Word

Classe
AN
N
I N TRO D U CTI O
 Word
Classe
s
AN I N TRO D U CTI O N

We use words when we talk to and write to each other.

There are thousands of different words in any
language, and they all have their own meanings.
Grammar is the way we put these words together so
that they make sense.

A FAIZ
Words scattered around on their own don’t mean very
much. Try to arrange these words below!

falls from tree the

apple never The far

Words are like pieces of a jigsaw. We need to fit them together properly to
make meaning.
Words are the building blocks of language, but they must be arranged in
a recognisable order.
Wor
C L A SS E S
d
We classify words according to their functions.
The classifications traditionally were referred
to as the eight parts of speech, but they are
now called word classes.
Some words can be classified as more than
one word type, and they change type
according to the sentence they belong to.
 Words can be divided into classes
according to the way in which they are
nouns
used. The eight main word classes can
be represented in a diagram like this:
adjectives

verbs

words adverbs

pronouns

prepositions

conjunctions

Taken from Sullivan, N.M. 2015. "Essential Grammar for Today's Writers, Students, and Teachers". New York:
interjections
Routledge
 Noun
s
A noun is the name of something: a thing or a person or a place, or even a feeling or
a state of mind. Nouns have some typical noun endings.
-age: beverage, courage, pilgrimage, etc.
-ation, -tion, -sion, -ion: explanation, education, division, invasion, etc.
-er, -or: painter, actor, motivator, etc.
-ity: reality, immunity, eternity, etc.
-ment: experiment, department, entertainment, etc.
-ness: brightness, happiness, sadness, etc.
-ist: Islamist, biologist, guitarist, etc.
-ing: building, saving, writing, etc.
 Noun
s
We can divide nouns into four kinds. They
are,
1. Common nouns
2. Proper nouns
3. Abstract nouns
4. Concrete nouns
5. Collective nouns
6. Countable nouns
7. Uncountable nouns
8. Compound nouns
 Common
Nouns
They are the names of ordinary things we can see or touch. Book,
students, morning, class, and, crowd are examples of common
nouns.
.
 Concrete
Nouns
Concrete nouns are nouns that can be easily seen, touched or described. Concrete
nouns refer to physical things. Words such as book, laptop, and smartphones are
concrete nouns.
Can you mention other examples of concrete nouns?
 Abstract
Nouns
Abstract nouns are nouns that can’t be easily seen, touched or described. They refer to
ideas, feelings, occasions, or time. Words like love, happiness, trust, loyalty, and
health, and morning are abstract nouns.
Can you mention other examples of abstract nouns?
 Collective
Nouns
Collective nouns refer to a group of things or people. They are usually singular words
that represent a number of things. Different collective nouns refer to different concrete
nouns, and the collective nouns used to describe groups of animals are especially
varied.
Some examples
are: a swarm of
bees
a flock of birds
a bunch of
grapes a school
of fish
 Proper
Nouns
Proper nouns name specific people, animals, institutions, places, times, etc.
They have unique reference, and in writing they begin with a capital letter. Some
examples of proper nouns are Donald Trump, Jakarta, Nurul Jadid University, East
Java, December, etc.
 Countable
Nouns
Most common nouns have singular and plural forms, because they refer to things that
can, in theory at least, be counted.
Most English nouns make their plural form by adding -s or -
es. one student ➜ two students
one car ➜ four cars
one hero ➜ many
heroes a horse ➜ some
horses
a wife ➜ three wives
a box ➜ ten boxes
 Countable
Nouns
Some words just don’t follow the rules. Some nouns change their spelling completely
when they become plural, while others do not change at all. This is also known as
irregular plural. Words that originate from Latin and Greek often have irregular plural
endings.
These exceptions have to be
learned. mouse ➜ mice
child ➜ children
index ➜ indexes or
indices sheep ➜ sheep
scissors ➜ scissors
series ➜ series
 Uncountable
Nouns
Uncountable nouns (also called Mass Nouns) do not have plural forms and cannot
be counted.
The examples are sugar, sand, water, coffee, help, information, music, and
money. Can you mention other examples?
 Compound
Nouns
We sometimes put words together to make new nouns. These nouns are called
compound nouns.
rain + coat = raincoat
star + fish = starfish
cup + cake =
cupcake sun + rise =
sunrise
Can you mention
other examples?
 Concrete
Common Nouns
Abstract

Proper Nouns Collective

Singular
Countable Nouns
Nouns
Plural

Uncountable Singular
Nouns
Compound Nouns
Pronouns
These are words that take the place of nouns

There are 7 main types of pronoun…

Personal pronouns
• These replace the subject or object of the subject. For example 1st person
I,we; 2nd person you, and 3rd person he, she, it, they as ‘subjective/ nominative
case’ and me, us; you, and him, her, it, them as ‘ojective/accusative case’. They
are known as “Nominative Case”/ Subjective Case when they replace a subject
and Accusative or Objective Case when they replace an object.
I drove him home
He thanked me for the lift
 Possessive pronouns
•These show possession and are known as
Possesive/genitive case. For example: my/mine,
our/ours, your/yours, his, her/hers, its, their/theirs.

•Instead of saying ‘This is Sarah’s wedding’ we might

say ‘This is hers.’
Reflexive pronouns
• These indicate that the object of a verb is the same as its
subject:
He congratulated himself.
• They end in –self or –selves
 Personal
pronouns

Personal Possessive Reflexive pronouns

pronouns
Singular Plural pronoun
Singular Plural Singular Plural

First
person I, me We, us Mine Ours Myself Ourselves

Second
person You You Yours Yours Yourself Yourself

Third He, she, They, His, Theirs Himself, Themselv

person it, him, them hers, herself, es
Demonstrative pronouns
•These have a sense of pointing at something or
someone:
this, that, these, those Those shoes are ugly
I wish I knew that.
This is the city that I love.
Indefinite pronouns
• These do not refer to specific persons or things. They
generally refer to one or more than one person or thing.
For example:
someone, anything, no one, everything
Relative pronouns

Relative pronouns
• These act as linking words in a sentence
• They are always placed immediately after the noun they refer to:
A city that has many tourist attractions

• The relative pronouns are who (nominative but not always

nominative), whom (accusative) and whose (genitive/posseseive
case) (referring to people) and which and that (referring to things or
non-human beings), where, when, why (referring to place, time,
Relative pronouns

Interrogative pronouns
•These are used when asking a question

who, whose, which, what

 Adjectiv
es by itself does not offer much information. If a man
A noun
wanted to buy a shirt in a store, he would need to narrow
down what he was looking for by using descriptive words
like thin or silky. These words are known as adjectives.
Adjectives describe nouns (or pronouns) and tell you more
about them. They might tell you what things look, sound,
or feel like.
 Adjectiv
Adjectives have some typical adjective
es
endings.
-able, -ible: acceptable, suitable, credible, etc.
-al: accidental, seasonal, political, etc.
-ful: careful, faithful, beautiful, etc.
-ic: romantic, Islamic, dramatic, etc.
-ish: childish, foolish, etc.
-ive: active, comprehensive, affirmative, etc.
-less: careless, hopeless, harmless, etc.
-ous: famous, dangerous, furious, etc.
-y: tasty, moody, hungry, etc.
 Adjectiv
Most adjectives are always adjectives. That is, we don’t use them as verbs or nouns
es else. Grammarians call this kind of adjectives as descriptive adjectives.
or anything
Descriptive adjectives represent the largest number of adjectives for example tall,
short, small, yellow, sloppy, difficult, etc.
But some adjectives look like verbs. In fact they are parts of verbs, but they do the work
of
adjectives.
a boring lesson
an exciting
story a bored
student an
Adjectiv
es
 Adjectiv
We often put an adjective before the noun that it is describing or also known as
es
attributive.
a colourful
ball a huge
spider
You can also
place an
adjective after
the noun, such
as after verbs
like be, look,
feel,
 Adjectiv
We can also compare things using
es cheap ➜ cheaper ➜ cheapest
adjectives.
long ➜ longer ➜ longest
happy ➜ happier ➜
happiest
expensive ➜ more
expensive ➜ most expensive
annoying ➜ more annoying ➜ most
annoying good ➜ better ➜ best
bad ➜ worse ➜ worst
far ➜ farther/further ➜
 Descriptive Adjectives

Numerals

Attributive
Adjective
s
Predicative
Positive

Comparisons Comparative

Superlative
 Verbs
Verbs
Verbs are often known as doing words, but they can also refer to
‘mental actions’ e.g. think, anticipate, and to states e.g. the house
stands on a hill

Verbs tell you what the subject is doing or being

 Verb
s
A verb is the most important word in a sentence; without it, the sentence would not
make sense. Verbs describe what a person or thing is doing or being.
Verbs also have some typical verb endings.
-ate: translate, demonstrate, assassinate, etc.
-en: strengthen, madden, happen, etc.
-ify: magnify, purify, beautify, etc.
-ise, -ize: maximize, summarize, popularise, etc.

We can classify verbs into main verbs and auxiliary.

 Main
Verbs
Main verbs are also called 'full', or 'lexical' verbs because they are verbs which
contain meaning—you can look them up in a dictionary and find a definition.
I play football every Saturday.
The main verbs can be further classified into
1. Transitive verbs
These are verbs that take an object. Exp: He writes a short story.
2. Intransitive verbs
These are verbs that do not take an object. Exp: The bus arrived.
3. Linking verbs
These are verbs which link a subject and its complement. Exp: The chipmunk is
hungry.
 Auxiliary
Verbs
As their name suggests, these 'help' the main verb within the sentence, by extending
its functions. We can divide auxiliary into primary auxiliary and modal auxiliary.
 Primary
Auxiliary
The primary auxiliaries are: be, have, do.
These three verbs can also occur on their own as main
verbs. My Dad is working at the moment.
I have bought a new camera.
Students don’t need to go to school on Sundays.
 Modal
Auxiliary
The modal auxiliaries are: will, may, can, must, shall, might, could, would, should.
Modal verbs are very common in English. They are used to talk about a variety of
things, particularly possibilities, obligations, and deductions.
I can speak three languages.
Will you marry me?
You must arrive on time for work.
 Verbs
Forms
Every verb has the following forms: base, present, past, infinitive, present participle,
and
past participle.
 Infinitive &
Base
The infinitive is the simplest form of the verb. English verbs have two types of infinitive.
Sometimes the infinitive is formed with “to” plus the verb. This is sometimes known as a
to infinitive or full infinitive.
When the infinitive is formed without “to,” it is known as the base or simple form, or the
bare infinitive.
 Participl
es
There are two other verb forms in English that you may find it useful to know about.
They are called participles. There are present participles and past participles.
Present participles are easy. They’re the -ing forms.
Add -ing to any English verb and you have a present participle. Use a present participle
along with am, is, are, was, were, have been, etc. and you get the continuous tenses:
was going, are sailing, am trying and the rest.
Past participles are less simple. The regular ones just take -ed as an ending, or -d if
they
already end in e. The irregular ones do their own thing, so we get eaten, written,
gone, driven, had, drawn, etc.
 Verbs
Forms
Make your secondary school teachers proud by filling in the table in the following
exercise (correctly)!
 Three Simple Verb
Tenses
The three simple verb tenses are present, past, and future. Previous table shows the
present and past tense forms; the future tense is created by adding “will” to the base
form. Below is an example of the verb “study” in context.
Present: Students study grammar.
Past: Students studied grammar.
Future: Students will study
grammar.
 The Perfect & The
Progressive
The perfect aspect is formed with the auxiliary verb “have” and the past participle form
of the verb. “Have” is used with the verb to indicate when an event is taking/took/will
take place during a specific time period (it also can indicate that the action may
continue).

This progressive aspect is formed with the auxiliary verb “be” and the present participle
form (V-ing) of the verb. It is used to show that an action is/was/will be ongoing.
 Main Verbs

Verb
s Primary Aux.

Auxiliary Verbs

Modal Aux.
AdverbdverbAdverbdverbverb
An adverb is a word that modifies or describes a verb (he sings
loudly), an adjective (very tall), another adverb (ended too
quickly), or even a whole sentence (Fortunately, I had brought
an umbrella). Adverbs often end in -ly, but some (such as fast)
look exactly the same as their adjective counterparts.
Adverbs can always be used to modify
verbs. Notice the second sentence. Ex.
i. The dog ran. ii. The dog ran
excitedly.
• Order of Adverb
Adverb order is so important it has clear rules. It’s already mentioned
that some adverbs will act to modify another, but how do you decide the
structure of a sentence with several adverbs? Thankfully, there is a
simple set of rules to follow, called the order of adverbs.
1.Adverbs of manner. 2.Adverbs of place.
3.Adverbs of frequency. 4.Adverbs of time.
Adverbs of purpose.
Exp. I run (verb) quickly (manner) down the road (place) every morning
(frequency) before school (time) because (purpose) I might miss the bus.
• Exercise of adverbs
Where, When & How: In this adverb worksheet, students will fill in the blanks
with “when,” “where” or “how.”
Do you know I can find an eraser?
many pencils are in that box?
Is this the place we first saw the dog?
are we going to Grandma’s house?
does the school bus come?
I don’t know to make slime.
I used to have a dog I was little.
My dad works at the pharmacy we get our medicine.
Do you know to make cookies? I wonderGrandma is coming over?
• Conjunctions
Conjunctions are words that link other words, phrases, or clauses
together. They connect thoughts, actions, and ideas, as well as nouns,
clauses and other word classes. I like cooking and eating, but I don’t like
washing dishes afterward. Sophie is clearly exhausted, yet she insists on
going out.
Conjunctions allow you to form complex, elegant sentences and avoid the
roughness of multiple short sentences. Make sure that the phrases joined
by conjunctions
are parallel (share the same structure). I work quickly and careful.
(Incorrect)
• They still live in the house ………………………… was built by their grandfather.
(Please select 2 correct answers)
which what that
She is …………………… intelligent to be defeated.
Too So Very
He didn’t work hard ……………………. he failed his exam.
Because So
as
You should neither see him …………………… call him.
Or Nor And
…………………… he is honest, everybody respects him.
…………………… his health is poor, he attends his office regularly.
Although However As
……………………. my mother is a doctor, she knows how to dress a wound.
If So As
8. .................................... he worked hard, he did not win.
Though
As if
As though
9. James works hard ....................................... his brother is lazy.
As
As long as
Whereas
10. You must start at once; ................................. you will be late.
Prepositions
• These usually indicate in some way how one thing is related to something
else

• Examples include prepositions relating to position (at, on, opposite), direction

(into, past, to) and time (before, during, after)

• A preposition shows the relationship between the noun that comes after it
and something else in the sentence

I spoke to the man at the reception desk.

Interjection
Determinerss
• These words precede nouns and refer directly to them
• The most common determiners are the (known as the definite article) and a/an
(known as the indefinite article)

• Other determiners include possessive determiners (my, our, you, his, her, its,
their) and demonstrative determiners (this, that, these, those)

• Determiners can also refer to quantity – either specifically (one, two, three) or
more vaguely (some, few, many)
TIP: determiners precede nouns, pronouns replace nouns
At
We use the definite article in front of a noun when we believe the hearer/reader knows
exactly what we are referring to.
We live in a small village next to the mosque. (the mosque in our village)

Dad, can I borrow the car? (the car that belongs to our family)

When we stayed at my
grandmother’s house we went to the beach (the beach near my
every day. grandmother’s house)

Look at the boy in the blue shirt over there. (the boy I am pointing at)
A common noun is used in singular to represent a whole class.
The cow is a useful animal.
The kangaroo is found only in Australia.
When a plural noun is used to talk about things in general, articles are usually
omitted.
Cows are useful animals.
Kangroos are found in Australia.

Note that the article ‘the’ is never used before the nouns ‘man’ and ‘woman’ when they
represent the whole class. Man is mortal. (NOT The man is mortal.)
When you refer to holy books
The Quran, The Ramayana, The Mahabharata
While referring to the names of journals and newspapers The New York Times, The
Wall Street Journal, The News, The Nation, The Jung etc.
Do not use the with ‘Dawn.

Use the definite article with a superlative adjective:

He is the tallest boy in the class.
It is the oldest building in the town.
Use the to refer to people or objects that are unique.

The sun rose at 6:17 this morning. You can go anywhere in the world. Clouds drifted
across the sky.
The president will be speaking on TV tonight
Use the with names of geographical areas, rivers, mountain ranges, groups of
islands, canals, and oceans.
EXAMPLES
They are travelling in the Arctic.

Our ship crossed the Atlantic in 7 days. I will go on a cruise down the Nile.
Hiking across the Rocky Mountains would be difficult.
Use the with countries that have plural names.
I have never been to the Netherlands.
Do you know anyone who lives in the Philippines?

Use the with countries that include the words "republic", "kingdom", or "states" in
their names. She is visiting the United States.
James is from the Republic of Ireland.
When not to use “THE”
Do not use the with names of countries (except for the special cases).
Germany is an important economic power. He lives in Pakistan.

Do not use the with the names of languages.

Urdu is our mother tongue.
English uses many words of Latin origin. Indonesian is a relatively new language.
Do not use the with the names of meals.
Lunch is my favorite meal. I like to eat breakfast early.

Do not use the with people's names.

Ali is coming over later. John is my boss.
Do not use the with professions.
Engineering is a well-paid career.
He will probably study medicine.
Do not use the with uncountable nouns.
Rice is an important food in Asia. Milk is often added to tea in England.

Do not use the with most names of towns, streets, stations and airports.
Can you speak Spanish?
a
an
the
no article
She wants to become engineer.
a
an
the
no article
I saw one eyed person.
a
 eeee
eeeeeee

money doesn’t always lead to happiness.

more you eat, fatter you’ll get.
aluminum is made from bauxite.
The old woman was not afraid of death.
fruits and vegetables have got a lot of
vitamins.
moon travels around earth.
The ship was seen offcoast of Florida.
We are going to Netherlands next summer.
Do your parents ever go to church?
He wrote a book about lives of former presidents.
 Mount Everest is the highest peak on earth.
Liverpool will probably winChampions League this
year.
Mississippi River is largest in North America

cancer is a very serious disease.

16. public transport is an effective way of travel. 17.Someone stole valuable paintings from
gallery last week.
last time I saw him he was preparing for university.
One of most serious environmental problems is
pollution.
He went to prison because he had mugged an old
Sententences for Exercise
1.Still waters run deep.
2.He still lives in that house.
3.He is on the committee.
4.He told us all about the battle.
5.The up train is late.
6.After the storm comes the calm.s
7.The after effects of the drug are bad.
8.Suddenly one of the wheels came off.
9.Muslims fast in the month of Ramzan.
10.He kept the fast for a week.
11.Honesty is the best policy.
12.I will watch while you sleep.
Referenc
es
Seely, J. 2007. "Grammar for Teachers: unlock your knowledge of
English". Triverton: Oxpecker
Sullivan, N.M. 2015. "Essential Grammar for Today's Writers, Students,
and Teachers". New York: Routledge