Gen Math Valid Arguments and Fallacies

Valid Arguments and
Fallacies
General Mathematics Program
Objectives
• Define argument
• Define valid
argument
• Define fallacy
• Define sound
argument
Definition
• An argument is a compound
proposition of the form
(p1 ∧ p2 ∧ . . . ∧ pn)  q.
• The propositions p1, p2, . . . , pn are
the premises of the argument, and
q is the conclusion.
Definitio
n
• Arguments can be written in
propositional form, as above, or in
column or standard form:
p1
p2
⁝
pn
q
Example 1
Write the following argument in
propositional form and in standard
form.
• If there is limited freshwater
supply, then we should conserve
water.
• There is limited freshwater supply.
• Therefore, we should conserve
water.
Example 1
The premises are:
p1: If there is limited freshwater supply, then
we should conserve water.
p2: There is limited freshwater supply.
The conclusion is:
q: We should conserve water.
Symbol form:
(p 1 ∧ p2)q
Example 2
Standard form:
p
1
p
2
q
Take note that two arguments may

have equivalent logical forms,
Example 3
Consider the
following: A
p  q If my alarm
sounds,
p then I will
My alarm
wakesounded.
up
q Therefore, I woke
p  up. B
qq If my alarm sounds, then I will
 wake up I woke up.
p
Therefore, my alarm sounded.
Validity
Condition
Is it logically impossible for the
premises to be true and the
conclusion false?
If the answer is YES, we say that the

argument satisfies the validity
condition. The argument is valid.
Example
3
A
If my alarm sounds, then I will p
wake up My alarm sounded. qp
Therefore, I woke up. 
q
p q pq
T T T
Is it logically impossible for
T F F the premises to be true
F T T and the conclusion false?
F F T
Example
3
A
p
If my alarm sounds, then I will wake
qp
up My alarm sounded.
Therefore, I woke up. 
q
p q pq Suppose the premises
T T T
are both true,
T F F is it impossible for the
F T T conclusion to be
F F T false?
There is only one possibility that both premises
are true and it would show that the conclusion is
also true.
Example
3
B
p
If my alarm sounds, then I will
qq
wake up I woke up.
Therefore, my alarm sounded. 
p
p q pq
Suppose the premises
T T T
are both true,
T F F
F T T
Is it impossible for the
F F T
conclusion to be
false?
Yes, there is a possibility of it being
false.
Example
3
We can now say that A satisfies the
validity condition while B fails it.
B failed it because it doesn’t
necessarily mean that if I woke up, my
alarm sounded. Maybe I woke up
because my newborn child
is crying. 
Valid
Argument
• A valid argument satisfies the
validity condition; that is, the
conclusion q is true whenever the
premises p1, p2,..., pn are all true.
• Put another way, for a valid
argument, the conditional
(p1 ∧ p2 ∧ . . . ∧ pn) 
q is a tautology.
Example
4
• Prove that the argument ((p  q) ∧ p) 
q is valid.
p q pq (p  q) ∧ p ((p  q) ∧ p)  q
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T
Since ((p  q) ∧ p)  q is a tautology, then

the argument is valid.
This argument is called, Modus Ponens
(rule of Detachment).
Example
5
Consider the following:
A
p  q If my alarm sounds, then I will
p
wakeMy up alarm
sounded.
q Therefore, I
woke up.
If there is limited freshwater supply,
pq B should conserve water.
p
then we There is limited freshwater
 supply. Therefore, we should
q conserve water.
Example
5
Consider the following:
C
p  q If General Antonio Luna is a national hero,
then he
p General
died Antonio
at the handsLuna is aAmericans
of the national hero.
in 1899.
Therefore, General Luna died at the hands
 of the Americans in 1899.
q
Notice that all three arguments are in the
form
((p  q) ∧ p)  q
Hence, by Modus Ponens, arguments A, B,
C
However, this does not mean that the
conclusions are true.
Asserting that the argument is valid simply
means that the conclusion logically follows
from the premises.
These examples illustrate that the validity
of an argument does not depend on the
content of the argument, but on its form.
Example
6
If Antonio and Jose are friends, then they
are Facebook friends.
Antonio and Jose are not Facebook
friends. Therefore, they are not friends.
The argument is in the form p

q
((pq) ∧ ~q) 
~ qp
~
~p
Hence, by Modus Tollens, the argument is
valid.
Rules of
Inference
Let p, q, and r be
propositions.
Example
6
Determine whether the argument is valid
If Antonioand Jose are friends,
then they are Facebook friends.
Antonio and Jose are not Facebook
friends. Therefore, they are not friends.
p: Antonio and Jose are friends

q: Antonio and Jose are Facebook
friends
Example
6
If Pan eats too much, then he will gain
weight.
If he gains weight, then he will work out in
the gym. Therefore, if Pan eats too much,
then
p: Panheeats
will too
work out in the gym. p
q
much. q: Pan will
q r
gain weight.  p 
r: Pan will work out r
in
Bythe
Lawgym.
of Syllogism, the argument is
valid. ((p  q) ∧
(q
Example
7
Antonio Luna and Jose Rizal like Nelly
Boustead. Therefore, Antonio Luna likes
Nelly Boustead.
p: Antonio Luna likes Nelly
p
Boustead q: Jose Rizal likes
q
Nelly Boustead
p
p∧ qp
Example
7
• If you study hard, yourefine your
communication skills and build
up your confidence.
• If you refine your communication skills
and build up your confidence, then your
job opportunities increase.
• Hence, if you study hard, your job
opportunities increase.
Fallac
y
• An argument (p1 ∧ p2 ∧ . . . ∧ pn)
 q which is not valid is called a
fallacy.
• In a fallacy, it is possible for the
premises p1, p2,..., pn to be true but
the conclusion q is false.
• Put another way, the
conditional (p1 ∧ p2 ∧ . . .
∧ pn)  q
Is NOT a tautology.
Example
8
• Prove that the argument ((p  q) ∧ q) 
p is a fallacy.
p q pq (p  q) ∧ q ((p  q) ∧ q)  p
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T F T
We see that in the 3rd row, the argument

showed an F.
This argument is called, Fallacy of the
Converse.
Example
9
Show that the following arguments are fallacies.
A’: -If my alarm sounds, then I will wake up.
-I woke up.
-Therefore, my alarm sounded.
B’: -If there is a limited supply of freshwater, then I will
conserve water.
-I will conserve water.
-Therefore, there is limited supply of freshwater.
Table of
Fallacies
Let p, q, and r be
propositions.
Table of
Fallacies
Let p, q, and r be
propositions.
Example
10
Determine whether the argument is
valid
Given:
p: Alvin sings with
Nina. q: Alvin dances
with Nina.
Example
10
Either Alvin sings or dances with
Nina. Alvin sang with Nina.
Therefore, Alvin did not dance
with Nina.
The argument is in the form p
((p∨q) ∧ p)  qp
~q ~ q
Hence, by Affirming the Disjunct, the argument is
a fallacy.
Example
10
If Alvin sings with Nina, then Alvin dances
with her, too.
Therefore, if Alvin dances with Nina, he
sings with her, too.
pq
The argument is in the form p
(p  q)  (q  p) ~
q
Hence, by Fallacy of the Consequent, the
argument is a fallacy.
Example
11
Antonio Luna is a scientist.
Therefore, either Antonio Luna or Jose
Rizal is a scientist.
p: Antonio Luna is a scientist.
p
q: Jose Rizal is a scientist.
p
p  (p ∨
q
q)

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Valid Arguments and

Take note that two arguments may

If the answer is YES, we say that the

Since ((p  q) ∧ p)  q is a tautology, then

The argument is in the form p

p: Antonio and Jose are friends

We see that in the 3rd row, the argument

B’: -If there is a limited supply of freshwater, then I will

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