Easc 216 - Lecture 2

EARTH
1
• It is the largest of the terrestrial planets in terms of
its size and mass
• The earth is not a perfect sphere. It is flat at the

poles
• Its diameter from pole to pole differs from its

equatorial diameter
• It is layered with dense material iron rich core and

surrounded by the mantle and a thin crust of silicate 2
Mass and Composition of the Earth
• Masse = 5.98 x 1024kg
• Consists mainly of iron (32.1%), oxygen (30.1%), silicon (15%),

magnesium (13.9%), Sulphur (2.9%), nickel (1.8%), calcium (1.5%),
aluminium (1.4%), and 1.2% trace amounts of other elements
• The core is composed of iron (88.8%), nickel (5.8%), Sulphur (4.5%)

and about 0.9% trace elements
3
The Differentiated Earth
• The earth is not homogenous. It
has undergone differentiation
• Differentiation is a process where

a body is internally zoned or
layered. This happens when heat
is applied to the body
• During the process of

differentiation, iron is melted and
sunk to the centre to form the
core and the light material settled
upwards to form mantle and the
4
crust
https://geo.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Oceanography/Oceanography_101_(Miracosta)/ 5
03%3A_Structure_of_the_Earth/3.06%3A_Layers_Of_the_Earth_As_Defined_By_Physical_Properties
Compositional vs Mechanical layers of the Earth
6
Layers of the Earth as described by Physical Properties
Earth's Core
• Subdivided into zones based

on their geophysical
properties: outer core and
inner core
• Outer core: is a liquid layer

composed mostly of an iron-
nickel alloy (a mixture with
similar composition to metallic
meteorites).
• Convective flow within the

outer core generates Earth’s
magnetic field.
Inner core: Geophysical

studies show that the inner
core behaves like a solid, but
is very dense, around 16
gm/cc (similar to the physical
properties of an iron-nickel 7
Mantle
• The mantle is the thick layer of hot, solid rock between the Earth's crust and
the molten iron core.
• It makes up the bulk of the Earth, accounting for two-thirds of the planet's
mass.
• The mantle starts about 30 kilometers down and is about 2,900 kilometers
thick.
• It has three main layers.
• The upper mantle extends from the base of the crust (the Moho) down to
660 kilometers depth.
• The transition zone is located between 410 and 660 kilometers, at which
depths major physical changes occur to minerals.
8
• The lower mantle (Mesosphere) extends from 660 kilometers down to
about 2,700 kilometers.
• At this point, seismic waves are affected so strongly that most

researchers believe the rocks beneath are different in their chemistry,
not just in their crystallography.
• This controversial layer at the bottom of the mantle, about 200

kilometers thick, has the odd name "D-double-prime."
9
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Why is the Earth Mantle Special?
• The mantle is the bulk of the Earth, its story is

fundamental to geology.
• During Earth's birth, the mantle began as an ocean of

liquid magma atop the iron core. As it solidified,
elements that didn't fit into the major minerals
collected as a scum on top—the crust. After that, the
mantle began the slow circulation it has had for the last
four billion years.
• The upper part of the mantle has cooled because it is

stirred and hydrated by the tectonic motions of the
surface plates.
• Compared to other planets (Mercury, Venus, and Mars),

Earth has an active, lubricated mantle that is very
special thanks to water, the same ingredient that
distinguishes its surface.
11
Asthenosphere (Weak sphere)
• Refers to a semi-fluid layer beneath

the lithosphere (within the upper
mantle), between about 60 to 400
miles (100-650 km) below the
outer rigid lithosphere (oceanic and
continental crust) forming part of
the mantle.
• The asthenosphere, although solid,

is very hot and is thought to be
able to flow vertically and
horizontally, enabling sections of
lithosphere to undergo movements
associated with plate tectonics.
• Geologist use the term plastic to

describe how hot solid materials,
including rocks, can deform and
flow slowly.
12
Lithosphere (Sphere of rock)
• Describes the rigid outer part of the Earth, consisting of the crust and upper
mantle.
• Compared with other layers of the Earth, the lithosphere is a relatively cool, rigid
shell and averages about 100 km in thickness, but may be about 250 km or more
thick beneath the older portions of the continents.
• The lithosphere is broken up into moving plates, and the movements of these
plates are responsible for all the large-scale features observable on the surface—
including ocean basins, continents, and mountain ranges.
13
Note
Mantle = Lithosphere +
Asthenosphere +
Mesosphere
14
The Earth’s
• Crust
The crust is the outermost layer of our planet and is less than 1% of the
entire Earth’s size.
• It is solid and composed of silicates
• Varies with depth as well as temperature
• The upper crust withstands the ambient temperature of

the atmosphere or ocean—hot in arid deserts and freezing in ocean
trenches. Near the Moho, the temperature of the crust ranges from 200°
Celsius (392° Fahrenheit) to 400° Celsius (752° Fahrenheit).
• Divided into the older, thicker Continental crust and the younger, denser
Oceanic crust
• The thickness of the crust varies from place to place. It averages 6km
under the oceans and 30-50km on the continents
15
Oceanic Crust
• Extends 5-10 kilometers (3-6 kilometers) beneath the ocean floor
• Composed of different types of basalts.
• Oceanic crust is dense, almost 3 grams per cubic centimeter (1.7 ounces
per cubic inch).
• Constantly formed at mid-ocean ridges, where tectonic plates are tearing

apart from each other.
• As magma that wells up from these rifts in Earth’s surface cools, it becomes
young oceanic crust. The age and density of oceanic crust increases with
distance from mid-ocean ridges.
16
Continental Crust
• Mostly composed of different types of granites.
• Can be as thick as 70 kilometers kilometers , but also slightly less dense (about 2.7
grams per cubic centimeter.
• Continental crust is also created by plate tectonics.
• At convergent plate boundaries, where tectonic plates crash into each other,
continental crust is thrust up in the process of orogeny, or mountain-building.
17
The lithosphere’s depth varies, and the Mohorovicic discontinuity (the
Moho)—the boundary between the mantle and crust—does not exist at
a uniform depth
18
Image of Earth's internal structure by USGS - Mohorovicic Discontinuity (red line) added by Geology.com
How do we know the structure of the Earth?
• By indirect geophysical methods!
Geophysical Method Instruments Used
Magnetic measurements magnetometers
Gravity measurements from the surface or from precise

gravitometers and satellites
measurements from satellites orbiting a planet or moon
Seismic waves from earthquakes or large explosions seismographs
19
Physical Properties
• Materials are differentiated based on their physical properties.
• Physical properties characterize how materials respond to various

physical inputs.
• They include: Density, Susceptibility, Seismic Velocity, Dielectric

Permitivity, Electrical Conductivity, Chargeability
20
Density
21
Magnetic Susceptibility
22
Seismic Velocity
Dielectric Permitivity
24
Electrical Conductivity
25
Chargeability
26

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EARTH

• The earth is not a perfect sphere. It is flat at the

• Its diameter from pole to pole differs from its

• It is layered with dense material iron rich core and

• Consists mainly of iron (32.1%), oxygen (30.1%), silicon (15%),

• The core is composed of iron (88.8%), nickel (5.8%), Sulphur (4.5%)

• Differentiation is a process where

• During the process of

• Subdivided into zones based

• Outer core: is a liquid layer

• Convective flow within the

Inner core: Geophysical

• It has three main layers.

• At this point, seismic waves are affected so strongly that most

• This controversial layer at the bottom of the mantle, about 200

• The mantle is the bulk of the Earth, its story is

• During Earth's birth, the mantle began as an ocean of

• The upper part of the mantle has cooled because it is

• Compared to other planets (Mercury, Venus, and Mars),

• Refers to a semi-fluid layer beneath

• The asthenosphere, although solid,

• Geologist use the term plastic to

• It is solid and composed of silicates

• Varies with depth as well as temperature

• The upper crust withstands the ambient temperature of

• Composed of different types of basalts.

• Constantly formed at mid-ocean ridges, where tectonic plates are tearing

• Mostly composed of different types of granites.

• Continental crust is also created by plate tectonics.

• By indirect geophysical methods!

Geophysical Method Instruments Used

Magnetic measurements magnetometers

Gravity measurements from the surface or from precise

Seismic waves from earthquakes or large explosions seismographs

• Physical properties characterize how materials respond to various

• They include: Density, Susceptibility, Seismic Velocity, Dielectric

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