FIBER OPTICS

• An optical fiber (or fibre) is a

glass or plastic fiber that
carries light along its length.

• Fibers are used instead of

metal wires because signals
travel along them with less
loss, and they are also
immune to electromagnetic
interference.
 3 Regions (3C)

1.) Core – glass or plastic

diameter: 5 – 20um
n = 1.4

2.) Cladding – glass or plastic

diameter:
n = 1.7

3.) Coating – for protection

 3 Variation of Optical Fiber

• Plastic core and cladding (PCP)

• Glass core and cladding (SCS)

• Glass core and plastic cladding

(PCS)
 Advantages of Plastic over
Glass Fiber

• Flexibility and ruggedness

• Easy to install
• Less weight
• More economical
• Can withstand stress
 Disadvantages

• High attenuation

• Inefficient

• Limited for short distance applications

 Classifications of
Optical Fibers
• Depends on:
a.) Mode (path) of propagation
- A stable propagation state in
an optical fiber.
- The number of modes a fiber
can transmit depend on its
numerical aperture as well as the
wavelength.
Two types:
»Single-Mode (monomode)
»Multimode
b.) Index Profile
- A graphical representation of the
refractive index of the core.
Two types:
»Step Index

»Graded Index
Single-Mode ( Monomode)

• Only one path

for light to take
down the cable.
• Extremely wide
bandwidths and
low losses.
• 8um (mot
commonly used
core diameter)
• Placed 3km
between
repeater.
 Multimode Fiber

• The light wave rays

take many paths
between the source
and the far end of the
fiber.
• Placed 2km between
repeaters
• Diameter: 50 – 200 um
• 62.5um – most
commonly used
 Step Index
• The core has a uniform index of refraction
providing an abrupt change in rfraction index at
the core-cladding interface.
• These types of fibers have relatively high
dispersion making it useful only at lower rates
and shorter distance.
 Graded Index
• The core has index of refraction that
changes continuously from the center to
the outside.
• This core is made out of many thin layers,
each with lower index of refraction than
the adjacent inner core.
• The effect of this grading is that light
waves are propagated by refraction so
they are bent in a sinusoid like curve
about the fiber.
 Light Propagation

• Light is propagated through the optical fiber

using the principles of refraction.
• Light rays bend or change direction when they
pass from one medium to another.
• They bend because the speed of propagation of
light in each medium is different.
• The amount of bending or refraction that occurs
at the core-cladding interface depends on the
refractive index of the two materials.
 Refractive Index ()

• The ratio of light velocity in free space

to the velocity of a light in a given
material.

Where: c = speed of light in free space

v = speed of light in a given material
 MEDIUM 
Vacuum 1.0
Air 1.00029
Water 1.33
Ethyl Alcohol 1.36
Fused Quartz 1.46
Glass Fiber 1.5 – 1.9
Diamond 2.0 – 2.42
Silicon 3.4
 Snell’s law

• Explains how a light may react when it meets the

interface of two transmittive materials that have
different indices of refraction using the law
which states that:

1 sin 1 = 2 sin 2

where: 1 = refraction index of material 1

2 = refraction index of material 2
1 = angle of incidence
2 = angle of refraction
• When a light travels from a less
dense material into a more dense
material, the wave is refracted
towards the normal

• When light ray enters a less dense

material, the ray bends away from the
normal.
 Refracted
ray;
toward
normal
1 < 2
1 = 2
Unrefracted
ray
Refracte
d ray;
away
Medium 2 from
normal
Medium 1 1 > 2
For Total Internal Reflection

• The glass inside the fiber core must

have a slightly higher index of
refraction 1 than the index of
refraction 2 of the material ( cladding
) surrounding the fiber.
• The light must have an angle of
incidence  ( between the ray path and
the normal to the fiber wall ) which is
greater than a critical angle c, which
is defined as the angle of incidence.
 Critical Angle of Incident (c )

• The minimum angle of incidence at

which a light ray may strike the
interference of two media and result
in an angle of refraction of 90
degrees or when the incident ray is
in parallel to the boundary.
 Acceptance Angle or Acceptance Cone Half
Angle (in)

• Maximum angle in which external light rays

may strike the air/fiber interface and still
propagate down the fiber.
 Numerical Aperture (NA)

• A figure of merit used to measure the light

gathering or light collecting ability of the
optical fiber.

NA = sin in

2 2
NA = N1 - N2
 V Parameter (V)

• It is a key parameter that describes the mode

structure of a fiber.

;multimode

;single-mode
where:

;fractional change in the

index of refraction
of
multi-mode step
index

;fractional change in the

index of refraction
of
multi-mode graded
index
a = radius of the core of the fiber
λ = wavelength
1 = index of refraction of core
2 = index of refraction of cladding
g = gradient of graded fiber
= 2 ; parabolic profile
= 1 ; triangular profile
=  ; step index profile
Number of Modes (N)

; for multimode step

index

; for multimode graded

index
also;
 Light Sources

• A light source is any material or

device which gives off energy with a
wavelength from about 300 microns
down to 0.5 microns.
 Requirements:

a. Their light must be as nearly monochromatic

( single frequency) as possible.
b. Capable of being easily modulated; PCM for
better noise immunity
c. High intensity light output so that sufficient
energy is transmitted to overcome the losses
encountered during transmission down the
fiber.

d. Devices should be small, compact, and easily

couple to the fibers so that excessive coupling
losses do not occur.

e. Must be inexpensive to manufacture.

 Light Emitting Diode (LED)

• Non – coherent injection light sources

which are low-cost, low-heat light sources
and are the most promising light sources
for optical transmission.
• LEDS have the necessary reliability, life
expectancy, and simplicity for optical
transmission purposes.
• LEDS are able to couple about 100uw of
power with a coupling efficiency of 2 %.
Injection Laser Diodes (ILD)

• ILDs make the most efficient use of electric

energy.
• This coherent light source can couple a few
milliwatts of light power into a fiber since it has
a more direct radiation pattern.
 Advantages of ILDs over LED

• Reduced coupling losses

• Greater radiant output power
• Can be used at higher bit rates
• Reduced wavelength dispersion;
monochromatic
 Disadvantages of ILDs

• Expensive
• Shorter lifetime
• Temperature dependence
• Requires automatic level control circuit
to protect the device from power
Supply transients.
Light Detectors
PIN (Positive Intrinsic Negative) diodes

• When photons are absorbed by

intrinsic layer’s electrons in the
valence band, they add sufficient
energy to generate carriers in the
depletion region and allow current
to flow thru the device
 APD ( Avalanche Photo Diode )

• Light enters diode and is absorbed

by the thin, heavily doped n-layer
causing a high electric field
intensity to be across in p-n
junction thus ionization occur and
continues like avalanche.
 Advantages of APD over PIN

• APDs give better sensitivity over PIN

• APDs provides larger amplification

Disadvantages

• High bias requirement

• Temperature dependence
• Long transit time
Advantages of Optical Fibers over
Metallic Cables

• Broad Bandwidth Capability

• Fiber Optics can be used to form a
Compact concept
• Immunity to Crosstalk
• Immunity to Electromagnetic and
Radio Frequency Interference
• Lower Attenuation
• Capability for secure transmission
• Safer to install and Maintain
• More Economical
 Disadvantages of Fiber System

• High initial cost of installation

• Any damage inflicted on a fiber cable

is not easily repairable.
 Losses in Optical Fiber
Cables
1. Scattering losses – due to imperfections
in the fiber that are formed during
manufacturing process.
a.) Linear scattering – power
transferred from a wave is
proportional to the power of the
wave.

i. Rayleigh Scattering – light interacting with

inhomogeneities in the medium that are
much smaller than the wavelength of light.

ii. Mie Scattering – inhomogeneities that are

compatible in size to a wavelength.
 b. Nonlinear Scattering –
significant power to be scattered in
the forward, backward, or sideways
direction, depending on the nature of
the interaction.
i. Brillouin Scattering – modulation of the
light by the thermal energy in the material.

ii. Raman Scattering – the nonlinear

interaction produces a high frequency phonon and
scattered photon.
2. Absorption Losses
- impurities in the fiber absorb the light
and convert it to heat.

a. Ultraviolet Absorption – light ionizes the

valence electrons into conduction; ionization is
equivalent to a loss in the light field.
b. Infrared Absorption – photons of light
absorbed by atoms of the glass core are
converted to mechanical vibrations typical
of heating.A

c. Ion Resonance Absorption – caused by OH

ions from water molecules trapped in the
glass during manufacturing process.

d. Hydrogen Effect – fiber is exposed to

hydrogen gas
- corrosion of steel cable
 3. Dispersion

• Spreading of pulse out in the time domain,

changing its shape so that it may merge into
the previous and succeeding pulses.
• The pulses may be separated by spacing them
out at the transmitter but this means reducing
the maximum bit rate.
4. Coupling Losses

a. Lateral Misalignment
b. Gap Misalignment or Longitudinal
Displacement
c. Angular Misalignment
d. Imperfect Surface Finish
 5. Bending or radiation losses

• As light travels around a bend on an

optical fiber, the light traveling on the
outside of the bend would have to
travel faster than the local speed of
light to maintain a constant phase
across the wave.
a.) Microbending – occurs as a result of
differences in the thermal contraction rates
between core and cladding.
- small scale bending.

b.) constant-radius bends – occur when fibers are

bend during handling and installation.
- large bends
 Power budgeting

Receiver input = transmitter output

-  losses - margin

Note : margin; a safety factor to allow

for aging components and system
modifications and repairs, typical
values are 3- 10 dB
 PtdBm – PrdBm = M + Lpt + Lpr + Nc Lc
+ Ns Ls + ZLf
• Where: Pt = transmitted power of the
source
 = loss margin
= fiber length
Nc = number of connectors
Ns = numbers of splices
Lf = loss due to fiber
Pr = received power at detector
Lpt = loss of port, transmitting
end
Lpr = loss of port, receiving end
Lc = loss per connector
Ls = loss per splice
Dispersion – limited fiber
= 1
5bt

Where: z = total fiber length:Km

B = maximum bit rate;
mbps
t = dispersion; s
km
Questions
1.) A transparent material
along which we can
transmit light is called
a.) Fiber optics
b.) Flashlight
c.) An optic fiber

d.) Xenon bulb

 2.) A simple fiber optic system
would consist of

a.) A light source, an optic fiber

and a photoelectric cell
b.) A laser, an optic fiber and an
LED
c.) A copper coaxial cable, a
laser and a photoelectric cell
d.) An LED, a CRT and a light
source
3.) Optic fiber is normally
made from
a.) Coherent glass and xenon
b.) Copper
c.) Water
d.) Silica glass or plastic
 4.) The following are the
advantages of optical fiber
system except
a.) Greater capacity
b.) Crosstalk immunity
c.) Safer to handle
d.) Lower initial cost of
installation
 5.) Plastic fibers have the
following advantages over
glass fibers except
a.) Flexibility
b.) Ease of installation
c.) Ruggedness
d.) Low attenuation
 6.) This explains how a light
may react when it meets the
interface of two transmission
materials that have different
indices of refraction.
a.) Huygens' Law
b.) Nyquist's Theorem
c.) Snell's Law
d.) Quantum Theory
 7.) In Optical fibers,

a.) The core and cladding have

the same index of refraction
b.) The core and cladding have
the same area
c.) The core surrounds the cladding
d.) The cladding surrounds the
core
 8.) A type of fiber whereby light
rays take many paths between
the source and the receiver.
a.) Monomode

b.) Multimode

c.) Single mode

d.) Step index

9.) A figure of merit used to
measure the light gathering or
light collection ability of the
optical fiber.
a.) Acceptance angle
b.) NumAerical aperture
c.) Acceptance cone
d.) Critical angle
10.) The basic optical fiber
communications system
consists of the following
except
a.) Optical source
b.) Photodetector
c.) Transmission medium
d.) 48 v power supply
11.) Optical fibers can be
made out of

a.) Glass
b.) Plastic
c.) Combination of both
d.) Any of these
12.) In ________, the core has
an index of refraction that
changes continuously from
the center to the outside.
a.) Step index
b.) Graded index
c.) Monomode
d.) Multimode
13.) The following are causes
of attenuation and loss of
optical power within the fiber
except
a.) Microbending loss
b.) Connector loss
c.) Splicing loss
d.) Ohmic loss
14.) For a signal to be
propagated through the optical
fiber, the angle of incidence
should be________ the critical
angle.
a.) Greater than
b.) Less than

c.) Equal to
d.) None of these
15.) A ray of light in a
transparent material of
refractive index 1.5 is
approaching a material with a
refractive index of 1.48. At the
boundary, the critical angle is
a.) 90 degrees
b.) 9.4 degrees
c.) 75.2 degrees
d.) 80.6 degrees
16.) The first material has a
refractive index of 1.51 and the
angle of incidence is 38 degrees
and the second material has a
refractive index of 1.46. What is
the angle of refraction?
a.) 30.55 degrees
b.) 39.55 degrees
c.) 75.2 degrees
d.) 40.55 degrees
17.) If the refractive index of the
core of an optic fiber was 1.47
and that of the cladding was
1.44,the cone of acceptance
would have an angle of
approximately
a.) 17.19 degrees
b.) 72.82 degrees
c.) 78.4 degrees
d.) 34.36 degrees
18.) In free space, light travels
at approximately

a.) 186000 m/sec

b.) 3 x 10exp9 m/sec
c.) 300 m/sec
d.) 0.3m/nsec
19.) Scattering loss is caused
by
a.) Insufficient stirring of the
ingredients during manufacture
b.) Changes in the density of
the fiber due to uneven rates
of cooling
c.) Microscopic cracks in the
cladding which allow leakage of
the vacuum in the core
d.) Impurities in the fiber
20.) Cleaving is the process of

a.) Removing the cladding before

connecting fibers together
b.) Cutting the end of the fiber in
preparation for connecting two
fibers
c.) Cleaning the surface of optic
fibers
d.) Inspecting fibers for flaws
21.) A typical value of
insertion loss for a
mechanical splice
a.) -50 dB
b.) 0.2 dB
c.) 12 mm
d.) 3 dB
22.) The speed of light in a
transparent material
a.) Is always the same regardless
of the material chosen
b.) Is never greater than the
speed of light in free space
c.) Increases if the light enters a
material with a higher refractive
index
d.) Is slowed down by a factor of
1 million within the first 60
meters
23.) The following are light
detectors in fiber optic
communications system
except
a.) ILD
b.) PIN diode
c.) APD
d.) None of these
24.) The following are three
distinct regions of an optical
fiber except
a.) Core
b.) Cladding
c.) Jacket
d.) Coating
25.) The maximum angle in
which external light rays may
strike the air fiber interface
and still propagate down the
fiber
a.) Critical angle
b.) Acceptance angle
c.) Numerical aperture
d.) Beamwidth
26.) Which of the following
combinations is impossible for
optical fibers?

a.) Plastic core and cladding

b.) Glass core and cladding
c.) Plastic core and glass
cladding
d.) Glass core and plastic
cladding
27.) The scientist who coined
the term "Fiber Optics"

a.) Hopkins
b.) Hansel
c.) Kapany
d.) Van Heel
28.) A technology for carrying
many signals of different
capacities through a
synchronous, flexible optical
hierarchy.
a.) PDH
b.) SDH
c.) SONET
d.) ATM
29.) Two digital signals whose
transmission occur at almost
the same rate are

a.) Plesiochronous
b.) Synchronous
c.) Asyncronous
d.) Mesochronous
30.) SONET systems are

a.) Twisted pair copper based

technology
b.) Fiber optic technology
c.) Hybrid fiber coax technology
d.) Wireless technology
31.) The band of light
wavelengths that are too long
to be seen by the human eye.

a.) Amber
b.) Visible
c.) Infrared
d.) Ultraviolet
32.) Which color has the
shortest wavelength of light?

a.) Red
b.) Yellow
c.) Blue
d.) Green
33.) The loss of signal power
as it travels down the fiber is
called

a.) Dispersion
b.) Scattering
c.) Absorption
d.) Attenuation
34.) What is a specific path
the light takes in an optical
fiber, corresponding to a
certain angle and number of
reflections?
a.) Mode
b.) Grade
c.) Numerical aperture
d.) Dispersion
35.) The width of the range of
wavelengths emitted by light
source.

a.) Bandwidth
b.) Chromatic dispersion
c.) Spectral width
d.) Beamwidth
36.) Which theory states that
light wave behaves as if it
consists of many tiny
particles?
a.) Huygens'
b.) Nyquist's
c.) Doppler's
d.) Quantum
37.) Fiber optic cables
operate at frequencies near

a.) 20 MHz
b.) 200 MHz
c.) 2 GHz
d.) 800 THz
38.) When a beam of light
enters one medium from
another, which quantity will
not change?
a.) Direction
b.) Speed
c.) Frequency
d.) None of these
39.) Dispersion caused by the
difference in the propagation
times of light rays that take
different paths down the fiber.
a.) Material
b.) Wavelength
c.) Modal
d.) Delay
40.) A non-coherent light
source for optical
communications system.

a.) ILD
b.) LED
c.) APD
d.) PIN diode
41.) The numerical aperture of
a fiber if the angle of
acceptance is 15 degrees is

a.) 0.17
b.) 0.26
c.) 0.50
d.) 0.75
42.) Single frequency light is
called

a.) Pure
b.) Intense
c.) Coherent
d.) Monochromatic
43.) What is the unit of light
wavelength?

a.) Micron
b.) Angstrom
c.) Mils
d.) Fathom
44.) A high speed LAN defined
by ANSI using fiber optic
cables

a.) NTSC
b.) SDH
c.) FDDI
d.) SONET
45.) What is the process of
using two or more light
sources at different
wavelengths each separately
modulated with the same
fiber?
a.) SDH
b.) FDM
c.) TDM
d.) WDM
46.) The European standard
for synchronous transmission
over fiber optic networks.

a.) NTSC
b.) SDH
c.) FDDI
d.) SONET
47.) What is the light source
typically used in single mode
optical fiber?

a.) Phototransistor
b.) Laser
c.) Photoresistor
d.) LED
48.) An OTDR is used for
a.) Fault location
b.) Splice and connector
evaluation
c.) Loss per unit length
measurement
d.) All of these
49.) The coupling loss due to
angular deviation from the
optimum alignment of source
to the fiber optic cable.
a.) Lateral misalignment
b.) Gap misalignment
c.) Angular misalignment
d.) Numerical aperture loss
50.) Which of the following is
used to protect the core and
the cladding of the fiber?

a.) Insulation
b.) Plastic
c.) Glass
d.) Kevlar strength members
51.) Determine the
acceptance angle of light
passing to a glass having a
refractive index of 1.56 to
ethyl having a refractive index
of 1.51.
a.) 17.7 degrees
b.) 21.3 degrees
c.) 23 degrees
d.) 25 degrees
52.) Calculate the energy of
the photon of infrared light
energy at 1.55 um.

a.) 1.28 x 10exp-19 J

b.) 1.6 x 10exp19 J
c.) 1.22 x 10exp-16 J
d.) 1.9 x 10exp-14 J
53.) The amount of power per
unit area in optical fiber is
called

a.) Irradiance
b.) Radiance
c.) Reflectance
d.) Permeance
54.) Light at 1.55 um in air has
what energy in eV?

a.) 1.2 eV
b.) 1 eV
c.) 0.6 eV
d.) 0.8 eV
55.) An object farther from a
converging lens than its focal
point always has an ____
image.
a.) Virtual
b.) The same in size
c.) Inverted
d.) Smaller size
56.) What parts of the body
are most sensitive to laser
damage?

a.) Hair
b.) Nails
c.) Eye and skin
d.) Teeth
57.) Who was the first person
who actually produced laser
light?

a.) Maiman
b.) Edison
c.) Einstein
d.) Volta
58.) One of the advantages of
fiber optics which is referred
to the volume of capacity of
signals it can carry.
a.) Security
b.) Weight
c.) Bandwidth
d.) Physical size
59.) 1 micron is equal to _____
meters.

a.) 10exp-6
b.) 10exp-12
c.) 10exp-15
d.) 10exp-18
60.) The small proportion of
light scattered by Rayleigh
scattering which is returned
towards the source.
a.) Optoscatter
b.) Standing waves
c.) Return loss
d.) Backscatter
61.) Dispersion caused by
different wavelengths
contained in the transmitted
light.
a.) Intermodal
b.) Chromatic
c.) Optical
d.) Any of these
62.) A ray that always passes
through the core axis as it is
propagated

a.) Axial
b.) Meridional
c.) Skew
d.) Direct
63.) The typical cladding
diameter of an optical fiber

a.) 8 um
b.) 10 to 100 um
c.) 125 um
d.) 800 to 1550 um
64.) The typical core diameter
of an optical fiber is

a.) 8 um
b.) 62.5 um
c.) 125 um
d.) 800 to 1550 um
65.) A reflection that occurs
from a surface whenever
there is a sudden change in
the refractive index at the end
of the fiber.
a.) Total internal
b.) Reflection loss
c.) Fresnel reflection
d.) Backscatter
66.) The first device used to
transmit voice using light as a
carrier

a.) Edison bulb

b.) Phonograph
c.) Photophone
d.) Lincompex
67.) An elementary quantity of
radiant energy which can be
considered as particles of
light.
a.) Photons
b.) Lumens
c.) Electrons
d.) Optimons
68.) What is the wave or pulse
that does not disperse or lose
it’s shape as it propagates
through a medium?
a.) Photons
b.) Coherent source
c.) Optimon
d.) Soliton
69.) Where can one found a
fiber to detector connector?

a.) Transmitter
b.) Receiver
c.) LED circuit block
d.) Analog transmitter block
70.) What skin damage occurs
when exposed to laser
radiation?

a.) Erythema
b.) Hematoma
c.) Gout
d.) Eczema