CHAPTER 1

BASIC SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY

• Semiconductor materials are the backbone of electronic
devices and circuits

• Semiconductor material is in between conductor and

insulator

• It is a material that has conductivity level somewhere

between the extremes of an insulator and a conductor

• For example germanium and silicon

• Conductor is a material which when you apply
a voltage source creates a generous flow of
charges like for example copper.
• Copper is a metal and metals are conductors.
• Insulator is a material that offers a very low
level of conductivity when a voltage is applied;
for example Mica
Resistivity
 The resistivity of a material is
inverse of conductivity
 Doping
 One very important consideration is the fact
that they can be manufactured to a very high
purity level.
 In fact, recent advances have reduced
impurity levels in the pure material to 1 part in
10 billion (1:10,000,000,000).
 The ability to change the characteristics of the
material significantly through this process,
known as “doping”
In semiconductor production, doping is the
intentional introduction of impurities into an
intrinsic semiconductor for the purpose of
modulating its electrical and optical and
structural properties.

The doped material is referred to as an

extrinsic semiconductor.
A semiconductor doped to such high levels that
it acts more like a conductor than a
semiconductor is referred to as a
degenerate semiconductor.
• The ability to change the characteristics of the
material significantly
• characteristics can be altered significantly through
the application of heat or light
• germanium and silicon have some unique qualities
which are due to their position in the periodic table
and their atomic structure
• one complete pattern is called a crystal and the
periodic arrangement of the atoms is a lattice
• Have FOUR valence electrons
Valence Electrons
• In order to complete the structure of inert gas
they will always try to complete the 8 electrons
in the outer most orbit
• they will share electrons with the neighboring
atoms
• we consider silicon
• 4 electrons in the outermost orbit are sharing
electrons among themselves so that the total
number becomes 4 and 4, 8
Atomic structure
• The atom is composed of three basic particles:

 Electron (-ve)
 Proton ( +ve)
 Neutron
• In the atomic lattice, the neutrons and protons
form the nucleus, while the electrons revolve
around the nucleus in a fixed orbit
• These covalent bonds are formed between
neighboring atoms of silicon and thereby they
complete the structure of the inert gas having
8 electrons in the outermost orbit so that they
become stable(octat).
• A bonding of atoms, strengthened by the
sharing of valence electrons, is called covalent
bonding or chemical bond
Energy Band Model
• Valence band –lowest energy
• Forbidden gap or band- do not occupy
energy states
• Conduction Band- Highest energy
• Conductor- Forbidden gap is absent
• Insulator- Forbidden gap is very
large
• Semi conductor- Relatively small
 insulators

It is around 6 electron volts as is seen

here. This energy gap means it is a forbidden
band and the electrons will have to acquire
this much of energy to become conductive
and enter the conduction band
• Semiconductor
Does not have such a high forbidden
energy gap which is around 1 electron volt as is
seen here. Electrons can acquire that much of
energy which is 1 electron volt only to jump from
valence band to the conduction band in order to
become conductive
• Conductor
Metals like copper which are
conductors have overlapping conduction band
and valence band and they have zero electron
volt.
• semiconductors
 Intrinsic Semiconductors
 Extrinsic Semiconductors
 Intrinsic Semiconductors
• Extremely pure form or PSC
• In these intrinsic semiconductors the free
electrons are due to only natural causes like
thermal energy or light energy
• They get additional kinetic energy from these
natural causes and they break this covalent
bond energy or light energy
• This increase in temperature of a
semiconductor results in increase in the
number of free electrons in the material
• All carriers are created due to thermally or
optically excited electrons from the full
valence band into the empty conduction band.
• Thus equal numbers of electrons and holes
are present in an intrinsic semiconductor
• The concentration of carriers is strongly
dependent on the temperature.
• At low temperatures, the valence band is
completely full making the material an insulator.
• Increasing the temperature leads to an increase
in the number of carriers and a corresponding
increase in conductivity.
• This characteristic shown by intrinsic
semiconductor is different from the behavior of
most metals, which tend to become less
conductive at higher temperatures
• This increase in temperature of a
semiconductor results in increase in the
number of free electrons in the material so
they become more and more conductive
 extrinsic semiconductor
• This extrinsic semiconductor has the
characteristics such that their property can be
significantly altered by addition of certain
impurity atoms into the pure semiconductor
material
• Impurity added to perhaps 1 part in 10 million
• The impurities added to the purest
semiconductor to make an intrinsic into
extrinsic semiconductor are defined
• We can add pentavalent impurity materials
like
Antimony
Arsenic
Phosphorous

• which are group V elements and have 5

electrons in the outer most orbit
• we can add trivalent materials like
 Boron
 Gallium
 Indium
• which are group III materials and have 3 electrons
in their outer most orbit
• the standard norm of adding is that they are added
1 part in 10 millions. That is to 10 million atoms of
intrinsic semiconductor you add one impurity atom
• how the addition of this impurity totally
changes the electrical properties of the
intrinsic semiconducting material.
• When certain impurity atoms like antimony or
boron are added to a pure semiconductor
material we get an extrinsic semiconductor
Doping
 Addition of certain impurity atoms into the
pure semiconductor material
• This process of adding certain impurity atoms
like antimony or boron into pure
semiconductor like silicon is called the doping
process.
• As a result of this doping we get extrinsic
semiconductor either N-type or P-type.
• That is you can get N-type extrinsic
semiconductor if you add pentavalent
impurity material like antimony or
phosphorous into a pure semiconductor like
germanium or silicon or
• you can have p-type extrinsic semiconductor
when you add trivalent impurity material like
boron or indium into a pure germanium or
silicon semiconductor.
 N-type
• N-type semiconductor means we have to add
pentavalent impurity material.
• Let us take the example of adding antimony
which is a pentavalent impurity material which
is a group V material having 5 electrons in the
outer most orbit to a silicon semiconductor.
• This silicon atom has 4 electrons in the outer
most orbit.
• These are silicon outermost orbit electrons and
now as we have added 1 antimony atom which
has 5 electrons in the outer most orbit.
• It will share these electrons with the silicon
atoms and these covalent bonds will be
completed.
• But then 1 electron is in excess
 N-Type
• This fifth electron is donated by this antimony
atom. This fifth electron is free. It can take
part in conduction easily. That is why it is
donating 1 electron.
• It is excess of 1 electron which is Negatively
charged.
• Antimony impurity in n-type material
• Note that the four covalent bonds are still present.
There is, however, an additional fifth electron due to
the impurity atom, which is not associated with any
particular covalent bond.
• This remaining electron, loosely bound to its parent
(antimony) atom, is relatively free to move within the
newly formed n-type material.
• Since the inserted impurity atom has donated a
relatively “free” electron to the structure:

• Diffused impurities with five valence electrons are

called donor atoms
 P-Type
• Let us see how p-type semiconductor is
formed from pure semiconductor like
germanium or silicon by adding trivalent
impurity material like boron or indium
• add boron impurity which is a group III
material having 3 electrons in the outer most
orbit to a silicon semiconductor
• In this process 3 covalent bonds are now
completed.
• What about the other covalent bond?
• This covalent bond is now devoid or it is short
of 1 electron to complete its covalent bond.
• This shortage of 1 electron means it is having
less negative charge.
 P-N Junction Theory
• You know what is a P type semiconductor and
an N type semiconductor is.
• What will happen when you combine P type
semiconductor and N type semiconductor?
• That means you sandwich them or make a
junction between P type and N type
• You have P and N type of semiconductors
combined together by some appropriate
scheme like ion implantation or diffusion.
• This process is not mechanical mind it; not to
disturb the crystalline structure of the silicon
or germanium semiconductor which is the
base material.
• If we consider this P type and N type
semiconductor making a junction in between
them.
• P type semiconductor has the acceptor ions
as well as the carriers which are holes,
positively charged carriers.
• N type semiconductor has donor ions and
electrons. We have majority carriers
• There will be a difference in concentration or
there will be a concentration gradient of holes
from P to N side as well as there will be
concentration gradient of electrons from N to P
side.
• Whenever there is a concentration gradient then
the carriers that is holes and electrons will try to
flow from a higher concentration region to a lower
concentration region.
• Concentration the holes will start moving from P
type to N type and this process is called diffusion
• Here these holes will be crossing over the
junction from left side to the right side and the
electrons will be crossing the junction from
the right side to the left side. This process is
called diffusion.
• holes from left side cross over to the right side
and electrons cross over from right side to left
side what will happen is that there will be
recombination of charges because holes will
be recombined with free electrons and
electrons will be recombining with free holes
• because of the recombination of the holes and
electrons these charges of the ions now become
uncovered.
• That means along with it there are no carriers. There
are now uncovered negative charge on the P side and
then uncovered positive charge on the N side.
• That is why these bound charges will be forming
layers of negative charge on the P side and positively
charged layer on the N side.
• This region where there will be no mobile charges
only bound or fixed charges are there this region is
called a depletion region or it is also called space
charge region.
• This region is devoid of the free carriers
• Under open circuit condition that means we are
not connecting these P-N junction to any circuit;
• it is open circuited. We will have in the
depletion region only immobile charges.
• These immobile charges are forming two layers
negatively charged layer on the left side that
means P side and positively charged layer on
the right side.
• That means a potential is developed and the
potential is positive on the right side here and
negative on the left side.
•
This potential will be now preventing or it will be stopping
further movement of free charge carriers because as this
side is positive and this side is negative these holes are
now repelled by this positive charge on the right side.

• That means these holes cannot now cross over the

junction and come to the N side because this will be
stopped or prevented by the positive potential which is
developed.

• This is also called barrier potential because of the fact that

it is a barrier to further movement.
• Diffusion current is due to concentration
gradient
• Diffusion holes from P type to N type.
• Diffusion of electrons from N type to P type
• Holes and electron recombine and uncover
bound charges
• Under steady state
Diffusion Current= Drift Current

So net current is zero is under steady state

( open circuit )
 Built in potential

»0.3 volt in a germanium

crystal
»0.65 to 0.7 volt in a
silicon crystal,
»known as a barrier
potential
 Forward Biasing
• we connect a voltage with polarity positive to the P
and negative of the voltage to N.
• This particular biasing is known as forward bias
condition. In forward biasing we connect P of the p-n
junction to positive of the voltage supply and N to
the negative of the voltage supply.
• Whenever you are applying a voltage as positive we
are connecting to the end of the P side.
• This positive terminal will be repelling these holes.
• Similarly this negative terminal will be repelling the
electrons in the N side
• As the holes will be moving to the right the
depletion region will get reduced
• if you consider from the point of view of the built-
in potential we are now applying a voltage with
this polarity plus to this side and negative to this
side and our built-in potential is positive on this
side, N side.
• We have the built-in potential Vbi reduced by this
amount V.
• Our built-in potential is reduced so more and
more holes will be easily crossing over to the N
side because it will offer less potential barrier
because it has been reduced by this voltage.
• That means when we forward bias a p-n
junction there is easier flow of holes and
electrons from P and N side.
• That is the diffusion current will be increasing
and with a very small change in the voltage
being applied we can have a very high
exponential growth in the current in the
forward bias condition
 Reverse bias
• we consider the reverse that is if we connect
negative of the voltage to the P side and
positive of the voltage to the N side it is called
reverse bias condition.
• What will happen is that now as this negative
terminal of the supply is connected to P type
these holes will be attracted by this negative
polarity.
• So they will be moving away from the
junction.
• Similarly these electrons will be attracted by
this positive terminal of the battery.
• So these electrons will be moving away from
the junction. This is the junction.
• It will be going further away and away from
the junction and as a result of that more and
more uncovering of the fixed or bound
charges will take place because these carriers
will move away they will be surfaced out.
• As a result of this the depletion region will be
now extending;
• it will be increased and if we look from the barrier
potential point of view or the built-in potential point
of view,
• the polarity is positive this side and negative this side
and we are now having this voltage applied with this
polarity negative to the P and positive to the N.
• Now the barrier potential will be increased. It was
Vbi earlier. It will be increased by this amount Vbi+V.
• That means it will be offering very high resistance to
flow of the charge carriers. That is diffusion will not
be taking place now. So the diffusion current is zero.