ASTRONOMY

By Shahriar Tahmid
Department of Software Engineering
Daffodil International University (DIU)
ID: 242-35-799
TABLE OF
CONTENTS
1.Black Hole
2.Worm Hole
3.Galaxy
4.General Theory of Relativity
5.Nebula
6.Planets
7.Stars and How they function
8.Dark Matter & Dark Energy
 BLACKHO
LE
A black hole is a region in space where gravity is so strong that nothing, not even light, can
escape. This intense gravitational pull occurs because a large amount of matter has been
compressed into a very small space. Black holes are typically formed when massive stars collapse
under their own gravity at the end of their life cycles.

Although black holes themselves are invisible because no light escapes them, they can be detected
by observing the effects of their immense gravity on nearby stars, gas, and dust. Some black holes
also emit intense X-rays as matter falls into them, creating what’s known as an accretion disk.
Type of Blackhole: Stellar
Black Hole
Stellar Black Holes are formed when massive stars, typically more than 20 times the mass of the
Sun, reach the end of their life cycle and undergo a supernova explosion. During this event, the core of
the star collapses under its own gravity, forming a black hole.

Stellar black holes are created when a massive star exhausts its nuclear fuel, causing it to collapse.
The outer layers may be ejected in a supernova, while the core compresses into a black hole.

Nearly all the stellar-mass black holes observed so far have been found because they’re paired with
stars. They likely originated as mismatched stars where the more massive one evolved rapidly into a
black hole. In some cases, called X-ray binaries, the black hole pulls gas off the star into a disk that
heats up enough to produce X-rays. Binaries have revealed around 50 suspected or confirmed stellar-
mass black holes in the Milky Way, but scientists think there may be as many as 100 million in our
galaxy alone.
Type of Blackhole:
Supermassive Blackhole
Almost every large galaxy, including our Milky Way, has a Supermassive Blackhole at its center. These
monster objects have hundreds of thousands to billions of times the Sun’s mass, although some scientists
place the lower boundary at tens of thousands.

The one at the center of our galaxy, Sagittarius A* (pronounced eye-star), is 4 million times the mass of the
Sun, relatively small compared to those found in some other galaxies. For example, the black hole at the
center of galaxy Holmberg 15A holds at least 40 billion solar masses.

Scientists aren’t sure how these monster objects came to be.

Observations of distant galaxies show that some supermassive black holes formed in the first billion years
after the birth of the universe. It’s possible these black holes began with the collapse of supermassive stars
in the early universe, which gave them a head start.

While their origins are mysterious, scientists know supermassive black holes can grow by feeding on smaller
objects, like their stellar-mass relatives and neutron stars. They can also merge with other supermassive
black holes when galaxies collide.
How Black Holes are Detected
and Studied?
Since they suck all light into its singularity (the center), black holes are invisible to the naked eye,
making it really hard to find them. To help study these celestial objects, scientists observe what’s
happening in the surrounding area.

For instance, when a star gets close to a black hole, it sends out high-energy light that can be
detected by space telescopes and satellites. Scientists analyze this light to figure out where the
black hole is hiding. So, even though you can’t see them with your own eyes, scientists have found
ways to detect and study black holes!

Black holes hold the key to understanding how the universe works! Scientists want to know how
things work and why, and black holes are like puzzle pieces in the grand scheme of things. The
more we know about them, the better we’ll be able to understand the universe around us. It’s like
being a detective and trying to solve a thrilling mystery!
Albert Einstein
German Physicist

Reached a milestone on his long journey from his special theory

of relativity to a new idea of gravitation with the formulation of
his Equivalence Principle which asserts that an observer in an
infinitesimally small box falling freely in a gravitational field
would be unable to find any evidence that the field exists.

“Two things are infinite: the universe and

human stupidity; and I'm not sure about
the universe.”
― Albert
Einstein
Worm hole
A wormhole is a hypothetical structure connecting disparate points in space-time and is
based on a special solution of the Einstein field equations.

A wormhole can be visualized as a tunnel with two ends at separate points in spacetime (i.e.
different locations, different points in time or both). It is a speculative structure linking
disparate points in spacetime and is based on a special solution of the Einstein field
equations solved using a Jacobian matrix and determinant. More precisely it is a
transcendental bijection of the spacetime continuum, an asymptotic projection of the Calabi–
Yau manifold manifesting itself in Anti-de Sitter space.
 Wormhole Visualization
For a simplified notion of a wormhole space can be visualized as a two-dimensional surface. In
this case, a wormhole would appear as a hole in that surface, lead into a 3D tube (the inside
surface of a cylinder then re-emerge at another location on the 2D surface with a hole similar to
the entrance. An actual wormhole would be analogous to this, but with the spatial dimensions
raised by one. For example, instead of circular holes on a 2D plane, the entry and exit points
could be visualized as spherical holes in 3D space leading into a four-dimensional "tube" similar to
a spherier.

Another way to imagine wormholes is to take a sheet of paper and draw two somewhat distant
points on one side of the paper. The sheet of paper represents a plane in the
spacetime continuum and the two points represent a distance to be traveled, but theoretically, a
wormhole could connect these two points by folding that plane (i.e. the paper) so the points are
touching. In this way, it would be much easier to traverse the distance since the two points are
now touching.
 GALAXY
Galaxies consist of stars, planets, and vast clouds of gas and dust, all bound
together by gravity. The largest contain trillions of stars and can be more than
a million light-years across. The smallest can contain a few thousand stars and
span just a few hundred light-years. Most large galaxies have supermassive
black holes at their centers, some with billions of times the Sun’s mass.

Galaxies come in a variety of shapes, mostly spirals and ellipticals, as well as

those with less orderly appearances, usually dubbed irregular.

Most galaxies are between 10 billion and 13.6 billion years old. Some are
almost as old as the universe itself, which formed around 13.8 billion years ago.
Astronomers think the youngest known galaxy formed approximately 500
million years ago.

Galaxies can organize into groups of about 100 or fewer members held together
by their mutual gravity. Larger structures, called clusters, may contain
thousands of galaxies. Groups and clusters can be arranged in superclusters,
which are not gravitationally bound. Superclusters, empty voids, “walls” of
galaxies, and other large-scale structures make up the cosmic web of matter in
the universe.
 Supermassive Black Holes: At the center
of most galaxies, there’s a colossal black
hole, millions or even billions of times more
massive than our sun. It shapes the galaxy’s
structure and dynamics.

Star Formation Regions: Galaxies have

stellar nurseries where new stars are born
from gas and dust. These regions can glow
brightly in different wavelengths of lights.

Dark Matter Halos: Invisible but essential,

dark matter forms a halo around galaxies,
influencing their rotation and behavior, Its’s
still one of the biggest mysteries in
Quite a cosmic cosmology.

wonderland, isn’t
it?
 Milky way &
Andromeda

This is Milky Way Galaxy where our sun belongs to. Andromeda, the closest neighboring galaxy of Milky
Astronomers estimate there are about 100 Way. It’s located at approximately 2.5 million light-years
thousand million stars in Milky Way alone! away from us, approaching towards us at the speed of
110 kilometers per second!
 Understanding the General
theory of Relativity
PREDICTIONS &
INTRODUCTION IMPLICATIONS
Proposed by Albert Einstein in Gravitational waves, which are ripples
1915, which revolutionized our in spacetime caused by accelerating
understanding of gravity. massive objects, were confirmed by
LIGO in 2015.
KEY CONCEPTS Also time moves slower in stronger
Spacetime, which is a four- gravitational fields.
dimensional continuum
APPLICATIONS
combining space & time. And
massive objects like stars or GPS technology, astrophysics are
blackholes or planets cause vasty depend on Einstein’s general
spacetime to curve, creating an theory of relativity.
effect we know as gravity.
 Nebula

Nebulas are stunning, colorful clouds in space formed from

gas and dust. They are the birthplaces of stars, created
when regions of these clouds collapse under their own
gravity. There ae several types of nebulas:

• Emission Nebula: Glows brightly due to ionized gas

emitting light, like famous Orion Nebula.

• Reflection Nebula: Shines by reflecting the light of

nearby stars.

• Dark Nebula: Dense clouds of dust and gas that block

the light from objects behind them, appearing as dark
patches against brighter backgrounds.
Photos of famous Nebulas

The Butterfly Nebula The Crab Nebula The Orion Nebula

Little Ghost Nebula Horsehead Nebula Ring Nebula

PLANETS
Planets are large celestial bodies that orbit
a star like our sun. They don’t produce light
of their own; instead they reflect the star’s
light.
 Some Planets of
Jupiter has a mean radius our Solar System
of 69,911 kilometers.
That's about a tenth
that of the sun. However, Mars is one of the most explored bodies in
its rapid rotation — it spins our solar system, and it's the only planet
where we've sent rovers to roam the alien
once every 9.8 hours, landscape. NASA missions have found lots
causes it to bulge at the of evidence that Mars was much wetter
equator. and warmer, with a thicker atmosphere,

JUPITER billions of years ago.

Mars was named by the Romans for their

god of war because its reddish color was
reminiscent of blood. The Egyptians called

VENUS it "Her Desher," meaning "the red one."

One of the main challenges

associated with investigating
MARS
Venus has been the extreme
conditions of the planet, which
boasts surface pressures up to 90
times greater than that of
Earth and surface temperatures
around 460 degrees Celsius.
 INSIDE OF A
PLANET
Solid Planet Gas Giant
Atmosphere:
Crust: Iron-rich
Molecular Hydrogen
basaltic rock.
& Helium.

Mantle: Solid Mantle: Liquid-metallic

silicate rock. Hydrogen & Helium.

Core: Partially liquid

Core: Dense
Iron, Nickel and
solid rock.
Sulphur.
 STARS AND HOW THEY
FUNCTION
Sun’s Core
Runs nuclear fusion
to generate energy.
Sun
A celestial object of
our solar system. Solar
System
The sun is the only
source of energy in
Hydrogen the Solar System.

Hydrogen atoms turn into

Helium at extreme
temperature and pressure
in sun’s core.
 DARK
MATTER

Dark matter is entirely invisible, emitting

no light or energy, making it undetectable
by conventional sensors and detectors.
Scientists believe that the key to its
elusive nature lies in its composition.
DARK
ENERGY
Dark energy is a hypothetical form of energy
that is proposed by physicists to explain why
the universe is not just expanding but is
doing so at an accelerating rate.

Think of dark energy as the "evil

counterpart" to gravity an "anti-gravity"
force providing a negative pressure that fills
the universe and stretches the very fabric of
spacetime. As it does so dark energy drives
cosmic objects apart at an increasingly rapid
rate rather than drawing them together as
gravity does. 21
THAN
K
YOU
 CREDITS

1.https://www.nasa.gov/
2.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy
3.https://www.space.com/
4.https://www.solarsystemscope.com/
5.https://www.amnh.org/
6.https://www.istockphoto.com/
7.Microsoft Copilot