Reviewer in Science

Reviewer in Science
Volcano- It is a vent or fissure in the planet’s crust through which lava, ash, rock, and gases
erupt.
How do Volcanoes form?

1. Magma rises through cracks or weaknesses in the Earth's crust.
2. Pressure builds up inside the Earth.
3. When this pressure is released, because of plate movement, magma explodes to the surface
causing a volcanic eruption.
4. The lava from the eruption cools to form new crust.
5. Over time, after several eruptions, the rock builds up and a volcano forms.
Types of Volcanoes:
1. Cinder cone volcanoes (also called scoria cones)
• The most common type of volcano.
• Symmetrical cone-shaped volcanoes.
• Fairly small, generally only about 300 feet (91 meters) tall and not rising more than 1,200 feet
(366 meters).
• Build up over short periods of a few months or years.
2. Stratovolcanoes / Composite Volcanoes

• Are built of layers of alternating lava flow, ash, and blocks of unmelted stone.
• Result from a conduit system of vents leading from a magma reservoir beneath the surface.
• Stratovolcanoes are considered the most violent.
3. Shield Volcanoes
• Are huge, gently sloping volcanoes built of very thin lava spreading out in all directions from a
central vent.
• They have wide based several miles in diameter with steeper middle slopes and a flatter
summit.
4. Lava Domes
• Are built up when the lava is too vicious to flow.
• A bubble or plug of cooling rock forms over a fissure.
Other Volcanic landforms:

1. A Caldera- is a bowl-shaped depression formed when a volcano collapses into the void left
when its magma chamber is emptied.
2. Volcanic plugs- when magma solidifies in the fissure of a volcano the hard dense rock may
form a "neck" that remains when softer surrounding rock has been eroded away.
Why do earthquakes occur?

• Energy released and propagates in all directions as seismic waves causing earthquakes.
Seismic waves: Forms:

• P-waves:
• called compressional, or push-pull waves
• Propagate parallel to the direction in which the wave is moving
• Move through solids, liquids.
• S-waves:
• Called shear waves
• Propagate the movement perpendicular to the direction in which the wave is moving.
• Surface waves (L-waves or long waves).

• Complex motion
• Up-and-down and side-to-side
• Slowest
• Most damage to structures, buildings.
Seismic waves: Properties:

• Velocity: Function of the physical properties of the rock the wave is traveling through.
Measuring earthquakes:
• Seismometers- Instruments that detect seismic waves.
• Seismographs- Record intensity, height, and amplitude of seismic waves.
Earthquake: Ways to measure:
1) Magnitude: Richter Scale
• Measures the energy released by fault movement.
• Related to the maximum amplitude of the S wave measured from the seismogram.
• Logarithmic scale; quantitative measure.
2) Intensity: Mercalli Scale:

• Assigns an intensity or rating to measure an earthquake at a particular location (qualitative).
• Measures the destructive effect.
THE CORE:
• Is the innermost layer of the Earth.
• It is 3480 km thick, and its depth starts from 2900 to 6380 km.
• The boundary between the inner and outer core is called the Lehmann discontinuity.
Composition:
• The core is composed mainly of iron which is about 85%.
• Nickel is also present at 5% alongside other lighter elements which are 10% of the layer.
• These lighter elements include sulfur, oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen.
Layers:
Outer core- is a liquid layer, 2260 km thick.
• Temperature in the outer core ranges from 4500 C to 6000 C .
• Turbulent flow of iron in the outer core is believed to be responsible for the generation of
Earth’s magnetic field.
Inner core- Innermost layer of the Earth.

• Is also composed of iron and nickel and light elements.
• This layer is in solid phase; is about 70% of the size of the Moon.
• Temperature in this region ranges from 6000 C and higher, but the pressure is high enough
for the materials to stay solid. Has the same as the temperature at the surface of the sun.
Formation of the CORE:

• The core was already formed when the Solar System was very young.
• The core was formed around 1 to 1.5 billion years ago when the solid inner core was just
beginning to solidify.
• Studies also explained that compared to the earlier years of Earth when the core was in in a
rapid change of state form liquid to solid, the cooling in the inner core was slower today.
The Crust:
• Is the outermost layer of the geosphere.
• Extremely thin (5km 80km) from the surface.
•Mohorovičić discontinuity is the boundary of two layers.
• The crust and upper layer of the Mantle make up the brittle lithosphere, which is broken up
into major sections called tectonic plates.
Composition of the Crust:
Types of Crust:
Oceanic crust:
• Composed mostly of dark colored mafic rocks
• The density of oceanic crust ranges from2.9 to 3.1 g/cm 3. The dark color and relatively high
density can be attributed to the elevated iron, magnesium, and calcium content of mafic rocks.
• Thickness varying from 5 to 18 km.
Continental crust:
• Composed of many rock types. Its major component is granodiorite, a light-colored igneous
rock.
• The thickness of continental crust reaches up to 80 km in mountainous areas and has an
average thickness of 30 km
• Density of continental crust is lower compared to oceanic crust and may range from 2.6 to 2.9
g/cm 3.
Formation of Crust:
• The crust is formed through differentiation of the Earth. Billions of years ago, during the early
formation of Earth, the planet was merely a big sphere of molten rock.
• Conventional theory states that Earth’s crust was formed by volcanic activity.
• Baker and Sofonio’s theory stating that some of the material settled onto the Earth’s early
surface from the steamy atmosphere during that time. Scientists believe that planetoid.
The Mantle:
• The largest layer which accounts for about 83% of Earth’s volume.
• Thickest layer that extends to depths of 2900 km.
Composition:
• This layer is rich in magnesium oxide that distinguishes it from the crust.
• The bulk composition of the upper mantle is believed to be peridotites, dark colored
ultramafic igneous rocks.
• The lower mantle is dominated by the mineral, bridgmanite, a type of perovskite. This mineral
can only exist under high.
Layers:
• Lithosphere is comprised of the crust and the uppermost part of the mantle.
• Asthenosphere lies below the lithosphere. Here, rocks have plasticity and can flow.
• Mesosphere is also called the lower mantle and is composed of semi solid ultrahigh pressure silicates.
Movement in the Mantle:

• Mantle convection refers to the transfer of heat from the mantle to the crust through the
movement of mantle materials.

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How do Volcanoes form?

2. Stratovolcanoes / Composite Volcanoes

Other Volcanic landforms:

Why do earthquakes occur?

Seismic waves: Forms:

• Surface waves (L-waves or long waves).

Seismic waves: Properties:

2) Intensity: Mercalli Scale:

Inner core- Innermost layer of the Earth.

Formation of the CORE:

Composition of the Crust:

Movement in the Mantle:

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