2.3.

2 Sexual reproduction in animals

• In animals that use internal fertilization, the eggs are released from the
ovary into the uterine tubes for fertilization, but eggs are released into the
aqueous environment in animals that use external fertilization.
• The fertilization of an egg by sperm produces a single-celled diploid
fertilized egg called a zygote (2n), which develops into an embryo and
then into an individual organism. The general animal life cycle in sexual
reproduction is shown below (Figure 2.2).
Sexual reproduction and life cycle of animals
• After fertilization, a series of developmental stages occur in embryonic
development .
• The first stage is cleavage, which involves a series of mitotic cell divisions of the
fertilized egg (zygote). This cell division results in an eight-celled structure.
• The second stage is another cell division and rearrangement of cells into hollow
structures called blastulae.
• Then, the blastula undergoes further cell division and rearrangement with the
process called gastrulation.
• The process of gastrulation produces a gastrula that has different cell layers called
“germ layers”.
• By the process of organogenesis, these germ layers later develop into different
tissue types, organs, and organ systems.
• Organogenesis is the formation of organs during embryonic development.
• The embryo eventually develops into an adult with all tissue types, organs, and
organ systems.
Embryonic development
 2.3.3 Reproduction in insects (complete and incomplete
metamorphosis)

• Insects that constitute the most diverse groups of animals are the largest
class of the phylum Arthropoda (the animal phylum).
• They have segmented bodies, jointed legs, and external skeletons
(exoskeletons).
• Insects include flies, grasshoppers, lice, butterflies, bees, and beetles, to
mention some of them.
• They undergo sexual reproduction and have their own life cycle.
Reproductive structures of the honeybee
• During sexual reproduction, eggs are usually fertilized internally.
However, some insects undergo parthenogenesis, a process in which an
individual develops from unfertilized eggs.
• In sexual reproduction, the male produces sperm and fertilizes the egg
produced by the female during mating. After fertilization, the female
insect lays eggs and hatches them after completing their development.
• After hatching, insects undergo a series of major changes in body
structure as they develop. This series of changes is called metamorphosis.
Chemical substances in the insects control the process of
metamorphosis.
• There are two types of metamorphosis:
complete metamorphosis and incomplete metamorphosis
• Complete metamorphosis has four stages whereas in complete
metamorphosis has three stages.
• Complete metamorphosis are egg, larva, pupa, and adult.
• The three stages of incomplete metamorphosis are egg, nymph, and
adult.
• Complete metamorphosis has four stages whereas in complete
metamorphosis has three stages. For instance, in honeybees, the four
stages of complete metamorphosis are egg, larva, pupa, and adult and in
grasshoppers, the three stages of incomplete metamorphosis are egg,
nymph, and adult.
Incomplete metamorphosis in grasshoppers
 2.3.4 Reproduction in Frog

• The common frog (Rana temoraria) is the most common in Europe. The
grass frog genus Ptychadena goulenger is found throughout sub-Saharan
Africa, including Ethiopia.
• Frogs such as Ptychadena harenna and Leptopelis ragazzi are found in
the Bale Mountains and Shoa forests, Ethiopia.
• Frogs undergo sexual reproduction and have male and female
reproductive structures.
male and female reproductive structure in frog
• Unlike birds, frogs do not produce amniotic eggs.
• Rather, they are usually covered in a jelly-like substance.
• What is the function of the jelly-like substance in frogs? They must lay
their eggs in water to protect them from drying out.
• Frogs have external fertilization. However, internal fertilization also
occurs in a few species of frogs.
• In external fertilization, the female releases eggs from her body into the
water and the male releases his sperm to fertilize the eggs.

Frog Eggs surrounded by “jelly”

• Usually, frogs lay a large number of eggs in the same place at the same
time.
• In a process called metamorphosis, after the fertilization of an egg by
sperm, frogs go through a larval stage that is very different from the adult
form.
• The fertilized eggs develop into a larval stage called a tadpole that is
different from the adult frog
The life cycle of a frog
 2.3.5 Reproduction in Crocodiles

• Crocodilians are large semi-aquatic reptiles that live in different parts of

the world.
• Crocodiles reproduce sexually involving both male and female parents.
• The mating season for crocodiles usually begins in July or August and
mating takes place under water.
• During mating, the sperm fertilizes the egg and develops in the female.
• They have internal fertilization.
• They lay their eggs and bury them in sand or deposit them in mound
vegetation.
• The number of eggs a crocodile deposits varies from 10 to 100, which
generally depends on the type of species.
• Unlike frogs, crocodiles have hard, leathery eggs that enable them to
protect their young.
male and female reproductive structure in crocodile
The life cycle of a crocodile
 2.3.6 Reproduction in Birds

• reproduction in birds is one of the key processes that enables birds to

produce new individuals and perpetuate their species.
• Birds reproduce sexually and have internal fertilization.
• Most bird species are monogamous but there are also polygamous
species.
• Monogamous is usually a mating system between a single adult male
and a single adult female for entire breeding seasons.
• Polygamous is a mating system with several partners during a single
breeding season.
The male and female reproductive structures of birds
• Unlike other animals, male birds do not have external genital organs
whereas females have a single ovary.
• Reproduction in birds starts by the joining of an egg or ovum with a
sperm cell in the oviduct.
• The ovum which is produced in the ovary and travels down through the
oviduct for fertilization to occur.
• The oviduct consists of the infundibulum, magnum, isthmus, uterus, and
vagina.
Parts of the oviduct Nature and Functions
Infundibulum  A funnel-shaped upper portion of the
oviduct
 Its purpose is to search out and engulf
the yolk, causing it to enter the oviduct
Magnum  It is the longest part of the oviduct.
 Secretion of albumen: nearly all the egg
white is deposited in the magnum
Isthmus  It is the relatively short portion of the
oviduct
 Formation of shell membrane-inner and
outer shell membranes
 The glands of the isthmus produce
sulfur-containing amino acids that are
important for shell membrane formation
Uterus  Developing an egg takes a longer period
of time.
 Formation of eggshell-shell is formed
over shell membranes.
Vagina  The final section of the oviduct is the
vagina, which is separated by a sphincter
presents in between the uterus and
the vagina
 During oviposition, relaxation of the
muscles allows the egg
• Both male and female birds have a structure called the cloaca.
• During mating, the male brings its sperm to the female cloaca, and the
sperm from the male cloaca fertilizes the egg.
• The fertilized egg travels down to the uterus, forming a layer of albumen
around it, which is followed by the shell membranes in the uterus. Then,
the hard-shelled egg develops within the female with a fluid-filled
amnion, a thin membrane forming a closed sac around the embryo.
• Birds lay eggs after the egg completes its development. The number of
eggs a bird lays varies from a few to more than 10, depending on its
species.
• For example, penguins and albatrosses lay few eggs, but chickens and
ducks can lay more than 10 eggs.
• The egg of a bird has different parts. major parts of the egg of a bird are
the yolk, the chalaza, the albumen, the membranes, air sac and the shell
• Incubation: incubation or brooding is the process of keeping eggs warm
with body heat while the embryos inside continue to develop after birds
lay their eggs

This helps the embryo to finish its development inside the egg
• Hatching: After incubation, the embryo completes its development and
hatching occurs. During hatching, the chick develops a tooth-like structure
at the beak’s tip to break the eggshell.
• Moreover, the chick also communicates with its parents a day or two
before hatching, with parents with some vocal sounds. The chick then
starts to use the hard tip of its bill, a tooth-like structure called an egg
tooth, to break out of the egg, and the young lose the egg tooth after
hatching .
 2.3.7 Reproduction in rat 26-30/02/16

• Rat (genus Rattus) is the name generally applied to numerous members of

several rodent families.
• The black rat (Rattus rattus) and the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) are
among the most common types of rats species.
• They live virtually everywhere that human populations have settled.
• the black rats is predominantly live in warmer climates, and the brown
rats are dominantly found in the temperate regions.
• Giant Mole rat (Tachyoryctes macrocephalus), also known as the giant
root rat is endemic to Ethiopia where it is confined to high altitude shrub
and grasslands in the Afro-alpine habitat such as the Bale Mountains.
• Reproduction in rats is representative of mammalian sexual reproduction.
• The male reproductive structure of a rat consists testes (singular testis),
scrotum seminiferous tubules, epididymis, vasdeferens and penis with
bacula.
• The female reproductive structure of a rat consists of two ovaries,
oviducts, uterine horns and vagina with vulva
Reproductive system in rat, male and female
• Fertilization of the egg occurs inside the female, and the fertilized zygotes
develop in the mother during a gestation period known as pregnancy.
• Pregnancy and Development: The average pregnancy time or gestation
period of a rat varies depending on the species.
• The gestation period for a brown rat is 22 to 24 days, whereas the
gestation period for black rats is usually 22 days and the gestation period
for giant mole rats is 37-49 days.
• After fertilization, each zygote divides and forms a hollow ball of cells that
further develops into a blastocyst called a blastula. The blastulas travel
down the oviducts, implant in the uterine horns, and begin to
differentiate into embryonic tissue and extraembryonictissue.
• The umbilical cord, a complex system of connecting blood vessels
nourishes the embryo from the mother. The placenta transports oxygen
from the mother to the embryo and removes waste from the embryo’s
environment, and the amniotic sac protects the embryo during
pregnancy.
• Gradually, the embryo forms a neural plate, which later develops into
brain and spinal cord, the arm and leg buds become visible, the nervous
system pathways develop and the rat gives birth to hairless, deaf with
sealed eyelids offspring.
• Rats normally give birth from 7 to 12 offspring per litteron average but
the number is fewer than this for giant mole rats.
• The mother feeds milk and, after 45 days, the young rats are fully weaned
and are actively foraging and feeding.
• The age of sexual maturity also vary depending on species. In brown-
black rats, the age of sexual maturity is 3–4 months old. Giant mole rats
become reproductively mature when they are 4-6 months old.
Pregnancy and development in rat
 Parental care in rats

• Parental care in mammals is often critical for the survival and

development of the offspring. Rats build nests to rear their young.
• Their young called pups or kittens.
• The female rats care pups. If a mother dies, the other females will take
over nursing her pups. Male rats do not participate in the parental care.
 2.4 The economic importance of animals (insects)

• Insects have plenty of economic importance in the world.

• They have both positive and negative impacts on our economy, our lives,
and the ecosystem. While there are many harmful pests, there are also
beneficial insects.
 2.4.1 Beneficial aspects of insects

• Insects provide services to agriculture through pollination and regulation

of pests.
 Pollinators of instance, an estimated 35% of crop
production yielded in the world is a result of insect pollination.
 Pest regulation
Important insects in pest regulation include mantis, lady
beetles, ground beetles, rove beetles,flower bugs, lacewings and hover flies.
For example, Stagmomantis insects, species of mantisfeed on grasshoppers
and caterpillars that damage crops.
Chilomenes, a ladybird beetle, feed on aphids that damage cotton plants
and destroys scale worms that are pests of orange and lemon trees
respectively.
Epicauta, a blister beetle, eat up masses of the eggs of locusts
Stagmomantis Cheilomenes sulfurea Epicauta, Blister beetle
 B. Food

• There are over 1,462 recorded species of edible insects in the world. Most
insects are consumed in Asia andCentral America. Usually crickets,
grasshoppers, beetle and moth larvae and termites are eaten there.Being
rich source of protein, grasshoppers have been eaten in many parts of the
world.
• insects are important sources of food for many vertebrates, including
birds, amphibians, reptiles, fish and mammals. One of the many ways to
address food and feed security for the over increasingly growing world
population is through insect farming.
 C. Industry

• Production of Honey and Bee Wax.

• Production of Silk.
• Production of shellac.
• Production of Cochineal.
• Production of Tannic Acid.
 D. Health and medicine

• Some insects have medicinal value in treating different human and animal
diseases. Since ancient times, insects and insect-derived products have been
used as medicinaFor
• Honey is applied to treat burns, chronic and post- surgical wounds.
• Bee and ant venom are used to treat joints pain.
• Recent research confirms that bee products promote healthy immune systems,
improve circulation and decrease inflammational agents in many parts of the
world.
• Blister beetles secrete cantharidan, which acts as a powerful protein blocker
in the human body and is effective in treating severe viral infections because it
prevents the reproduction of some viral cells. Researchers subsequently
discovered that cantharidan reacts with genetic material of hostile cells, and
therefore may be useful in the treatment of cancerous tumors most resistant
to radiation and chemotherapy. Several African cultures use poultices made
from ground grasshoppers as painrelievers, especially for migraines.
 2.4.2 Harmful aspects of insects

Crops destroyed by desert locusts and other insects

Anopheles mosquitoes Culex mosquitoes Tsetse fly

 2.5 Animal Behavior

• Animal behavior can be categorized into two main types:

- Innate or inherent behavior
- Learned or acquired behavior.
- Innate or inherent behavior is an inborn behavior that is determined by
genes and independent of experience and specific to a species.
- There are three types of innate or inherent behavior, and these are
instinctive, reflexive, and orientative.
• Examples are instinctive behaviors
- Web making in spiders
- Nest-building in birds
- Swimming with dolphins and other aquatic species.
- Opening of mouth in chicks of many bird species when their
mother returns to the nest.
- Honeybees dance when they return to the hive after finding a
source of food.
 Examples are reflex behaviors in animals.
• A simple reflex action is a sudden, involuntary response to stimuli.
For example,
- when you touch a sharp or hot object
- You blink when something gets too close to your eye and you close
your eyes when dust gets into them.
Examples are orientation behaviors in animals.
Taxis is directed in relation to a given stimulus. It is the
orientation of an animal (directed either towards or away) in response to the
source of stimulus.
If the orientation is towards the stimulus, it is called as a positive taxis, and
if it is away from the stimulus, it is known as a negative taxis.
Example: The movement of cockroaches away from the source of light.
• Kinesis is undirected, random movement.
• Kinesis is a type of locomotory behavior in relation to the source of
stimulus.
• The animal responds to the variation in the intensity of the stimulus and
not the source or direction of the stimulus.
• Example: The movement of woodlice in relation to the temperature
around them.
 HOME WORK

• What is the difference between phototaxis,

chemotaxis, thigmotaxis and geotaxis? Explain with examples.
 Learned or acquired behavior

• Learned or acquired behavior is not inherited and not determined by

genes.
• It is the type of animal behavior acquired during the lifetime of an
individual.
• Learned behavior allows an individual organism to adapt to changes in
the environment that are modified by previous experiences.
• Examples of simple learned behaviors include habituation, classical
conditioning, operant conditioning, sensitization, latent and insight
learning