CH 2

Database System Concepts, 5
th
Ed.
Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
See www.db-book.comfor conditions on re-use
Chapter 2: Relational Model Chapter 2: Relational Model
Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan 2.2 Database System Concepts - 5
th
Edition, June 15, 2005
Chapter 2: Relational Model Chapter 2: Relational Model
Structure of Relational Databases
Fundamental Relational-Algebra-Operations
Additional Relational-Algebra-Operations
Extended Relational-Algebra-Operations
Null Values
Modification of the Database
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Example of a Relation Example of a Relation
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Attribute Types Attribute Types
Each attribute of a relation has a name
The set of allowed values for each attribute is called the domain of the attribute
Attribute values are (normally) required to be atomic; that is, indivisible
E.g. the value of an attribute can be an account number,
but cannot be a set of account numbers
Domain is said to be atomic if all its members are atomic
The special value null is a member of every domain
The null value causes complications in the definition of many operations
We shall ignore the effect of null values in our main presentation and consider their
effect later
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Relation Schema Relation Schema
Formally, given domains D
1
, D
2
, . D
n
a relation r is a subset of
D
1
x D
2
x x D
n
Thus, a relation is a set of n-tuples (a
1
, a
2
, , a
n
) where each a
i
D
i
Schema of a relation consists of
attribute definitions
name
type/domain
integrity constraints
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Relation Instance Relation Instance
The current values (relation instance) of a relation are specified by a table
An element t of r is a tuple, represented by a row in a table
Order of tuples is irrelevant (tuples may be stored in an arbitrary order)
Jones
Smith
Curry
Lindsay
customer_name
Main
North
North
Park
customer_street
Harrison
Rye
Rye
Pittsfield
customer_city
customer
attributes
(or columns)
tuples
(or rows)
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Database Database
A database consists of multiple relations
Information about an enterprise is broken up into parts, with each relation storing one
part of the information
E.g.
account : information about accounts
depositor : which customer owns which account
customer : information about customers
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The The customer customer Relation Relation
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The The depositor depositor Relation Relation
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Why Split Information Across Relations? Why Split Information Across Relations?
Storing all information as a single relation such as
bank(account_number, balance, customer_name, ..)
results in
repetition of information
e.g.,if two customers own an account (What gets repeated?)
the need for null values
e.g., to represent a customer without an account
Normalization theory (Chapter 7) deals with how to design relational schemas
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Keys Keys
Let K _ R
K is a superkey of R if values for K are sufficient to identify a unique tuple of each possible
relation r(R)
by possible r we mean a relation r that could exist in the enterprise we are modeling.
Example: {customer_name, customer_street} and
{customer_name}
are both superkeys of Customer, if no two customers can possibly have the same name
In real life, an attribute such as customer_id would be used instead of
customer_name to uniquely identify customers, but we omit it to keep our examples
small, and instead assume customer names are unique.
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Keys (Cont.) Keys (Cont.)
K is a candidate key if K is minimal
Example: {customer_name} is a candidate key for Customer, since it is a superkey
and no subset of it is a superkey.
Primary key: a candidate key chosen as the principal means of identifying tuples
within a relation
Should choose an attribute whose value never, or very rarely, changes.
E.g. email address is unique, but may change
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Foreign Keys Foreign Keys
A relation schema may have an attribute that corresponds to the primary key of another
relation. The attribute is called a foreign key.
E.g. customer_name and account_number attributes of depositor are foreign keys to
customer and account respectively.
Only values occurring in the primary key attribute of the referenced relation may
occur in the foreign key attribute of the referencing relation.
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Schema Diagram Schema Diagram
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Query Languages Query Languages
Language in which user requests information from the database.
Categories of languages
Procedural
Non-procedural, or declarative
Pure languages:
Relational algebra
Tuple relational calculus
Domain relational calculus
Pure languages form underlying basis of query languages that people use.
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Relational Algebra Relational Algebra
Procedural language
Six basic operators
select: o
project: |
union:
set difference:
Cartesian product: x
rename: p
The operators take one or two relations as inputs and produce a new relation as a
result.
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Select Operation Select Operation Example Example
Relation r
A B C D
1
5
12
23
7
7
3
10
o
A=B ^ D > 5
(r)
A B C D
1
23
7
10
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Project Operation Project Operation Example Example
Relation r:
A B C
10
20
30
40
1
1
1
2
A C
1
1
1
2
=
A C
1
1
2
|
A,C
(r)
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Union Operation Union Operation Example Example
Relations r, s:
r s:
A B
1
2
1
A B
2
3
r
s
A B
1
2
1
3
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Set Difference Operation Set Difference Operation Example Example
Relations r, s:
r s:
A B
1
2
1
A B
2
3
r
s
A B
1
1
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Cartesian Cartesian--Product Operation Product Operation Example Example
Relations r, s:
r x s:
A B
1
2
A B
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
C D
10
10
20
10
10
10
20
10
E
a
a
b
b
a
a
b
b
C D
10
10
20
10
E
a
a
b
b
r
s
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Rename Operation Rename Operation
Allows us to name, and therefore to refer to, the results of relational-algebra
expressions.
Allows us to refer to a relation by more than one name.
Example:
p
x
(E)
returns the expression E under the name X
If a relational-algebra expression E has arity n, then
returns the result of expression E under the name X, and with the
attributes renamed to A
1
, A
2
, ., A
n
.
) (
) ,..., , (
2 1
E
n
A A A x
p
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Composition of Operations Composition of Operations
Can build expressions using multiple operations
Example: o
A=C
(r x s)
r x s
o
A=C
(r x s)
A B
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
C D
10
10
20
10
10
10
20
10
E
a
a
b
b
a
a
b
b
A B C D E
1
2
2
10
10
20
a
a
b
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Banking Example Banking Example
branch (branch_name, branch_city, assets)
customer (customer_name, customer_street, customer_city)
account (account_number, branch_name, balance)
loan (loan_number, branch_name, amount)
depositor (customer_name, account_number)
borrower (customer_name, loan_number)
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Example Queries Example Queries
Find all loans of over $1200
Find the loan number for each loan of an amount greater than $1200
o
amount > 1200
(loan)
|
loan_number
(o
amount > 1200
(loan))
|
customer_name
(borrower) |
customer_name
(depositor)
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Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the Perryridge branch.
Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the
Perryridge branch but do not have an account at any branch of
the bank.
|
customer_name
(o
branch_name = Perryridge
(o
borrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number
(borrower x loan)))
|
customer_name
(depositor)
|
customer_name
(o
branch_name=Perryridge
(o
(borrower x loan)))
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Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the Perryridge branch.
|
customer_name
(o
loan.loan_number = borrower.loan_number
(
(o

(loan)) x borrower))
|
customer_name
(o
(
o
(borrower x loan)))
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Additional Operations Additional Operations
Additional Operations
Set intersection
Natural join
Aggregation
Outer Join
Division
All above, other than aggregation, can be expressed using basic operations we have
seen earlier
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Set Set--Intersection Operation Intersection Operation Example Example
Relation r, s:
r s
A B
1
2
1
A B
2
3
r s
A B
2
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Natural Join Operation Natural Join Operation Example Example
Relations r, s:
A B
o
1
2
4
1
2
C D
a
a
b
a
b
B
1
3
1
2
3
D
a
a
a
b
b
E
r
A B
o
1
1
1
1
2
C D
a
a
a
a
b
E
o
s
r s
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Notation: r s
Natural Natural--Join Operation Join Operation
Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively.
Then, r s is a relation on schema R S obtained as follows:
Consider each pair of tuples t
r
from r and t
s
from s.
If t
r
and t
s
have the same value on each of the attributes in R S, add a tuple t to the
result, where
t has the same value as t
r
on r
t has the same value as t
s
on s
Example:
R = (A, B, C, D)
S = (E, B, D)
Result schema = (A, B, C, D, E)
r s is defined as:
|
r.A, r.B, r.C, r.D, s.E
(o
r.B = s.B
r.D = s.D
(r x s))
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Bank Example Queries Bank Example Queries
Find the largest account balance
Strategy:
Find those balances that are not the largest
Rename account relation as d so that we can compare each account balance with
all others
Use set difference to find those account balances that were not found in the earlier
step.
The query is:
|
balance
(account) - |
account.balance
(o
account.balance < d.balance
(account x p
d
(account)))
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Aggregate Functions and Operations Aggregate Functions and Operations
Aggregation function takes a collection of values and returns a single value as a
result.
avg: average value
min: minimum value
max: maximum value
sum: sum of values
count: number of values
Aggregate operation in relational algebra
E is any relational-algebra expression
G
1
, G
2
, G
n
is a list of attributes on which to group (can be empty)
Each F
i
is an aggregate function
Each A
i
is an attribute name
) (
) ( , , ( ), ( , , ,
2 2 1 1 2 1
E
n n n
A F A F A F G G G - -
.
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Aggregate Operation Aggregate Operation Example Example
Relation r:
A B
C
7
7
3
10
g
sum(c)
(r)
sum(c )
27
Question: Which aggregate operations cannot be expressed
using basic relational operations?
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Aggregate Operation Aggregate Operation Example Example
Relation account grouped by branch-name:
branch_name
g
sum(balance)
(account)
branch_name account_number balance
Perryridge
Perryridge
Brighton
Brighton
Redwood
A-102
A-201
A-217
A-215
A-222
400
900
750
750
700
branch_name sum(balance)
Perryridge
Brighton
Redwood
1300
1500
700
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Aggregate Functions (Cont.) Aggregate Functions (Cont.)
Result of aggregation does not have a name
Can use rename operation to give it a name
For convenience, we permit renaming as part of aggregate operation
branch_name
g
sum(balance) as sum_balance
(account)
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Outer Join Outer Join
An extension of the join operation that avoids loss of information.
Computes the join and then adds tuples form one relation that does not match tuples in
the other relation to the result of the join.
Uses null values:
null signifies that the value is unknown or does not exist
All comparisons involving null are (roughly speaking) false by definition.
We shall study precise meaning of comparisons with nulls later
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Outer Join Outer Join Example Example
Relation loan
Relation borrower
customer_name loan_number
Jones
Smith
Hayes
L-170
L-230
L-155
3000
4000
1700
loan_number amount
L-170
L-230
L-260
branch_name
Downtown
Redwood
Perryridge
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Join
loan borrower
loan_number amount
L-170
L-230
3000
4000
customer_name
Jones
Smith
branch_name
Downtown
Redwood
Jones
Smith
null
loan_number amount
L-170
L-230
L-260
3000
4000
1700
customer_name branch_name
Downtown
Redwood
Perryridge
Left Outer Join
loan borrower
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loan_number amount
L-170
L-230
L-155
3000
4000
null
customer_name
Jones
Smith
Hayes
branch_name
Downtown
Redwood
null
loan_number amount
L-170
L-230
L-260
L-155
3000
4000
1700
null
customer_name
Jones
Smith
null
Hayes
branch_name
Downtown
Redwood
Perryridge
null
Full Outer Join
loan borrower
Right Outer Join
loan borrower
Question: can outerjoins be expressed using basic relational
algebra operations
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Null Values Null Values
It is possible for tuples to have a null value, denoted by null, for some of their
attributes
null signifies an unknown value or that a value does not exist.
The result of any arithmetic expression involving null is null.
Aggregate functions simply ignore null values (as in SQL)
For duplicate elimination and grouping, null is treated like any other value, and two
nulls are assumed to be the same (as in SQL)
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Null Values Null Values
Comparisons with null values return the special truth value: unknown
If false was used instead of unknown, then not (A < 5)
would not be equivalent to A >= 5
Three-valued logic using the truth value unknown:
OR: (unknown or true) = true,
(unknown or false) = unknown
(unknown or unknown) = unknown
AND: (true and unknown) = unknown,
(false and unknown) = false,
(unknown and unknown) = unknown
NOT: (not unknown) = unknown
In SQL P is unknown evaluates to true if predicate P evaluates to unknown
Result of select predicate is treated as false if it evaluates to unknown
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Division Operation Division Operation
Notation:
Suited to queries that include the phrase for all.
Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively where
R = (A
1
, , A
m
, B
1
, , B
n
)
S = (B
1
, , B
n
)
The result of r z s is a relation on schema
R S = (A
1
, , A
m
)
r z s = { t | t |
R-S
(r) V u s ( tu r ) }
Where tu means the concatenation of tuples t and u to produce a single
tuple
r z s
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Division Operation Division Operation Example Example
Relations r, s:
r z s:
A
B
1
2
A B
o
o
o
1
2
3
1
1
1
3
4
6
1
2
r
s
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Another Division Example Another Division Example
A B
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
C D
a
a
b
a
b
a
b
b
E
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
Relations r, s:
r z s:
D
a
b
E
1
1
A B
a
a
C
r
s
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Division Operation (Cont.) Division Operation (Cont.)
Property
Let q = r z s
Then q is the largest relation satisfying q x s _ r
Definition in terms of the basic algebra operation
Let r(R) and s(S) be relations, and let S _ R
r z s = |
R-S
(r ) |
R-S
( ( |
R-S
(r ) x s ) |
R-S,S
(r ))
To see why
|
R-S,S
(r) simply reorders attributes of r
|
R-S
(|
R-S
(r ) x s ) |
R-S,S
(r) ) gives those tuples t in
|
R-S
(r ) such that for some tuple u s, tu Z r.
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Find the names of all customers who have a loan and an account at bank.
|
customer_name
(borrower) |
customer_name
(depositor)
Find the name of all customers who have a loan at the bank and the loan amount
|
customer_name, loan_number, amount
(borrower loan)
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Query 1
|
customer_name
(o
branch_name = Downtown
(depositor account ))
|
customer_name
(o
branch_name = Uptown
(depositor account))
Query 2
|
customer_name, branch_name
(depositor account)
z p
temp(branch_name)
({(Downtown ), (Uptown )})
Note that Query 2 uses a constant relation.
Find all customers who have an account from at least the Downtown and the
Uptown branches.
th
Find all customers who have an account at all branches located in Brooklyn city.
|
customer_name, branch_name
(depositor account)
z |
branch_name
(o
branch_city = Brooklyn
(branch))
Database System Concepts, 5
th
Ed.
Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
See www.db-book.comfor conditions on re-use
End of Chapter 2 End of Chapter 2
th
Formal Definition Formal Definition
A basic expression in the relational algebra consists of either one of the following:
A relation in the database
A constant relation
Let E
1
and E
2
be relational-algebra expressions; the following are all relational-algebra
expressions:
E
1
E
2
E
1
E
2
E
1
x E
2
o
p
(E
1
), P is a predicate on attributes in E
1
|
s
(E
1
), S is a list consisting of some of the attributes in E
1
p
x
(E
1
), x is the new name for the result of E
1
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Select Operation Select Operation
Notation: o
p
(r)
p is called the selection predicate
Defined as:
o
p
(r) = {t | t r and p(t)}
Where p is a formula in propositional calculus consisting of terms connected by :
(and), (or), (not)
Each term is one of:
<attribute> op <attribute> or <constant>
where op is one of: =, {, >, u. <. e
Example of selection:
o
branch_name=Perryridge
(account)
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Project Operation Project Operation
Notation:
where A
1
, A
2
are attribute names and r is a relation name.
The result is defined as the relation of k columns obtained by erasing the columns that
are not listed
Duplicate rows removed from result, since relations are sets
Example: To eliminate the branch_name attribute of account
|
account_number, balance
(account)
) (
, , ,
2 1
r
k
A A A -
|
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Union Operation Union Operation
Notation: r s
Defined as:
r s = {t | t r or t s}
For r s to be valid.
1. r, s must have the same arity (same number of attributes)
2. The attribute domains must be compatible (example: 2
nd
column
of r deals with the same type of values as does the 2
nd
column of s)
Example: to find all customers with either an account or a loan
|
customer_name
(depositor) |
customer_name
(borrower)
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Set Difference Operation Set Difference Operation
Notation r s
Defined as:
r s = {t | t r and t Z s}
Set differences must be taken between compatible relations.
r and s must have the same arity
attribute domains of r and s must be compatible
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Cartesian Cartesian--Product Operation Product Operation
Notation r x s
Defined as:
r x s = {t q | t r and q s}
Assume that attributes of r(R) and s(S) are disjoint. (That is, R S = ).
If attributes of r and s are not disjoint, then renaming must be used.
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Set Set--Intersection Operation Intersection Operation
Notation: r s
Defined as:
r s = { t | t r and t s }
Assume:
r, s have the same arity
attributes of r and s are compatible
Note: r s = r (r s)
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Assignment Operation Assignment Operation
The assignment operation (n) provides a convenient way to express complex queries.
Write query as a sequential program consisting of
a series of assignments
followed by an expression whose value is displayed as a result of the query.
Assignment must always be made to a temporary relation variable.
Example: Write r z s as
temp1n|
R-S
(r )
temp2 n|
R-S
((temp1 x s ) |
R-S,S
(r ))
result = temp1 temp2
The result to the right of the nis assigned to the relation variable on the left of the n.
May use variable in subsequent expressions.
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Extended Relational Extended Relational--Algebra Algebra--Operations Operations
Generalized Projection
Aggregate Functions
Outer Join
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Generalized Projection Generalized Projection
Extends the projection operation by allowing arithmetic functions to be used in the
projection list.
E is any relational-algebra expression
Each of F
1
, F
2
, , F
n
are are arithmetic expressions involving constants and attributes
in the schema of E.
Given relation credit_info(customer_name, limit, credit_balance), find how much more
each person can spend:
|
customer_name, limit credit_balance
(credit_info)
) ( ,..., ,
2 1
E
n
F F F
|
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Modification of the Database Modification of the Database
The content of the database may be modified using the following operations:
Deletion
Insertion
Updating
All these operations are expressed using the assignment operator.
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Deletion Deletion
A delete request is expressed similarly to a query, except instead of displaying
tuples to the user, the selected tuples are removed from the database.
Can delete only whole tuples; cannot delete values on only particular attributes
A deletion is expressed in relational algebra by:
r nr E
where r is a relation and E is a relational algebra query.
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Deletion Examples Deletion Examples
Delete all account records in the Perryridge branch.
Delete all accounts at branches located in Needham.
r
1
no

branch_city = Needham
(account branch )
r
2
n|
account_number
,
branch_name, balance
(r
1
)
r
3
n|
customer_name, account_number
(r
2
depositor)
account naccount r
2
depositor ndepositor r
3
Delete all loan records with amount in the range of 0 to 50
loan nloan o
amount u 0 and amount e 50
(loan)
account naccount o
(account )
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Insertion Insertion
To insert data into a relation, we either:
specify a tuple to be inserted
write a query whose result is a set of tuples to be inserted
in relational algebra, an insertion is expressed by:
r n r E
where r is a relation and E is a relational algebra expression.
The insertion of a single tuple is expressed by letting E be a constant relation
containing one tuple.
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Insertion Examples Insertion Examples
Insert information in the database specifying that Smith has $1200 in account A-973
at the Perryridge branch.
Provide as a gift for all loan customers in the Perryridge
branch, a $200 savings account. Let the loan number serve
as the account number for the new savings account.
account n account {(A-973, Perryridge, 1200)}
depositor n depositor {(Smith, A-973)}
r
1
n(o
(borrower loan))
account naccount |
loan_number, branch_name, 200
(r
1
)
depositor ndepositor |
customer_name, loan_number
(r
1
)
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Updating Updating
A mechanism to change a value in a tuple without charging all values in the tuple
Use the generalized projection operator to do this task
Each F
i
is either
the I
th
attribute of r, if the I
th
attribute is not updated, or,
if the attribute is to be updated F
i
is an expression, involving only constants and
the attributes of r, which gives the new value for the attribute
) (
, , , ,
2 1
r r
l
F F F -
| n
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Update Examples Update Examples
Make interest payments by increasing all balances by 5 percent.
Pay all accounts with balances over $10,000 6 percent interest
and pay all others 5 percent
account n |
account_number, branch_name, balance * 1.06
(o
BAL > 10000
(account ))
|
(o
BAL e 10000
(account))
account n|
(account)
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Figure 2.3. The Figure 2.3. The branch branch relation relation
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Figure 2.6: The Figure 2.6: The loan loan relation relation
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Figure 2.7: The Figure 2.7: The borrower borrower relation relation
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Figure 2.9 Figure 2.9
Result of Result of o
(loan)
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Figure 2.10: Figure 2.10:
Loan number and the amount of the loan Loan number and the amount of the loan
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Figure 2.11: Names of all customers who have Figure 2.11: Names of all customers who have
either an account or an loan either an account or an loan
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Figure 2.12: Figure 2.12:
Customers with an account but no loan Customers with an account but no loan
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Figure 2.13: Result of Figure 2.13: Result of borrower borrower |X| |X| loan loan
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th
th
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Largest account balance in the bank Largest account balance in the bank
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Figure 2.18: Customers who live on the same Figure 2.18: Customers who live on the same
street and in the same city as Smith street and in the same city as Smith
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Figure 2.19: Customers with both an account and Figure 2.19: Customers with both an account and
a loan at the bank a loan at the bank
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th
th
th
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Figure 2.24: The Figure 2.24: The credit_info credit_info relation relation
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Figure 2.26: The Figure 2.26: The pt_works pt_works relation relation
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The The pt_works pt_works relation after regrouping relation after regrouping
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The The employee employee and and ft_works relations ft_works relations
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Database System Concepts, 5

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