STA111-ERRORS AND APPROXIMATION Unit3

ERROR AND APPROXIMATION
Introduction
We examine the important subject of errors
and approximations in measurement and
computation in Unit 3. Accurate and
dependable results in a variety of fields
depend on an understanding of the types
of errors that can occur and how to fix
them. This module examines the various
kinds of errors and provides solutions and
worked examples to demonstrate how they
can be used in real-world situations
ccodel.covenantuniversity.edu.ng 2
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
o Gain a comprehensive understanding
of the types of errors in measurements
and computations.
o Explore worked examples for each type
of error to enhance practical
understanding.
o Learn strategies and solutions to
minimize and correct errors in various
Types of Errors
Errors are unavoidable in measurements
and computations, and understanding
their nature is essential for producing
precise and trustworthy results. Various
kinds of errors affect the accuracy of our
measurements and come from different
sources. Let's examine common error
types and their corresponding scenarios
Errors are
unavoidable in
to demonstrate how these errors occur

measurements and
computations, and
understanding their
nature is essential for
producing precise and
trustworthy results.
Systematic Errors
Systematic errors result from consistent
inaccuracies in measurements or
computations. These errors persistently
affect the results in the same direction,
leading to bias.
Scenario: In a laboratory, a thermometer

consistently reads temperatures 2 degrees
Random Errors
Random errors are unpredictable
variations in measurements that
arise from different sources,
including environmental conditions
and instrument precision.
Scenario: A scientist measures the

weight of a substance multiple
times, and variations occur due to
Gross Errors
Gross errors are significant and
blatant mistakes that can occur
during measurements,
calculations, or data entry,
leading to unreliable results.
Scenario: While recording data
from an experiment, a researcher
mistakenly typed '10000' instead
of '100' as the measured value,
Absolute Errors
Absolute errors represent the
magnitude of the difference
between a measured value and
the true value. They indicate the
extent of deviation from accuracy.
Scenario: A surveyor measured
the length of a bridge as 150
meters, whereas the actual length
is 145 meters, resulting in an
Relative Errors
Relative errors express the discrepancy between a
measured value and the true value as a percentage of
the true value. They provide a standardized measure of
accuracy.
Scenario: A chemist calculated the concentration of a

solution as 0.98 M, while the true concentration is 1.00
M, resulting in a relative error of 2%.
How Errors Occur
Errors in measurements and calculations can come from various sources.
These include limitations of the measuring instruments, human
mistakes, changes in the environment, and issues with instrument
calibration. Errors can also happen due to incorrect data entry or reading
measurements wrong. Factors we can't control, like temperature
changes and equipment wear, can add uncertainties to results.
Understanding the types and causes of errors helps reduce their impact
on accuracy. By carefully analyzing errors, scientists, engineers, and
researchers can make their results more reliable and trustworthy. This
process is key to ensuring the validity of their findings.
Approximation
What is Approximation?
Approximation is a mathematical technique used to find an

estimate or approximation of a value when the exact value is
difficult or impossible to determine. It involves simplifying
complex calculations to obtain practical and usable results.
Approximation
Real-world Applications: Approximation is extensively used in
various fields such as engineering, physics, finance, and
computer science to solve problems where exact solutions are
impractical.
Efficiency: It allows for faster and more efficient computations,

especially in situations where precise values are not necessary.
Decision Making: Approximation provides valuable insights and

estimates that aid in decision-making processes.
Techniques of Approximation
a) Numerical Approximation
Numerical approximation involves using numerical methods to find approximate
solutions to mathematical problems. Common numerical methods include
Newton's method, the bisection method, and the Euler method.
b) Statistical Approximation
Statistical approximation involves estimating parameters or relationships based on
a sample from a population. Techniques such as linear regression and curve fitting
are used to approximate relationships between variables.
c) Heuristic Approximation
Heuristic approximation relies on rules of thumb or intuitive strategies to
approximate solutions. It often involves simplifications or shortcuts to estimate
values quickly.
Example 1
In a laboratory, a pipette consistently
delivers volumes that are 0.2 mL less
than the intended values. Identify
the type of error observed and
provide a step-by-step solution for
adjusting measurements to correct
for this systematic error. Consider an
intended volume of 2.0 mL.
Solution
Identification Error: Recognize that the pipette consistently under-delivers
volumes, leading to a systematic error.
Adjustment: To correct for the systematic error, add 0.2 mL to all measured
volumes using this pipette.
Working: Suppose the intended volume is 2.0 mL. The pipette consistently
delivers 0.2 mL less.
Measured Volume = 2.0 mL - 0.2 mL = 1.8 mL
Adjustment: 1.8 mL+0.2 mL=2.0 mL

By consistently adjusting for the systematic error, accurate measurements
can be achieved.
Example 2
A digital thermometer consistently
displays temperatures that are 1.5
degrees Celsius higher than the actual
temperatures. Determine the type of error
observed and outline a systematic
solution to adjust temperature readings
for accurate
measurements. Assume an actual
Solution
Identification of Error: Recognize that the thermometer consistently overstates
temperatures, indicating a systematic error.
Adjustment: To correct for the systematic error, subtract 1.5 degrees Celsius from
all measured temperatures.
Working: Suppose the actual temperature is 25.0 degrees Celsius. The
thermometer consistently reads 1.5 degrees higher.
Measured Temperature = 25.0 degrees Celsius + 1.5 degrees Celsius = 26.5 degrees
Celsius
Adjustment
26.5 degrees Celsius-1.5 degrees Celsius=25.0 degrees Celsius26.5degrees Celsius-
1.5degrees Celsius=25.0degrees Celsius
By consistently adjusting for the systematic error, accurate temperature readings
can be obtained.
Example 3
If a student measures the
length of a rod as 45.2 cm,
while the true length is 47.0
cm. Calculate the absolute
error and interpret the result.
Solution
Absolute Error=∣45.2-47.0∣
=1.8cm
The absolute error represents the
magnitude of the difference
between the measured and true
values.
In-Text Questions
TQs)
1. A laboratory balance consistently underestimates weights, and
there are random variations in readings. Identify the types of errors
observed and propose a comprehensive strategy to enhance the
accuracy of weight measurements.
2. A clock consistently runs 2 minutes fast. Identify the type of error
observed and suggest a solution to adjust time measurements.
3. During a series of weight measurements, a researcher notices
variations in readings due to uncontrollable factors. Explain the type of
error observed and suggest a strategy to minimize the impact of this
error.
In-Text Answers (ITAs)
• 1. This scenario involves both systematic and
random errors. Adjust measurements
systematically based on the consistent bias, and
then take multiple measurements to calculate the
mean and minimize the impact of random
variations.
• 2. This is a systematic error. To adjust for it,
subtract 2 minutes from all recorded times,
ensuring accurate time measurements.
• 3. Random errors result from unpredictable
variations. To minimize their impact, take multiple
measurements and calculate the mean. The mean
ASSIGNMENT
• A student measures the speed of sound in a
laboratory experiment as 340 m/s, while the
accepted value is 343 m/s. Calculate both the
absolute and relative errors and interpret the
results.
• Approximate the square root of 85.
• Estimate the value of π using a
circumference-to-diameter ratio.
• Approximate the factorial of 8.
References/Further Readings
o Spiegel, M. R., Schiller, J. J., & Srinivasan, R. A.
(2013) Schaum's Outline of Theory and Problems
of Statistics (4th ed.) McGraw-Hill.
o Spiegel, M. R., & Stephens, L. J. (2017). Schaum's

outline of statistics. McGraw Hill Professional.
o Salvatore, D. (2021). Schaums outline of theory

and problems of statistics and econometrics.
THANK YOU

STA111-ERRORS AND APPROXIMATION Unit3

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

STA111-ERRORS AND APPROXIMATION Unit3

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

STA111-ERRORS AND APPROXIMATION Unit3

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ERROR AND APPROXIMATION

to demonstrate how these errors occur

Scenario: In a laboratory, a thermometer

Scenario: A scientist measures the

Scenario: A chemist calculated the concentration of a

Approximation is a mathematical technique used to find an

Efficiency: It allows for faster and more efficient computations,

Decision Making: Approximation provides valuable insights and

Measured Volume = 2.0 mL - 0.2 mL = 1.8 mL

Adjustment: 1.8 mL+0.2 mL=2.0 mL

o Spiegel, M. R., & Stephens, L. J. (2017). Schaum's

o Salvatore, D. (2021). Schaums outline of theory

You might also like