SS3SECONDTERM

TRINITY COLLEGE COTONOU, REPUBLIC OF BENIN

CHEMISTRY
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SCHEME OF WORK

WEEKS TOPICS
1 Revision/ Nuclear chemistry

2 Nuclear reactions

3 Simple molecules and their shapes

4 Metallic bonding

5–6 Metals and their compounds (Al, Cu, Sn and Fe)

7–8 Alloys

9 -10 Practical

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WEEK ONE & TWO

NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

This is the branch of chemistry concerned with the reactions that involve both the electron and
nuclei of the reacting atoms. Nuclear reactions are often referred to as radioactivity.
Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of radiation by an element known as a radioactive element.
Geiger – Muller counter, scintillation counter and diffusion cloud chamber are the devices commonly
used to detect radiation.
TYPES AND NATURE OF RADIATIONS
The three main types of radiation are alpha (α-), beta (β-), and gamma (γ-) rays. These components of
radiation can be separated and distinguished by their behavior in an electrostatic field.

(a.) Alpha rays: These are fast – moving streams of positively charged particles, each having a mass
number of four, an atomic number of two and two units of positive charge. Thus each α-
4
particle is actually a helium nucleus, 2He . They have very low penetrating power, travel only a
few centimeters in air and are stopped or absorbed by a thin sheet of paper or an aluminum
foil, 0.1mm thick
(b.) Beta rays: These are very fast – moving streams of electrons. They are negatively charged and
have a relatively small mass. Each particle has a mass number of zero and a charge of -1 and is
0
represented by the symbol−1e . They can travel for about three minutes in air and about 4mm
in aluminum.
(c.) Gamma rays: These are not particles but electromagnetic waves similar to visible light and X –
rays, but with a very short wave lengths. They are the most penetrating, unaffected by an
electrostatic field, travel at the speed of light but have the least ionization power. They can
penetrate about 100m through air and can pass through 0.5m of iron or lead.
(d.) X – rays: These are electromagnetic waves like visible light but with a shorter wave length.
They can penetrate easily through most solid substances which are opaque to visible light,
such as metal foils, flesh, wood and paper. Hard X – rays used for destroying cancerous cells
penetrate more than soft X – rays used to photograph human parts in medicine.

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RADIOACTIVE DISINTEGRATION/ DECAY

Radioactive disintegration is the spontaneous splitting of the nucleus of a radioactive element,

accompanied by emission of an α- particle or β- particle. Sometimes γ- rays are also emitted with
these particles. When any of the particles disintegrates, it is known as radioactive decay. As a result of
the emission of these particles, the disintegrating nucleus (parent nucleus) undergoes a change in
atomic number and becomes the nucleus of a different element. This new nucleus is called the
“daughter nucleus” and this process is called “the transmutation of an atom”.

4
(a.) Alpha decay: When the nucleus of an atom loses an α- particle (i.e. a helium nucleus, 2He )
during disintegration, the atomic and mass numbers of the atom is reduced by two (2) and four
(4) units respectively. Alpha decay can be represented thus:
A ( A−4 )
ZX (Z−2)Y 4
2 He
parent yields daughter +
→ α − particle
nucleus nucleus

238
For example if an uranium nucleus, 92 U emits an α- particle, its nucleus changes to that of
238 234 4
thorium as follows: 92U yields 90Th + 2 He
→

(b.) Beta decay: When the nucleus of an atom emits a β- particle, the atomic number of the atom
increases by one unit, but the mass number remains unaltered. Beta decay can be represented
as follows:
A A
ZX (Z+1)Y 0
−1e
parent yields daughter +
→ β− particle
nucleus nucleus

234
For instance, if a thorium nucleus 90 Th emits a β- particle, its nucleus changes to that of
234 234
protactinium as follows: Th yields
90 91Pa + −10e
→

Note: The emission of γ- rays, unlike loss of α- or β- particles does not bring about any change in the
mass or atomic number of the radioactive element. Its emission is caused by energy changes within
77 77
the nucleus. For example:34 Se yields 34Se + γ . They are usually emitted together with alpha or beta
→

particles.
The nucleus of a radioactive element tend to disintegrate spontaneously because they are unstable, to
produce a stable nucleus. The stability of the nucleus of a radioactive element is measured in terms of
its half – life. The half – life of a radioactive element is the time taken for half of the total number of
atoms in a given sample of the element to decay.

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ARTIFICIAL RADIOACTIVITY

This is the spontaneous disintegration of the stable nucleus of an atom as a result of bombardment
with a high – speed particle. This leads to artificial transmutation of atoms. Many different atomic
transmutations are possible by bombarding various elements with α- particles, neutrons, protons and
2
deuterium (heavy hydrogen1 H ). Neutrons are mostly used because they are heavy and have no
charge.
Examples:
14 4 17 1
7 N + 2He yields 8O + 1 P
→

Neutrons form new elements by ejecting charged particles.

1
14 0n 14 1
7 N + yields 6C + 1 P
neutron →

If the nucleus bombarded is heavy, it captures the neutron to produce an isotope of the original
element.
59 1 60
27 Co + 0n yields 27 Co
→

23
11 Na + 10n yields 24
11 Na
→

NUCLEAR FISSION
This is a process by which the nucleus of a heavy element is split into two nuclei of nearly equal mass
with a release of energy and radiation.
For example: 141 92 1
56 Ba + 36 Kr +3 0n

235 1
92 U + 0n

144 90 1
54 Xe + 38 Sr +2 0n

NUCLEAR FUSION
This is a process in which two or more light nuclei fuse or combine to form a heavier nucleus with a
release of energy and radiation. Nuclear fusion occurs only at extremely high temperatures because a
large amount of energy is required by the nuclei to overcome the strong repulsion between them.
This reaction is known as thermo nuclear reaction.

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Nuclear fusion occurs when a mixture of deuterium and tritium is exposed to the heat from a fission
bomb explosion which serves as the energy source.
2
1 D + 31T yields 42 He + 10n +energy
→

This type of reaction is the basis of the hydrogen or fusion bomb.

EFFECTS AND APPLICATIONS OF RADIATION

Radioactive radiations have harmful effects to humans. Mild exposure can cause anaemia, cancer,
leukemia, gene mutations, changes in cell structure and body chemistry. Heavy exposure to
radioactive radiations leads to death.

However, radioactive isotopes are used for the following:

(a.) Medical uses: Cobalt – 60 is used in destruction of cancerous tissues.

(b.) Sterilization: Exposure of an object to gamma radiation frees it from all forms of microbial life
thereby leaving it perfectly sterile with no trace of radioactivity.
(c.) Industrial uses: β- and γ- radiations are used to monitor and control the thickness of sheet
material like plastic, paper and metal during production.
(d.) Agricultural uses: Radioactive radiation is used in agricultural research to induce mutations in
plants and animals in order to obtain yields with desired traits.
(e.) The presence of radio isotopes like uranium – 238 in the earth’s crust is utilized to estimate the
age of rocks.

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WEEK THREE
SIMPLE MOLECULES AND THEIR SHAPES

(a.) Covalent molecules: In covalent molecules, atoms combine by sharing electrons. Such bonds
influence the shape and structure of the resulting molecule.
(i.) In a simple covalent molecule like methane, (CH 4) the central atom is carbon with four
valence electrons. The four bond pairs are widely spread to minimize repulsion, giving rise to
the tetrahedral shape of the methane molecule.
(ii.) In a molecule of ammonia, ( NH 3) the central atom is nitrogen with five valence electrons. i.e.
three unpaired and two lone pairs. Each of the three unpaired electrons forms a covalent bond
with an electron of a hydrogen atom resulting in the trigonal pyramidal shape of ammonia.
(iii.) The water molecule has a central oxygen atom with six valence electrons; two lone pairs and
two unpaired electrons. Each unpaired electron forms a covalent bond with an electron from a
hydrogen atom resulting in the angular shape or “V” – shape of the water molecule.
(iv.) The carbon (IV) oxide molecule (CO 2) has a double bond between the carbon and oxygen
atoms. This gives the molecule a linear shape. i.e. all three atoms lie in a straight line. Oxygen,
hydrogen and chlorine are other examples of covalent molecules with linear shapes.

(b.) Crystalline solids: These are those with definite geometric shapes. According to their chemical
nature, there are covalent, ionic molecular and metallic crystals.
(i.) Covalent solids: The atoms of covalent solids are joined by covalent bonds which are very
strong to form a giant lattice. As a result, these solids are very hard, have a high melting point
and are poor conductors of electricity. An example of a covalent solid is a diamond crystal
which is usually octahedral in shape.
(ii.) Ionic solids: Positive and negative ions are arranged in a regular pattern to give a giant crystal
lattice in an ionic solid. The crystals are hard and have high melting points because of the
strong electrostatic forces holding the ions. In the solid state, ionic compounds are poor
conductors of electricity because the ions are held tight in a place and so cannot move.
(iii.) Molecular crystals: In molecular solids, molecules are arranged in regular patterns to form
crystals. The molecules are held together by weak intermolecular forces such as Van der Waal
forces present in all molecular solids and iodine; dipole – dipole attractions present in SO 2 and
hydrogen bonds present in ammonia and hydrogen fluoride. Molecular solids have low
melting points and are poor conductors of electricity because the electrons are bound to
individual molecules.
(iv.) Metallic solids: These are good conductors of heat and electricity. Their structures are
dependent on the different ways in which the atoms are packed together. The three main
structures are: face – centered cubic packing (E.g. Cu, Al, Pb, Ag, etc.); hexagonal close
packing (E.g. Mg, Zn, Ca, Ni, etc.) and body – centered cubic packing (E.g. Li, Na, K, Ba, W,
Fe, etc.).

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WEEK FOUR
BINDING FORCES

(a.) Metallic bonding: The metallic bond is the attractive forces that bind metal atoms together.
This bond is as a result of the attraction between the positively charged metallic ions which
forms a combined electron cloud. Metals are good conductors of electricity because current
can flow through the electrons in the electron cloud. They are also good conductors of heat
since the freely moving electrons can also convey heat energy.

(b.) Intermolecular forces: These are forces existing between molecules. They are weaker than
electrovalent and covalent bonds and can be classified into the following:
(i.) Dipole – dipole attractions: These are the attractions between the positive and negative ends of
polar molecules. This is the force holding together polar molecules in liquids such as trichloro
methane.
(ii.) Van der Wall’s forces: These are weak, short – range forces of attraction, which are
independent of normal bonding forces between non – polar molecules. These forces generally
exist between atoms and molecules in the solid, liquid and gaseous states. The Van der Wall’s
force between graphite allows it to be used as a solid lubricant.
(iii.) Hydrogen bonds: These are strong dipole – dipole attraction which occurs between:
 the hydrogen atom attached to a strongly electronegative atom and
 another strongly electronegative atom with a lone pair of electrons.

The high boiling points of hydrogen fluoride, water and ammonia are due to the presence of hydrogen
bonds. Hydrogen bonds are weak and break off easily when heat is applied.

More than one type of intermolecular force may be present between molecules.

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WEEK FIVE
METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS

Most metals are found in combined forms known as minerals. These minerals are found mixed with
earthy materials known as ores. The methods of extracting metals from their ores include electrolysis,
chemical and thermal reduction.

(1.) ALUMINIUM: Aluminium is found abundantly as trioxosilicates (IV) in rocks and clays. The
main source of aluminium is the mineral bauxite, Al2 O3 . 2 H 2 O . Other mineral sources include
kaolin, Al2 O3 . 2 SiO 2 . 2 H 2 O, cryolite, Na3 AlF 6, corundum, Al2 O3 and mica, K 2 O. Al2 O3 . 6 SiO2
.

Extraction:
Aluminium is extracted from bauxite by electrolysis. The bauxite is first purified by heating with
caustic soda solution under pressure to form soluble sodium aluminate (III) NaAl(OH ) 4.
Al2 O3(s) +2 NaOH (aq) +3 H 2 O (l ) yields 2 NaAl(OH )4(aq)
→
The sodium aluminate is filtered and treated with crystals of aluminium hydroxide to cause the
precipitation of aluminium hydroxide.
NaAl(OH ) 4(aq) yields Al (OH )3(s )+ NaOH (aq)
→
The aluminium hydroxide is filtered and heated strongly to yield pure aluminium oxide or alumina,
Al2 O3, which is then electrolyzed to yield aluminium.

Physical properties:
1. Aluminium is a silvery – white solid with a melting point of 600oC.
2. It has a low relative density of 2.7.
3. It is very malleable and ductile; it can be rolled into a foil.
4. It has a moderate tensile strength but high in alloys.
5. It is a very good conductor of heat and electricity.

Chemical properties:
1. Aluminium reacts with air at 800oC to form aluminium oxide, Al2 O3 and aluminium nitride,
Al N .
4 Al (s) +3 O2(g) yields 2 Al2 O3(s)
→

2 Al (s) + N 2(g ) yields 2 Al N (s)

→

2. Aluminium on exposure to moist air forms a continuous coating of aluminium oxide, which
prevents further attack of the metal by atmospheric oxygen and water or steam under normal
conditions.

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3. When heated, aluminium combines directly with halogens, sulphur, nitrogen, phosphorus
and carbon with the evolution of heat.
2 Al (s) +3 Cl2 (g) yields 2 Al Cl 3(s )
→

4. Aluminium reacts slowly with dilute HCl but more rapidly with the concentrated acid to
displace hydrogen.
2 Al (s) +6 HCl (aq ) yields 2 AlC l 3(aq )+3 H 2 (g)
→

5. Aluminium reduces iron (III) oxide to molten iron.

2 Al (s) + Fe2 O3 (s) yields Al2 O3(s) +2 Fe(s)
→

6. Aluminium does not react with dilute tetraoxosulphate (VI) but with the hot concentrated
acid to liberate sulphur (IV) oxide.
2 Al (s) +6 H 2 SO 4 ( aq) yields Al 2 ¿
→

7. Aluminium does not react with trioxonitrate (V) acid at any concentration due to the
formation of a protective layer of aluminium oxide.

Test for aluminium ions ¿:

To the solution of the unknown salt, add a few drops of aqueous ammonia. The formation of a white
gelatinous precipitate which is insoluble in excess aqueous ammonia confirms the presence of
aluminium ions.
Note: Lead (II) and zinc salts give similar reactions. However, lead (II) salts give a white precipitate
with concentrated hydrochloric acid, while aluminium salts do not. Zinc salts give a white precipitate
which dissolves in excess aqueous ammonia.

Uses:
1. Aluminium is used in making cooking wares because it is cheap, light and a good conductor of
heat.
2. It is used in making over head electric cables because it is light and good conductor of
electricity.
3. Aluminium powder suspended in oil is used in paints and for mirrors and cars because of its
reflectivity.
4. Aluminium is used in making alloys such as duralumin, a mixture of Al, Cu, Mg and Mn;
magnalium, a mixture of Al and Mg; aluminium bronze, a mixture of Cu and Al, etc.
5. Aluminium foils are widely used as packaging material
6. Aluminium ions, Al3 +¿¿ are used as coagulating agents.

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(2.) COPPER: This is among the noble metals, together with silver and gold. The principal source
of the metal is copper pyrites, CuFeS 2. It also exists as cuprite Cu2 O , malachite
CuCO3 .Cu(OH )2, chalcocite Cu2 S and bornite Cu2 S . CuS . FeS .

Extraction:
Copper is usually extracted from sulphide ores, such as copper pyrites, CuFeS 2. The ore is first
concentrated by froth floatation and then roasted in a limited supply of air to oxidize the iron the iron
and some of the sulphur in the ore to iron (II) oxide and sulphur (IV) oxide respectively.
2 CuFeS 2(s) + 4 O2(g ) yields Cu2 S (s) +2 FeO (s) +3 SO 2 (g)
→
Silicon (IV) oxide SiO2 is added and the mixture is heated in the absence of air to convert the iron (II)
oxide to iron (II) trioxosilicate (IV).
FeO(s )+ SiO2 (s) yields FeSiO3 (s)
→
The copper (I) sulphide is heated in a controlled amount of air to produce copper with a purity of
about 97 – 99%.

Physical properties:
1. Copper is a soft red solid with luster.
2. It has a relative density of 8.95.
3. It is very malleable and ductile.
4. It has a high a tensile strength and a melting point of 1080oC.
5. It is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity.

Chemical properties:
1. Copper becomes covered with a green coating of basic copper (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI),
CuSO 4 .3 Cu(OH )2, and trioxocarbonates (IV) on exposure to moist air.
2. Copper is readily oxidized to give black copper (II) oxide when heated in air.
2 Cu(s) +O2 (g) yields CuO(s)
→
3. Copper reacts with hot concentrated H 2 SO 4 to liberate sulphur (IV) oxide.
Cu ( s) + H 2 SO 4 ( aq) yields CuSO4 (aq) + H 2 O(l) + SO 2 (g )
→
4. Copper is displaced from solutions of its salt by most metals since it is nearly at the bottom of
the activity series.

Test for copper (II) ions:

1. To the solution of the unknown salt solution, add a few drops of aqueous ammonia. The
formation of a blue precipitate which dissolves in excess aqueous ammonia to give a deep blue
solution indicates the presence of copper (II) ions.
2. Add a few drops of sodium hydroxide solution to a solution of the unknown salt. The
formation of a blue gelatinous precipitate which is insoluble in excess sodium hydroxide
confirms the presence of copper (II) ions.
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Uses:
1. Copper is widely used for making electric wires.
2. It is used in metal work because it is easy to work with, has an attractive appearance and is
resistant to corrosion.
3. It is used in the production of important alloys such as bronze (a mixture of Cu and Sn), brass
(a mixture of Cu and Zn) and cupronickel (a mixture of Cu and Ni).

(3.) TIN: Tin does not occur naturally as free element. The main source of the metal is the mineral
cassiterite or tin stone, SnO 2.

Extraction:
Tin ore, SnO2 is crushed and washed with water. This is called concentration of ore. It is then roasted
in air to remove impurities like sulphur, arsenic and antimony as volatile oxides. The product is mixed
with powdered charcoal and heated to 1300oC to reduce the oxide and the molten tin is tapped off.
SnO 2+2 C(s) yields Sn(l )+ 2CO(g )
→
The tin obtained is impure. It is refined by heating it gently on a sloping surface. This converts the
impurities to oxides by exposure to air, leaving behind tin with a purity of 99.9%.

Physical properties:
1. Tin is a silvery – white solid with luster.
2. It is very malleable metal; soft enough to be cut with a knife.
3. It is not ductile enough to be drawn into wires.
4. It has a fair tensile strength and a melting point of 232oC.
5. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.

Chemical properties:
1. Tin combines with oxygen at 1200oC and above. It does when exposed to the atmosphere.
Sn(s )+ O2(g) 120 0o C SnO 2(s)
→

2. Tin is unreactive and does not combine with nitrogen and carbon.
3. Tin combines with chlorine when heated to give tin (IV) chloride.
Sn(s )+ 2Cl 2(g ) yields SnCl 2(s) + H 2 (g)
→
4. Tin reacts slowly with dilute hydrochloric acid but rapidly with the concentrated acid to give
tin (II) chloride.
Sn(s )+ 2 HCl (aq) yields SnCl 2(s )+ H 2(g)
→
5. Tin dissolves in concentrated solutions of alkalis to give trioxostannate (IV) salts and
hydrogen.
Sn(s )+ 2 NaOH (aq) + H 2 O (l) yields N a2 SnO 3(aq) +2 H 2 (g)
→

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Test for tin (II) ions:

1. Pass hydrogen sulphide into a solution of the unknown salt acidified with dilute hydrochloric
acid. The formation of a brown precipitate which dissolves in yellow ammonium sulphide and
in hot concentrated hydrochloric acid indicates the presence of tin (II) ions.
2. To a solution of the unknown salt, add a few drops of aqueous ammonia. The formation of a
white precipitate which is insoluble in excess aqueous ammonia confirms the presence of tin
(II) ions.

(4.) IRON: This is the second most abundant metal after aluminium found in the earth’s crust. It is
not found in the free state except in meteorites. The most common ores are haematite Fe2 O 3,
magnetite Fe3 O4, iron pyrites FeS2, siderite or spathic iron ore FeCO3 , and limonite
Fe2 O3 . H 2 O . Iron is also present as trioxosilicates (IV) in clay soils. It is a constituent of the
pigments haemoglobin in animals and chlorophyll in plants.

Extraction:
Iron is extracted by the reduction of its oxide in a blast furnace. The ore is first roasted in air so that
iron (III) oxide is produced. The iron (III) oxide is then mixed with coke and limestone and heated to
a very high temperature. The coke is oxidized at the lower part of the furnace by oxygen in the hot air
blast to carbon (IV) oxide and as well reduced at the upper part to carbon (II) oxide.
C(s )+O2 (g) yields CO 2(g )(exothermic)
→
CO 2(g) +C (s) yields 2CO (g) (endothermic)
→
The carbon (II) oxide then reduces the iron (III) oxide to iron in the upper part of the furnace which
is cooler.
F e 2 O3 (s) +3 CO(g ) yields 2 Fe(l ) +3 CO2 (g) (exothermic)
→
The molten iron formed sinks to the bottom of the furnace and is tapped off.
Note:
The function of the limestone is to remove impurities such as silica in the form of a slag. The
limestone decomposes to yield calcium oxide, which then combines with the silicon (IV) oxide to
form calcium trioxosilicate (IV).
CaCO3 (s) yields CaO(s) +CO 2(g )
→
SiO2(s )+ CaO(s) yields CaSiO 3(s )
→
Physical properties:
1. Iron is a silvery solid with luster.
2. It has a relative density of 7.9 gcm-3.
3. It is very malleable and ductile.
4. It has a high tensile strength and a melting point of 1530 0C.
5. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.

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Chemical properties:
1. Iron rusts on exposure to moist air due to the formation of hydrated iron (III) oxide.
2. Iron reacts with steam to form iron (II) diiron (III) oxide and hydrogen.
3 Fe(s) +4 H 2 O(g) ⇌ F e 2 O3 (s) + H 2 (g)
3. When heated, iron readily combines with chlorine to give iron (III) chloride and with sulphur
to give iron (II) sulphide. It also combines directly with phosphorus and carbon but not with
nitrogen.
2 Fe(s )+ 3Cl 2( g) yields 2 FeCl 3(s)
→
Fe(s) + S(s) yields FeS(s)
→
4. Iron reacts with dilute acids like hydrochloric acid, tetraoxosulphate (VI) and trioxonitrate (V)
to form the corresponding products. It does not react with concentrated trioxonitrate (V) acid.
Fe(s) + H 2 SO 4 (aq) yields FeSO 4 (aq )+ H 2(g)
→
Test for iron (II) ions:

1. Add a few drops of sodium hydroxide or aqueous ammonia to the unknown salt solution. The
formation of a dirty – green gelatinous precipitate, which is insoluble in excess, indicates the
presence of iron (II) ions. If the precipitate turns reddish – brown on exposure to air, the
presence of iron (II) ions is confirmed.
2. To a solution of the unknown salt solution, add a few drops of potassium hexacyanoferrate (III)
K 3 Fe(CN )6 . The formation of a dark blue precipitate confirms the presence of iron (II) ions.

Test for iron (III) ions:

1. Add a few drops of sodium hydroxide or aqueous ammonia to the unknown salt solution. The
formation of a reddish – brown gelatinous precipitate which is insoluble in excess indicates the
presence of iron (III) ions.
2. To the unknown salt solution, add a few drops of potassium hexacyanoferrate (II) solution
K 4 Fe(CN )6. The formation of a blue precipitate confirms the presence of iron (III) ions.
3. Add a few drops of potassium thiocyanate KS (CN ) solution to the unknown salt solution. The
formation of a blood – red solution confirms the presence of iron (III) ions.

Alloys:

An alloy is a substance prepared by adding one or more elements to a base or parent metal to obtain
desirable products. The added elements are usually metals or carbon.

A true alloy is made by melting the components together and solidifying the mixture. It is regarded as
a uniform mixture. Alloys are economically important since most of the things we use are made of
alloys rather than pure metals.

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Some alloys, their compositions and uses:

S/N Alloy Composition Advantages Uses

1 Brass 60 – 80% Cu Stronger and more malleable than For making moving parts
20 – 40% Zn copper; greater workability because of clocks and watches,
of lower melting point; more nuts, bolts, rods, tubes,
attractive appearance; does not musical instruments,
corrode easily. ornaments and for general
metal work.
2 Bronze 90% Cu Stronger than copper; greater For making coins and
10% Sn resistance to chemical attack; more medals; sculptures and for
attractive appearance. general metal work.
3 95% Al Very light but stronger than Construction of aircraft,
Duralumin 3% Cu aluminium. ships, cars and machines.
1% Mg
1%Mn
4 Steel 99.8% Fe More malleable and ductile than Construction of bridges,
0.2% C iron; harder and stronger; can ships, cars and machines.
withstand great stress and strain.
5 Stainless 60 – 80% Fe Hard; resistant to corrosion; very For making cutlery, tools
steel 10 – 20% Cr attractive in appearance. and surgical instruments.
10 – 20% Ni
6 Permallor 22% Fe Strongly magnetized by electric For making electromagnets
y 78% Ni current.
7 23 – 25% Fe Strongly magnetic. For making permanent
Alnico 6 – 12% Al magnets.
14 – 30% Ni
5 – 35% Co
8 50 – 70% Pb Low melting point; high tensile For welding and plumbing.
Soft solder 30 – 50% Sn strength when cold.
70 – 75% Pb Low melting point; tough; does not For printing.
16 – 20% Sb wear out easily.
8 – 10% Sn

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