CHEMICAL

BONDING

CHAPTER 5
▪ An atom can lose or gain electrons to become an ion,
or It can share electrons with another atom to become
a molecule.
▪ Atoms or ions are joined together by three main types
of chemical bonding, namely ionic, covalent and
metallic bonding.
▪ Chemical bond is the force that holds two atoms
together in a molecule or compound
▪ Chemical bonding involves electrons in the outermost
orbitals and these electrons are called valence
electrons.
▪ Valence electrons play an important role in the
formation of chemical bonds
 LEWIS STRUCTURE

A Lewis symbol consists of:

●the symbol of an element
●dots or cross is used to represent the
valence electrons in an atom of the
element.
 EXAMPLE
THE LEWIS SYMBOL OF ATOM

●Elements in the same group have the same valence electronic configurations
🡺 similar Lewis symbols.
 THE OCTET RULE

• All noble gas atoms (except helium) have eight valence

electrons.
• Around 1920, W. Kossel and G.N. Lewis observed that the
atoms of elements in Groups 1 to 17 tend to gain, lose or
share electrons until they are surrounded by eight valence
electrons.
• This is because the electronic configurations of noble
gases are very stable.
 THE OCTET RULE

• The octet rule states that atoms tend to gain, lose or

share electrons until they have achieved an outer shell that
contains an octet of electron
• Atoms can achieve an octet of electrons by :
a) donating or accepting electrons to form positive ions
and negative ions
b) sharing electrons with other atoms to form covalent
bonds.
FORMATION OF
THE BONDS
USING LEWIS
SYMBOLS

Ionic bond
 IONIC BOND

●Ionic bond (electrovalent bond) is an

electrostatic attraction between positive
ion (cation) and negative ions (anion).
●Ionic compounds are formed when
electrons are transferred between atoms
(metal to nonmetal) to give electrically
charged particles that attract each other .
 EXAMPLE

Sodium, an electropositive metal, tends to

remove its valence electron to obtain noble gas
electronic configuration (Ne)

Chlorine, an electronegative element, tend to

accept electron from Na to obtain noble gas
electronic configuration (Ar)
● The positive Na+ ions and the negative Cl- ions
attract one another because they have opposite
charges. It is the attraction between two
oppositely charged ions that forms the ionic
bond
● These two processes occur simultaneously

+
 EXAMPLE : LIF

+
 LEWIS STRUCTURE AND FORMATION OF
IONIC COMPOUNDS

1)
CaCl2
+ + 2

2)
MgO

+
3)
CaBr2

+ +
● Ionic bond is very strong, therefore ionic
compounds:
1. Have very high melting and boiling
points
2. Hard and brittle
3. Can conduct electricity when they are in
molten form or aqueous solution
because of the mobile ions
 LEARNING CHECK

By using Lewis structure, show how the

ionic bond is formed in the compounds
below.
( a ) KF
( b ) Na2O
FORMATION OF
THE BONDS
USING LEWIS
SYMBOLS
COVALENT BOND
 COVALENT BOND

• Covalent bonds are formed when atoms share their valence

electrons to complete their octet
• A covalent bond formed between atoms of the same element
( non metal) is non polar..
• For example a fluorine atom ( the most electronegative
element) shares one of its valence electron with another
fluorine atom so that each atom has eight valence electrons
 Example

F + F F F

7e- 7e- 8e- 8e-

Lewis structure of F2

single covalent bond lone pairs F F lone pairs

single covalent bond

lone pairs F F lone pairs
 COVALENT COMPOUNDS:

●Compounds may have these

covalent bonds:
i. Single bond
ii. Double bond
iii. Triple bond.
Lewis structure of water

H + O + H H O H
2e- 8e- 2e-

or

single covalent bonds

H O H
Double bond – two atoms share
two pairs of electrons

O C O or O C O
8e- 8e- 8e-
double bonds double
bonds
Triple
+
bond – two atoms share
three pairs of electrons

N N or N N
8e- 8e-

triple
bond triple
bond
 LEARNING CHECK

Draw electron-dot diagrams to represent the valence or

outer electronic configurations of the following molecules
•Cl2

•HF
 LEARNING CHECK

Draw electron-dot diagrams to represent the valence or

outer electronic configurations of the following molecules
•NH3

•H2O
 Compare and contrast the properties
of ionic and covalent compound
Ionic Compound Covalent Compound
Boiling Point High Low
Volatility Non – volatile Volatile (can change to
vapour when heated)
Usually soluble in water Usually soluble in organic
Solubility and polar solvents but solvents such as

insoluble in organic benzene but insoluble in

water
Electrical Conducts electricity in Does not conduct
Conductivity the molten state or electricity in any state.
aqueous
Solution
 BOND LENGTH

Compare the bond length between single,

double and triple bond
Bond length :
The distance between nuclei of the atoms involves in the
bond
C C C C C C
1.54 Å 1.34 Å 1.20 Å

As the number of bonds between the carbon increase,

the bond length decreases because C are held more
closely and tightly together

As the number of bonds between two atoms increases,

the bond grows shorter and stronger
 Formal charge
Formal charge is the charge on a
certain atom in a Lewis structure

Formal Charge = The number of valence electron – the number of non bonding
valence electron at the atom – Bonding electron/2
 The sum of formal charge on each atom
should equal:

 zero for a molecule

 the charge on the ion for a polyatomic ion

 formal charge is used to find the most

stable Lewis structure
A stable structure has:
i.Formal charge on each atom closest to zero
ii.Formal –ve charge should be on a more
electronegative atom and formal +ve charge
should be on a more electropositive atom
 EXAMPLE

1) Draw all the possible Lewis structure

of COCl2.

2) Predict the most plausible structure.

 SOLUTION

1) 2)

O1= 6-6-2/2= -1 O1= 6-4-4/2= 0

Cl1= 7-4-4/2= -1 Cl1= 7-6-2/2= 0
Cl2= 7-6-2/2=0 Cl2= 7-6-2/2=0
C= 4-0-8/2=0 C= 4-0-8/2=0
Total charge = -1+-1 = -2 Total charge = 0

▪ The most plausible structure is (2)

▪ Formal charge is determined before completing
a Lewis structure to predict the most stable
structure because formal charge closest to zero.
 LEARNING CHECK

●Draw the possible Lewis structures for HNO2.

●Determine the most plausible Lewis structures
for HNO2.
 FORMATION OF COVALENT
BOND
• Valence bond theory - Covalent bond
is formed when two neighbouring
atomic half-filled orbitals overlap.

• Two types of covalent bonds are

a) sigma bond (σ)
b) pi bond (π)

34
 a) σ bond

• formed when orbitals overlap along its

internuclear axis (end to end overlapping)
Example:
i. overlapping s orbitals

H + H H H

σ
40 bond
 ii. Overlapping of s and p
orbitals

Px orbital
H + x H x

σ
bond

41
 • iii. Overlapping of p orbitals

+ x
x x

σ bond

42
 b) π bond
• Formed when two p-orbitals of the same
orientation overlap sideways
y y y y

π bond
45
 y y y y

π bond

46
 Formation of bonds in a molecule
• Covalent bonds may form by:
a) overlapping of pure orbitals
b) overlapping of hybrid orbitals

49
 Overlapping of pure orbitals

• Example :
i. O2
ii. N2

50
O2
• The electronic configuration of the oxygen atom is shown below.

• In terms of Lewis structures, both oxygen atoms in the O,

molecule can have eight electrons in the valence shell if they
share four electrons, giving rise to a double bond as shown
below.
• In terms of the valence bond theory, the chemical bonding in the
oxygen molecule is due to the overlapping of p orbitals to
produce a double bond (O=O).

and a 𝜋 bond.
• The double bond in the oxygen molecule is made up of a σ bond

la) The σ bond is produced by the head-on overlapping of P x

(b) The 𝜋 bond is produced by the sideways overlapping of P y

orbitals.

orbitals
 O2
Consider the ground state configuration:
Two unpaired electrons to be
used in bonding.
O : 1s2 2s2 2p4

y y
1s 2s 2p π

Overlapping occurs
between the p-orbitals of O O x
each atom σ

π
53
 y y
π

O O x
σ

54
N2
• The electronic configuration of nitrogen is shown below.

• In terms of a lewis structure, the nitrogen atoms in the N2

molecule share six electrons, giving a triple bond as shown
below
• In terms of valence bond theory, the chemical bonding in the
nitrogen molecule is due to the overlapping of three pairs of p
orbitals to produce a triple bond (N=N).
• The triple bond consists of a σ bond and two 𝜋 bonds.

a)The σ bond is produced by the head-on overlapping of P x

orbitals.
b)The 𝜋 bonds are produced by the sideways overlapping of the
Py and Pz orbitals
 METALLIC
BONDING,
HYDROGEN
BONDS AND VAN
DER WAALS
FORCES OF
ATTRACTION
 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

• Intermolecular forces are the attractive forces between

molecules
 METALLIC BOND

■A metallic bond is defined as the electrostatic

attraction between positively charged metal ions
and the sea of delocalized electrons.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
METALS

Metals have the following physical properties:

(a)Malleable and ductile
(b)Good conductors of electricity (high electrical conductivity)
(c)Good conductors of heat (high thermal conductivity)

A substance is said to be malleable if it can be pressed into

different shapes

A substance is said to be ductile if it can be pulled into

wires.
 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE
STRENGTH OF METALLIC
BONDS
• Since the mobile electrons in the valence shell of the metal
are responsible for the metallic bond, the strength of the
metallic bond depends mainly on the number of valence
electrons.
• The strength of metallic bonds increases from sodium (one
valence electron), through magnesium (two valence
electrons) to aluminum (three valence electrons).
 EFFECT OF STRENGTH OF
METALLIC BONDING ON BOILING
POINTS OF METALS

• The stronger the metallic bonds in the metal

lattice, the higher the melting point or boiling point
of a metal.
• The boiling points increase from sodium to
aluminium according to the increasing strength of
the metallic bonds
BOILING POINTS IN METALS
 EXAMPLE

Explain the difference in the boiling point of the two metals

given:
Magnesium – 11300 oC
Aluminum – 24500 oC
 ANSWER

■The cationic size of Al is smaller compared to magnesium

and its charge is higher (+3).
■Mg has two valence electrons
■Al has three valence electrons involved in the metallic
bonding.
■The strength of metallic bond in Aluminium is greater than
that of Magnesium
■Al has higher boiling point
■The strength of metallic bond is directly proportional to the
boiling point.
■The stronger metallic bond, the higher the boiling point.
 VAN DER WAAL FORCES

■Forces that act between covalent

molecules
■Two types of interaction:
i. Dipole-dipole forces
- act between polar molecules
ii. London Dispersion forces
-act between non-polar molecules
•Polar molecules occur when there is an electronegativity difference between the bonded
atoms.
•Nonpolar molecules occur when electrons are shared equal between atoms of a diatomic
molecule or when polar bonds in a larger molecule cancel each other out.
 DIPOLE-DIPOLE FORCES
(PERMANENT DIPOLE FORCES)

■Exist in polar covalent compounds

■Polar molecules have permanent dipole due to
the uneven electron distributions
Example:
 LONDON DISPERSION FORCES

■attractive forces that exist between non-polar

molecules
■result from the temporary (instantaneous)
polarization of molecules
■The temporary dipole molecules will be
attracted to each other and these attractions is
known as the London Forces or London
Dispersion forces
 EXAMPLE
LONDON FORCES IN BR2
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE
STRENGTH OF THE VAN DER
WAALS FORCES.
■The molecular size/molecular mass
Molecules with higher molar mass have stronger van der
Waals forces as they tend to have more electrons involved
in the London forces.
Example:
CH4 has lower boiling point than C2H6
■Note:
However if two molecules have similar molecular mass, the
dipole-dipole interaction will be more dominant.
Example: H2S has higher boiling point than CH3CH3
 HYDROGEN BOND

■Dipole-dipole interaction that acts between a

Hydrogen atom that is covalently bonded to a
highly electronegative atom ; F, O ,N in one
molecule and F,O or N of another molecule.
■Example:
NH3 LIQUID
H2O

___ covalent bond

----- hydrogen bond
EFFECT OF HYDROGEN BONDING
ON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

• Hydrogen bonding affects

a) The boiling points
b) The solubility
c) The density
 THE BOILING POINTS

■Have relatively high boiling point than compounds

having dipole-dipole forces or London forces
■the Hydrogen bond is the strongest attraction
force compared to the dipole-dipole or the London
forces.
 SOLUBILITY

A. Dissolve in polar solvent

■The molecules that posses Hydrogen bonds are
highly polar.
■They may form interaction with any polar
molecules that act as solvent.
B. Dissolve in any solvent that can form Hydrogen
bonds
 EXAMPLE

• NH3 dissolves in water because it can form

Hydrogen intermolecular bond with water.
 DENSITY

• The density of water is relatively high compared to other

molecules with similar molar mass.
Reason:
Hydrogen intermolecular bonds are stronger than the
dipole-dipole or the London forces. Thus the water
molecules are drawn closer to one another and occupy a
smaller volume.
• Ice (solid H2O) has lower density compared to its liquid.
Ice form tetrahedral arrangement
 DENSITY

H2O(l) is denser than H2O(s) because

•the hydrogen bond in ice arrange the H2O molecules in
open hexagonal crystal
•H2O molecules in water have higher kinetic energy and
can overcome the hydrogen bond
 EFFECTS OF INTERMOLECULAR
FORCES ON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Boiling point
■For molecules with similar size, the order of
intermolecular strength:
Hydrogen bond > dipole-dipole forces >
London dispersion forces
■Strength of intermolecular forces ↑
⇒ boiling point ↑
 WHY BOILING POINT H2O > HF

■Fluorine is more electronegative than oxygen, therefore

stronger hydrogen bonding is expected to exist in HF liquid
than in H2O.
■However, the boiling point of H2O is higher than HF
because each H2O molecules has 4 hydrogen bonds.
■H-F has only 2 hydrogen bonds.
■Therefore the hydrogen bonds are stronger in H2O rather
than in H-F.
 WHY BOILING POINT HF > NH3?

Boiling point HF > NH3

■Fluorine is more electronegative than
nitrogen ,thus the hydrogen bonding in H-F is
stronger than H-N.