriers) are generated through carrier injection, with
their densities equal due to pair formation and recombination, maintaining charge neutrality in the material.
• Once carrier injection ceases, the excess carrier density decays exponentially, with the rate determined by the carrier
lifetime, a crucial parameter that can vary from milliseconds to fractions of a nanosecond depending on the material and
device defects.
• Carriers can recombine either radiatively, emitting a photon with energy near the bandgap, or nonradiatively through
processes like self-absorption, interface recombination, or the Auger effect, which transfers recombination energy to another
carrier.
• Under a constant current, an equilibrium is reached where the rate of carrier generation, influenced by both external
injection and thermal generation, balances with recombination. The steady-state electron density is proportional to the
current density and the carrier lifetime.
• The internal quantum efficiency of an LED, representing the fraction of radiative recombinations, is influenced by the
lifetimes of radiative and nonradiative processes. Efficiency is improved in double-heterojunction LEDs, where reduced
self-absorption enhances radiative recombination, resulting in efficiencies up to 80%.
Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
Quantum Efficiency and LED Power
Laser Diodes

• Lasers vary in size from tiny, grain-of-salt-sized devices to large ones that
fill entire rooms.
• The lasing medium can be a gas, liquid, solid-state crystal, or
semiconductor; semiconductor laser diodes are commonly used in optical
fiber systems.
• All types of lasers emit radiation that has spatial and temporal coherence,
resulting in highly monochromatic and directional beams.
• The fundamental processes of laser operation are photon absorption,
spontaneous emission, and stimulated emission.
• Population inversion, necessary for laser action, is achieved by pumping
techniques, such as electron injection in semiconductor lasers.
Laser Diode Modes and Threshold
Conditions
Laser Diode Modes and Threshold
Conditions
• High Bandwidth Preference: For optical fiber communication systems requiring bandwidths above 200 MHz,
semiconductor injection laser diodes are preferred over LEDs due to their enhanced performance.
• Rapid Response and Power Efficiency: Laser diodes offer response times of less than 1 ns and can couple tens to
hundreds of milliwatts of luminescent power into small-core optical fibers, making them ideal for high-speed
applications.
• Complexity in Construction: Laser diodes are multilayered heterojunction devices that require more intricate
construction than LEDs, primarily due to the need for current confinement within a small lasing cavity.
• Lasing Mechanism: Stimulated emission in semiconductor lasers results from optical transitions in energy bands,
differing from gas and solid-state lasers. The Fabry-Perot resonator cavity, typically 250–500 mm long, facilitates this
process through strong optical feedback via partially reflecting mirrors.
• Distributed-Feedback Laser Design: In distributed-feedback (DFB) lasers, optical feedback is achieved using Bragg
reflectors or periodic refractive index variations, eliminating the need for cleaved facets. This configuration improves
lasing efficiency and reduces optical losses.
Laser Diode Modes and Threshold
Conditions

Fabry-Perot resonator cavity for a laser diode.

Laser Diode Modes and Threshold
Conditions
• Within the laser diode's resonance cavity, optical radiation creates electric and magnetic field patterns known as
cavity modes, which can be categorized into two independent sets: transverse electric (TE) and transverse
magnetic (TM) modes. These modes exhibit variations in electromagnetic fields along the cavity's major axes,
including longitudinal, lateral, and transverse components.
• The longitudinal modes, determined by the cavity length \( L \), significantly shape the frequency spectrum of the
emitted light. Since \( L \) is much larger than the lasing wavelength (around 1 mm), multiple longitudinal modes
can coexist. Lateral modes, which depend on the cavity's side wall preparation and width, influence the laser
beam's lateral profile, while transverse modes, associated with the electromagnetic field perpendicular to the pn
junction, affect characteristics like the radiation pattern and threshold current density.
• For lasing to occur, a population inversion must be achieved, allowing for light amplification. This is described by
the relationship between optical intensity, absorption coefficient, and gain coefficient in the Fabry-Perot cavity.
The feedback mechanism of the optical cavity amplifies specific modes with the highest gain, enabling lasing
when the gain of these modes exceeds optical losses during a complete roundtrip through the cavity.
Laser Diode Rate Equations
• For a pn junction with a carrier-confinement region of depth d, the rate equations are given by
External Quantum Effi ciency
• The external differential quantum efficiency hext is defined as the number of photons emitted per
radiative electron–hole pair recombination above threshold.
 Resonant Frequencies
• To examine the resonant frequencies of the laser

where m is an integer. Using b = 2pn/l for the propagation constant

The relationship between gain and frequency can be assumed to have the gaussian form
The pin Photodetector
The pin Photodetector
The pin Photodetector
Avalanche Photodiodes
Operational Principles of WDM
WDM Standards
Isolators and Circulators

• Light can be described as a combination of two orthogonal

polarization states: one parallel and one perpendicular to the wave's
direction.
• A polarizer transmits only one of these polarization states while
blocking the other.
• A Faraday rotator rotates the state of polarization of light by a specific
angle as it passes through.
Optical Isolators

• Optical isolators allow light to pass in only one direction, preventing reverse-
traveling light from causing issues like laser diode instability.
• A common optical isolator design relies on the state of polarization of the
input light, but this can result in a 3-dB power loss for unpolarized light.
• In practice, optical isolators need to be polarization-independent, as light in
optical links is typically not polarized.
• A polarization-independent isolator consists of a 45° Faraday rotator placed
between two birefringent plates (walk-off polarizers).
• In forward travel, the birefringent plates maintain the relationship between
light rays after the Faraday rotation, while in reverse, the rays diverge,
preventing them from coupling back into the fiber.
Optical Isolators

Design and operation of a polarization-independent isolator made of three

miniature optical components
Optical Isolators
Optical Circulators

• An optical circulator is a nonreciprocal, multiport device that directs

light from one port to another sequentially in a single direction,
commonly used in optical amplifiers, add/drop multiplexers, and
dispersion compensation modules.
• A typical circulator consists of walk-off polarizers, half-wave plates,
and Faraday rotators, with three or four ports, allowing light to travel
from one port to the next in a specific order.
• Commercial circulators offer low insertion loss, high isolation across a
wide wavelength range, and minimal polarization-dependent loss
(PDL) and polarization-mode dispersion (PMD).
Optical Circulators
Fiber Grating Filters

• A grating is a periodic structure used in wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) systems to

combine or separate individual wavelengths of light by reflecting or transmitting them based on
their wavelength.
• Gratings can either reflect or transmit light, depending on their design, with key parameters like
incident angle, diffracted angle, and the period (spacing) of the grating influencing the direction
of light.
• The grating equation, (sin⁡𝜃𝑖−sin⁡𝜃𝑑)=𝑚𝜆 (sinθ i​−sinθ d​)=mλ, defines how wavelengths are
diffracted at specific angles, allowing the separation of individual wavelengths in the imaging
plane.
• Fiber Bragg Gratings (FBGs) are highly efficient reflection filters used in dense WDM systems, with
advantages like low loss, low cost, polarization insensitivity, and ease of integration with other
fiber devices.
• FBGs are fabricated using ultraviolet light to induce a change in the refractive index of the fiber
core, creating a permanent grating that reflects specific wavelengths while transmitting others
 FBG Applications

Multiplexing of four wavelengths using three FBG

Simple concept of a
demultiplexing function
using a fi ber grating and
an optical
circulator
Dielectric Thin-Film Filters

• A dielectric thin-film filter (TFF) is an optical bandpass filter that allows a specific, narrow
wavelength band to pass through while reflecting all other wavelengths.
• TFFs are based on a Fabry-Perot filter structure, which consists of a cavity formed by two parallel,
highly reflective mirror surfaces, also known as a Fabry-Perot interferometer or thin-film resonant
cavity filter.
• When light enters the etalon, it reflects between the two mirrors, with some light passing
through and some being reflected back. The behavior of the light depends on the reflectivity of
the surfaces.
• Constructive interference occurs at resonant wavelengths when the roundtrip distance between
the mirrors is an integer multiple of the wavelength, allowing these wavelengths to pass through
with higher intensity.
• The TFF rejects all other non-resonant wavelengths, making it a highly selective filter used in
applications requiring precise wavelength control.
Dielectric Thin-Film Filters
Phased-Array-Based Devices

• An arrayed waveguide grating (AWG) is a versatile WDM device that can function as a multiplexer,
demultiplexer, drop-and-insert element, or wavelength router, and is based on the Mach-Zehnder
interferometer.
• The AWG consists of input and output slab waveguides connected by two identical focusing
planar star couplers, which distribute and refocus light across an array of uncoupled waveguides.
• In the grating array, each waveguide differs in path length by a precise amount, creating a phase
shift that allows the device to function like a grating for wavelength separation.
• For multiplexing, multiple inputs (Min) are combined into one output (Mout), and for
demultiplexing, one input is separated into multiple outputs. In routing applications, both input
and output have multiple waveguides (Min = Mout = N).
• The star coupler acts as a lens to focus light from the input waveguides onto the output
waveguides, ensuring each wavelength is directed into a different output waveguide based on the
phase delay created in the grating array
Phased-Array-Based Devices
Diffraction Gratings

• Diffraction gratings are used in DWDM technology to spatially separate different

wavelengths of light by directing them at specific angles, either through reflection
or transmission.
• A diffraction grating consists of narrow parallel slits or grooves, and the spacing
between these elements determines how the light is diffracted, separating the
wavelengths into a spectrum in a parallel process.
• In reflection gratings, light reflects off a ruled or etched surface, with each
wavelength being reflected at a unique angle, allowing individual wavelengths to
be focused into separate fibers or monitored using a photodiode array.
Diffraction Gratings