Unit 5 and 6 Symbolic Reasoning Under Uncertainty

Symbolic Reasoning
under Uncertainty
TOPIC
S
• Introduction To Non-monotonic Reasoning,
• Logics For Non-monotonic Reasoning.
Reasoning
Reasoning
• The reasoning is the mental process of deriving logical conclusion and making
predictions from available knowledge, facts, and beliefs. Or we can say,
"Reasoning is a way to infer facts from existing data." It is a general process of
thinking rationally, to find valid conclusions.
• In artificial intelligence, the reasoning is essential so that the machine can also
think rationally as a human brain, and can perform like a human.
• When a system is required to do something, that it has not been explicitly told how
to do, it must reason. It must figure out what it needs to know from what it already
knows.
• Many types of Reasoning have been identified and recognized, but many
questions regarding their logical and computational properties still remain
controversial.
Methods of Reasoning
Types of Reasoning
• In artificial intelligence, reasoning can be divided into the following
categories:
• Deductive reasoning
• Inductive reasoning
• Abductive reasoning
• Common Sense Reasoning
• Monotonic Reasoning
• Non-monotonic Reasoning
1. Deductive reasoning:
• Deductive reasoning is deducing new information from logically related known
information. It is the form of valid reasoning, which means the argument's conclusion must
be true when the premises are true.
• Deductive reasoning is a type of propositional logic in AI, and it requires various rules and
facts. It is sometimes referred to as top-down reasoning, and contradictory to inductive
reasoning.
• In deductive reasoning, the truth of the premises guarantees the truth of the conclusion.
• Deductive reasoning mostly starts from the general premises to the specific conclusion,
which can be explained as below example.
• Usage: Inference engines, Theorem provers, planning.
• Example:
• Premise-1: All the human eats veggies
• Premise-2: Suresh is human.
• Conclusion: Suresh eats veggies.

2. Inductive Reasoning:
• Inductive reasoning is a form of reasoning to arrive at a conclusion using
limited sets of facts by the process of generalization. It starts with the
series of specific facts or data and reaches to a general statement or
conclusion.
• Inductive reasoning is a type of propositional logic, which is also known
as cause-effect reasoning or bottom-up reasoning.
• In inductive reasoning, we use historical data or various premises to
generate a generic rule, for which premises support the conclusion.
• In inductive reasoning, premises provide probable supports to the
conclusion, so the truth of premises does not guarantee the truth of the
conclusion.
• Usage: Neural nets, Bayesian nets, Pattern recognition
• Example:
• Premise: All of the pigeons we have seen in the zoo are white.
• Conclusion: Therefore, we can expect all the pigeons to be white.
3. Abductive reasoning:
• Abductive reasoning is a form of logical reasoning which starts with single or
multiple observations then seeks to find the most likely explanation or conclusion
for the observation.
• Abductive reasoning is an extension of deductive reasoning, but in abductive
reasoning, the premises do not guarantee the conclusion.
• Usage: Knowledge discovery, Statistical methods, Data mining.
• Example:
• Implication: Cricket ground is wet if it is raining
• Axiom: Cricket ground is wet.
• Conclusion It is raining.
4. Common Sense Reasoning
• Common sense reasoning is an informal form of reasoning, which can be gained
through experiences.
• Common Sense reasoning simulates the human ability to make
presumptions about events which occurs on every day.
• It relies on good judgment rather than exact logic and operates on
heuristic knowledge and heuristic rules.
• Example:
1.One person can be at one place at a time.
2.If I put my hand in a fire, then it will burn.
• The above two statements are the examples
of common sense reasoning which a
human mind can easily understand and
assume.
5. Monotonic Reasoning:
• In monotonic reasoning, once the conclusion is taken, then it will remain the same even if we add some
other information to existing information in our knowledge base. In monotonic reasoning, adding
knowledge does not decrease the set of prepositions that can be derived.
• To solve monotonic problems, we can derive the valid conclusion from the available facts only, and it
will not be affected by new facts.
• Monotonic reasoning is not useful for the real-time systems, as in real time, facts get changed, so we
cannot use monotonic reasoning.
• Monotonic reasoning is used in conventional reasoning systems, and a logic-based system is monotonic.
• Any theorem proving is an example of monotonic reasoning.
• Example:
• Earth revolves around the Sun.
• It is a true fact, and it cannot be changed even if we add another sentence in knowledge base like, "The
moon revolves around the earth" Or "Earth is not round," etc.
5. Monotonic Reasoning:
Advantages of Monotonic Reasoning:
• In monotonic reasoning, each old proof will always remain valid.
• If we deduce some facts from available facts, then it will remain valid for always.
Disadvantages of Monotonic Reasoning:

• We cannot represent the real world scenarios using Monotonic reasoning.
• Hypothesis knowledge cannot be expressed with monotonic reasoning, which means facts
should be true.
• Since we can only derive conclusions from the old proofs, so new knowledge from the real
world
cannot be added.
6. Non-monotonic Reasoning
• In Non-monotonic reasoning, some conclusions may be invalidated if we add some more information to our
knowledge base.
• Logic will be said as non-monotonic if some conclusions can be invalidated by adding more knowledge into
our knowledge base.
• Non-monotonic reasoning deals with incomplete and uncertain models.
• "Human perceptions for various things in daily life, "is a general example of non-monotonic reasoning.
• Example: Let suppose the knowledge base contains the following knowledge:
Birds can fly

Penguins cannot fly
Twitty is a bird
• So from the above
sentences, we can
conclude that
Twitty can fly.
• However, if we add one another sentence into knowledge base “Twitty is a penguin", which concludes
Non-monotonic Reasoning
• The sentence “Birds (normally) fly” is weaker than “All birds fly” there is a
seemingly open-ended list of exceptions — ostriches, penguins, Peking ducks, etc.
etc.
• So, if we would try to use classical logic for representing “Birds fly”, the first
problem would be that it is practically impossible to enumerate all exceptions to
flight with an axiom of the form
• Then we add
• In order to conclude that “Twitty” fly we shoud prove that “ Tweety is not
exception” that is:
 Conventional reasoning systems such as first order predicate logic are designed to work with
information
that has three important properties.
1. It is complete with respect to the domain of interest.
2. It is consistent.
3. The only way it can change is that new facts can be added as they become available. If the new facts
are consistent with all other facts that have already been asserted, then nothing will be ever retracted
from the set of facts that are known to be true. This property is calledmonotonicity.
 Non-monotonic reasoning systems are designed to be able to solve problems in which above three
properties may be missing.

 In order to do this, following key issues must be addressed.
1. How can knowledge base be extended to allow inferences to be made on the basis of lack of knowledge as
well
as on the presence of it?
2. How can the knowledge base be updated properly when a new fact is added to the system or when an old
one is removed?
3. How can knowledge be used to help resolve conflicts when there are several in consistent non-monotonic
inferences that could be drawn?
Advantages of Non-monotonic reasoning:
• For real-world systems such as Robot navigation, we can use non-
monotonic reasoning.
• In Non-monotonic reasoning, we can choose probabilistic facts or can
make assumptions.
Disadvantages of Non-monotonic Reasoning:

• In non-monotonic reasoning, the old facts may be invalidated by adding
new sentences.
• It cannot be used for theorem proving.
•
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Symbolic Reasoning

• Usage: Inference engines, Theorem provers, planning.

• Premise-1: All the human eats veggies

• Premise-2: Suresh is human.

• Conclusion: Suresh eats veggies.

Disadvantages of Monotonic Reasoning:

Birds can fly

properties may be missing.

Disadvantages of Non-monotonic Reasoning:

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