Ch08 Cognition Cicc Psych Ce

Cognitive: Thinking, Intelligence,
and Language
Chapter 8
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada 8-1

Chapter 8 Learning Objective Menu
• LO 8.1 How do people use mental images to think?
• LO 8.2 What is the nature of a concept?
• LO 8.3 Methods people use to solve problems and make decisions
• LO 8.4 The barriers to solving problems
• LO 8.5 What is creative thinking?
• LO 8.6 What is the definition of intelligence?
• LO 8.7 How do intelligence tests measure intelligence?
• LO 8.8 How are intelligence tests constructed?
• LO 8.9 Mental retardation and what causes it
• LO 8.10 What is giftedness?
• LO 8.11 Does being intellectually gifted guarantee success in life?
• LO 8.12 The affect of musical training on children’s cognitive abilities
• LO 8.13 The theories of intelligence and how they differ
• LO 8.14 The influence of heredity and environment on the development of
intelligence
• LO 8.15 What is artificial intelligence?
• LO 8.16 What is the definition of language ?
• LO 8.17 The different elements of language and it’s structure
• LO 8.18 Does language influence the way people think?
• LO 8.19 Are animals capable of learning language?
• LO 8.20 Is learning more than one language beneficial?
• LO 8.21 Some ways to improve thinking

LO 8.1 Mental images
Thinking and Mental Images

• Thinking (cognition) - mental activity that
goes on in the brain when a person is
organizing and attempting to understand
information and communicating information to
others.
• Mental images - mental representations that
stand for objects or events and have a
picture-like quality.
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Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada
LO 8.2 Concepts
Concepts
• Concepts - ideas that represent a
class or category of objects,
events, or activities.
• Superordinate concept - the most
general form of a type of concept,
such as “animal” or “fruit.”
• Basic level type - an example of a
type of concept around which other
similar concepts are organized,
such as “dog,” “cat,” or “pear.”
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LO 8.2 Concepts
Concepts
• Subordinate concept – the most
specific category of a concept, such as
one’s pet dog or a pear in one’s hand.
• Formal concepts - concepts that are
defined by specific rules or features.
• Natural concepts - concepts people
form as a result of their experiences in
the real world.
• Prototype - an example of a concept A platypus is a
that closely matches the defining “fuzzy” natural
characteristics of a concept. concept
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LO 8.2 Concepts
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LO 8.3 Methods used to solve problems and make decisions
Problem-Solving
• Problem solving - process of
cognition that occurs when a goal
must be reached by thinking and
behaving in certain ways.
• Trial and error (mechanical solution)
– problem-solving method in which
one possible solution after another is
tried until a successful one is found.
• Algorithms - very specific, step-by-
step procedures for solving certain
types of problems.
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LO 8.3 Methods used to solve problems and make decisions
Problem-Solving
• Heuristic - an educated guess based on
prior experiences that helps narrow
down the possible solutions for a
problem. Also known as a “rule of
thumb.”
• Means–end analysis - heuristic in which the
difference between the starting situation
and the goal is determined and then steps
are taken to reduce that difference.
• Insight - sudden perception of a solution
to a problem. Menu
LO 8.4 Barriers to solving problems
Problem-Solving Barriers
• Functional fixedness - a block to problem
solving that comes from thinking about
objects in terms of only their typical functions.
• Mental set - the tendency for people to persist
in using problem-solving patterns that have
worked for them in the past.
• Confirmation bias – the tendency to search
for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while
ignoring any evidence that does not fit those
beliefs.
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LO 8.4 Barriers to solving problems
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LO 8.5 Creative thinking
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Divergent and Convergent
Thinking
• Creativity- the process of solving problems
by combining ideas or behavior in new
ways.
• Convergent thinking - type of thinking in which a
problem is seen as having only one answer, and
all lines of thinking will eventually lead to that
single answer, using previous knowledge and
logic.
• Divergent thinking – type of thinking in which a
person starts from one point and comes up with
many different ideas or possibilities based on that
point (kind of creativity).

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LO 8.6 Definition of intelligence
Intelligence
• Intelligence - the ability to learn from
one’s experiences, acquire knowledge,
and use resources effectively in
adapting to new situations or solving
problems.
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LO 8.7 How do intelligence tests measure?
IQ Tests
• Intelligence quotient (IQ) - a number
representing a measure of
intelligence, resulting from the division
of one’s mental age by one’s
chronological age and then
multiplying that quotient by 100.
• Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test yields
an IQ score.
• Wechsler Intelligence Tests yield a
verbal score and a performance
score, as well as an overall score of
intelligence.
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LO 8.7 LO 8.7 How do intelligence tests measure?
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LO 8.7 How do intelligence tests measure?
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LO 8.8 How intelligence tests are constructed?
Development of IQ Tests
• Standardization - the process of giving the
test to a large group of people that represents
the kind of people for whom the test is
designed.
• Validity - the degree to which a test actually
measures what it’s supposed to measure.
• Reliability - the tendency of a test to produce
the same scores again and again each time it
is given to the same people.
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LO 8.8 How intelligence tests are constructed?

LO 8.8 How intelligence tests are constructed
Development of IQ Tests
• Deviation IQ scores - a type of
intelligence measure that assumes that
IQ is normally distributed around a
mean of 100 with a standard deviation
of about 15.
• Norms
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Unreliable and Invalid

Construct (i.e., “intelligence)
TEST
Scores on test

Reliable But Invalid

TEST
Scores on test
Test can be RELIABLE but still be INVALID!

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8-22
Reliable AND Valid

TEST
Scores on test
Test MUST be RELIABLE to be VALID!

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8-23
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8-24
LO 8.9 Mental retardation and what causes it
Mental Retardation
• Developmentally delayed - condition in which
a person’s behavioral and cognitive skills
exist at an earlier developmental stage than
the skills of others who are the same
chronological age. A more acceptable term
for mental retardation.
• Mental retardation or developmental delay is a
condition in which IQ falls below 70 and adaptive
behavior is severely deficient for a person of a
particular chronological age.
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Mental Retardation
• Four levels of delay are:
• Mild: 55–70 IQ
• Moderate: 40–55 IQ
• Severe: 25–40 IQ
• Profound: Below 25 IQ.
• Causes of developmental delay include
deprived environments, as well as
chromosome and genetic disorders and
dietary deficiencies. Menu
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8-27
Mainstreaming
• 50 years ago, children with developmental delays were educated
in segregated schools
• Today, most Canadian education systems favour
“mainstreaming” or the inclusion of all children, regardless of
disabilities or differences, within the regular classroom
• Research supporting mainstreaming is inconclusive

LO 8.10 Giftedness
Giftedness
• Gifted - the 2 percent of the population
falling on the upper end of the normal
curve and typically possessing an IQ of
130 or above.
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LO 8.11 Does giftedness guarantee success?
Does Giftedness Guarantee

Success?
• Terman conducted a longitudinal
study that demonstrated that gifted
children grow up to be successful
adults for the most part.
• Terman’s study has been criticized
for a lack of objectivity because he
became too involved in the lives of
his participants, even to the point
of interfering on their behalf.

8.12 Affect of music on cognitive ability
Music and Cognitive Ability

• Canadian researchers have identified that
musical training for children as young as
age 4-6 years, can lead to improvements
in mathematical ability, literacy, memory,
IQ, and attention/focusing skills, among
other benefits.

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LO 8.13 Theories of intelligence
Theories of Intelligence
• Spearman’s Theory
• g factor – the ability to reason and solve
problems, or general intelligence.
• s factor – the ability to excel in certain
areas, or specific intelligence.
• Gardner’s Theory
• Multiple intelligences - ranging from verbal,
linguistic, and mathematical to
interpersonal and intrapersonal
intelligence.
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According to Gardner, what kind of

intelligence is being shown here?
Musical

Albert
Einstein
Logical-Mathematical


Visual-spatial
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Movement
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• Triarchic theory of intelligence - Sternberg’s theory
that there are three kinds of intelligences: analytical,
creative, and practical.
• Analytical intelligence - the ability to break
problems down into component parts, or analysis,
for problem solving.
• Creative intelligence - the ability to deal with new
and different concepts and to come up with new
ways of solving problems.
• Practical intelligence – the ability to use information
to get along in life and become successful.
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• Emotional intelligence – the awareness of
and ability to manage one’s own emotions as
well as the ability to be self-motivated, able to
feel what others feel, and socially skilled.
Viewed as a powerful influence on success in
life.
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Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada Menu
LO 8.14 Influence of heredity and environment on intelligence
Heredity and Environment and

Intelligence
• Stronger correlations are found between
IQ scores as genetic relatedness
increases.
• Heritability of IQ is estimated at 0.50.
• The Bell Curve - book that made widely
criticized claims about the heritability of
intelligence.

LO 8.14 Influence of heredity and environment on intelligence

LO 8.15 Artificial intelligence
Artificial Intelligence
• Artificial intelligence (AI) - the creation of
a machine that can think like a human.
• True flexibility of human thought processes
has yet to be developed in a machine.
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LO 8.16 Definition of language
Language
• Language - a system for combining
symbols (such as words) so that an
unlimited number of meaningful
statements can be made for the
purpose of communicating with others.
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LO 8.17 Different elements and structure of language
Elements and Structure of Language

• Phonemes - the basic units
of sound in language.
• Pragmatics - aspects of
language involving the
practical ways of
communicating with others,
or the social “niceties” of
language.
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LO 8.17 Different elements of language
Elements and Structure of Language

• Grammar - the system of rules
governing the structure and use a of
language.
• Syntax - the system of rules for
combining words and phrases to form
grammatically correct sentences.
• Morphemes - the smallest units of
meaning within a language.
• Semantics - the rules for determining the
meaning of words and sentences. Menu
LO 8.18 Language and thinking
Language and Cognition

• Linguistic relativity hypothesis - the
theory that thought processes and
concepts are controlled by language.
• Cognitive universalism – theory that
concepts are universal and influence
the development of language.
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LO 8.19 Are animals capable of learning language?
Animal Language
• Studies have been somewhat successful in
demonstrating that animals can develop a basic kind
of language, including some abstract ideas.
• Controversy exists over the lack of evidence that
animals can learn syntax, which some feel means that
animals are not truly learning and using language.
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LO 8.19 Animal capability of learning language
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LO 8.20 Learning more than one language
Benefits of More Languages

• Bilingualism leads to cognitive advantages
in children, young adults and older adults
• Better problem solving skills in children
and higher cognitive control in older adults
are two of the documented benefits

LO 8.21 Ways to improve thinking
Ways to Improve Thinking

• Mental activity that requires creativity
and the use of memory abilities, such
as working crossword puzzles and
reading books, can help to keep the
brain fit.

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Cognitive: Thinking, Intelligence,

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada 8-1

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada 8-2

Thinking and Mental Images

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada 8-10

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada Menu 8-12

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada 8-16

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada Menu 8-19

Unreliable and Invalid

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada Menu 8-21

Reliable But Invalid

Test can be RELIABLE but still be INVALID!

Reliable AND Valid

Test MUST be RELIABLE to be VALID!

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada Menu 8-28

Does Giftedness Guarantee

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada Menu 8-30

Music and Cognitive Ability

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada Menu 8-33

According to Gardner, what kind of

According to Gardner, what kind of

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada Menu 8-35

According to Gardner, what kind of

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada Menu 8-36

According to Gardner, what kind of

Heredity and Environment and

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada Menu 8-40

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada Menu 8-41

Elements and Structure of Language

Elements and Structure of Language

Language and Cognition

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada 8-48

Benefits of More Languages

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada Menu 8-49

Ways to Improve Thinking

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada Menu 8-50

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