Respiratory System

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Respiratory

System
Presented by
Shani Patel ( Roll no. 28 )
Anugya Khatiwada ( Roll no. 05 )

Chitwan Medical College ,


Bharatpur – 05
Mechanism of gaseous exchange in
lungs
 The gaseous exchange occurs by diffusion
in the alveoli of lungs
 It depends upon the pressure depend
between blood and tissue
 The exchange of gas takes place in the
following manner
1. Transport of oxygen
2. Internal respiration
3. Transport of carbon dioxide from
tissue to lungs
4. Intrapleural breathing
5. Respiratory gas transport
1. Transport of oxygen
 The oxygen in the blood combines with hemoglobin when the concentration
of oxygen is high in the lungs
 Oxyhemoglobin is formed during physiological respiration when oxygen
binds to the heme component of the protein hemoglobin in red blood cell

2. Internal respiration
 The gaseous exchange takes place in the tissue is called internal
respiration
 The oxygen carried in the form of oxyhemoglobin gets dissociated to
release oxygen
 This oxygen breaks down the glucose to release carbon dioxide , water
& energy while the carbon dioxide diffused from the tissue
3. Transport of carbon dioxide from tissue to
lungs
 Carbon dioxide is transported by 3 mechanism

 Some carbon dioxide dissolves in the water of plasma to form carbonic acid
 Carbonic acid ionizes to form bicarbonate ions
 The hydrogen ions are catalyzed by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase
 Some CO2 combines with hemoglobin for the formation of
carbaminohemoglobin
 then, finally carried to the lungs and released out of the body through
expiration
4. Intrapleural breathing
 Intrapleural breathing refers to the mechanics of breathing involving the
pleural space
 which is the thin fluid-filled space between the layers of the pleura
surrounding the lungs.
 During inhalation, the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract,
decreasing pressure in the pleural cavity and allowing air to flow into the
lungs.
 During exhalation, these muscles relax, increasing pressure in the pleural
cavity, which helps push air out of the lungs.
 This process is crucial for maintaining lung inflation and efficient gas
exchange
5. Respiratory gas transport
Respiratory gas transport involves the movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide
between the lungs and tissues.
Oxygen Transport: Oxygen is inhaled into the lungs, where it diffuses into the
bloodstream and binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells. It is then transported
to body tissues.
Carbon Dioxide Transport: Carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism,
diffuses from tissues into the blood. It is transported back to the lungs in three
forms: dissolved in plasma, as bicarbonate ions (after reacting with water), and
bound to hemoglobin.
In the lungs, oxygen is released to the blood, and carbon dioxide is expelled
during exhalation. This process is essential for cellular respiration and
maintaining pH balance in the body.
Regulation of Breathing
 Breathing is regulated by two mechanism
1. Neural mechanism
2. Chemical mechanism
Neural Mechanism
 It involves respiratory center , located in the medulla oblongata

 Stimulation of these respiratory muscles provide respiratory


movements which leads to alveolar ventilation

 The neural mechanism of breathing involves a complex interplay


between various brain regions, peripheral receptors, and muscles.
Here’s a brief overview of how it works:
1. Central Respiratory Control:
 The medulla oblongata and pons in the brainstem are crucial for
controlling the rhythm and rate of breathing.
 The medullary respiratory centers (ventral and dorsal respiratory groups)
generate rhythmic breathing patterns by sending signals to the diaphragm
and intercostal muscles.
2. Sensory Input:
 Chemoreceptors in the carotid arteries and aorta monitor levels of carbon
dioxide (CO₂), oxygen (O₂), and pH in the blood.
 Stretch receptors in the lungs provide feedback about lung inflation,
helping to prevent over-inflation.
3. Motor Output:
 The phrenic nerve controls the diaphragm, the primary muscle involved in
breathing.
 Intercostal nerves control the intercostal muscles, which assist in
expanding and contracting the rib cage.
4. Voluntary Control:
 The cerebral cortex can override the automatic breathing patterns to some
extent, allowing for voluntary control, such as holding one’s breath or
speaking.
5. Reflexes:
 Various reflexes, such as the Hering-Breuer reflex, help regulate breathing
patterns in response to changes in lung volume.

Overall, this intricate system ensures that oxygen is efficiently delivered to tissues
and carbon dioxide is expelled, maintaining homeostasis in the body.
Chemical Mechanism
The chemical mechanism of breathing primarily involves the regulation of gases
—oxygen (O₂) and carbon dioxide (CO₂)—in the blood. Here’s how it works:

1.Gas Exchange:
 Breathing facilitates the exchange of O₂ and CO₂ between the alveoli in
the lungs and the blood. O₂ enters the bloodstream, while CO₂ is expelled
from the blood into the alveoli to be exhaled.
2.Role of Hemoglobin:
 Hemoglobin in red blood cells binds to O₂, transporting it throughout the
body. Each hemoglobin molecule can bind up to four O₂ molecules. The
binding is influenced by factors like pH, CO₂ concentration, and
temperature.
3. Chemoreceptors:
 Central Chemoreceptors: Located in the medulla oblongata, they
primarily respond to changes in CO₂ levels. An increase in CO₂
(hypercapnia) leads to a decrease in pH (more acidic), stimulating the
respiratory centers to increase the rate and depth of breathing.
 Peripheral Chemoreceptors: Located in the carotid bodies and aortic
arch, they respond to low O₂ levels (hypoxia) and changes in CO₂ and
pH. They also influence breathing rate when O₂ levels drop.
4. Carbon Dioxide Transport:
CO₂ is transported in three ways:
 Dissolved in plasma (about 7-10%).
 Bound to hemoglobin as carbamino compounds (about 20-23%).
 As bicarbonate ions (HCO₃⁻) formed when CO₂ reacts with water,
facilitated by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase in red blood cells. This
reaction is crucial for regulating blood pH.
5. Buffering System:
 The bicarbonate buffer system helps maintain pH balance in the
blood. When CO₂ levels increase, it shifts the equilibrium toward
more H⁺ ions (lower pH), signaling the need for increased
ventilation to expel CO₂.

Overall, the chemical mechanisms of breathing ensure that oxygen


delivery is optimized while maintaining acid-base balance in the body.
Apnea;
Apnea is a medical term that refers to a temporary cessation of
breathing. It can occur during sleep (as in obstructive sleep apnea) or
while awake. Apnea can lead to reduced oxygen levels in the blood and
can cause various health issues if it occurs frequently or for prolonged
periods. There are different types of apnea, including central apnea
(caused by a failure of the brain to signal the muscles to breathe) and
obstructive apnea (caused by a blockage in the airway).
Hypoxia;
Hypoxia is a condition where the body or a part of the body doesn't get
enough oxygen. This can happen for various reasons, like high altitude,
lung problems, or certain medical conditions. When the body lacks
oxygen, it can lead to symptoms like confusion, shortness of breath, and
even organ damage if it lasts too long.
Hypercapnea;
Hypercapnea is a condition characterized by an excessive level of carbon
dioxide (CO2) in the bloodstream. This usually occurs when the body
can't effectively remove CO2, often due to respiratory issues or conditions
that impair breathing. Symptoms can include confusion, headaches,
dizziness, and shortness of breath. If severe and left untreated, it can lead
to serious health complications.
Pneumonia;
• Pneumonia is an infection that inflames the air sacs in
one or both lungs, which can fill with fluid or pus.
Symptoms;
• Cough
• Fever
• Chills
• Shortness of Breath
• Chest Pain
• Fatigue
• Nausea and Vomiting
• Confusion or Changes in Mental Awareness
Pneumonia;
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary
Disease (COPD);
• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) is a progressive lung disease
characterized by persistent respiratory symptoms and airflow limitation.

Symptoms;
• Chronic cough
• Shortness of breath, especially during physical activities
• Wheezing
• Chest tightness
• Frequent respiratory infections
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary
Disease ( COPD)
Bronchial Asthma;
• Bronchial asthma, commonly referred to simply as asthma, is a chronic
inflammatory disease of the airways characterized by episodes of airway
obstruction.

Symptoms;
• Wheezing
• Shortness of Breath
• Chest Tightness
• Coughing
Bronchial Asthma; Pathophysiology
Respiratory
Failure;
• Respiratory failure is a serious condition that occurs when the respiratory
system fails to maintain adequate gas exchange, resulting in insufficient
oxygen reaching the bloodstream or an inability to remove carbon dioxide
effectively.

Symptoms;
• Shortness of breath
• Rapid breathing
• Confusion or altered mental status
• Cyanosis (bluish color of the skin, especially lips and fingers)
Respiratory Failure; Pathophysiology

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