Solid Waste

Management:
Collection and Storage
 International differences and
their impacts
• One of the main reasons for difficulties and disappointments in the
field of solid waste collection is the failure to take account of the
important differences between geographical regions, between
nations, between cities and even within a city. International
consultants, engineers who have studied overseas, and decision-
makers who have been impressed by solid waste management
systems in other countries, often favor systems that they have seen
working well in an industrialized country, and assume that the same
systems will work equally well in a completely different context. This
is a serious misconception.
• Decision-makers and engineers may believe that the only significant
component in a waste collection system is the technology, and ignore
other vital aspects.
• International consultants may prefer systems with which they are familiar,
or which are manufactured in their own countries. Too often the result of
these influences is extravagant expenditure of foreign exchange, vehicles
lying idle awaiting imported spare parts, and waste collection services that
are unable to cope with the amounts of waste that are being generated.
• The list of differences between one location and another can be very long.
They include social, economic, climatic, spatial and urban development
aspects, and technical factors.
• Waste characteristics:
 Cooking and Eating Habits
 Social and Economic factors
 Recycling and Reuse
 Architecture
 Climate and Geography
• Social and economic factors:
 Service level
 Labor costs and unemployment
 Willingness to pay
 Attitudes to littering
 Environmental awareness
 Other international variations that
affect collection systems
 Ambient Temperature
 The layout of urban areas and road conditions
 The capacities and experience of local administrations
 Access to spare parts
 The enforcement of legislation
Objectives of Improved Solid
Waste Collection
• The solution to many of the problems of solid waste management is
the careful selection and operation of solid waste collection
equipment that is efficient and yet responsive to the physical and
socio-economic conditions of the various neighborhoods in which
service is supplied.
• The objectives of improved solid waste collection could, therefore, be
defined as:
1. The system can operate sustainably within available financial
resources.
2. Development and use of, as far as possible, relevant, efficient,
indigenous equipment that requires the least expenditure for every
ton collected.
3. The collection service benefits from the co-operation and the
approval of the citizens.
 Methods of waste collection
• The collection system must be designed and operated in an integrated
way. This means that all of the links in the management chain should
be considered when any part of the system is being designed, so that
all system components are compatible.
• For example, the method of loading a collection truck must suit the
containers that are used to store the waste. As another example: if
waste is to be recycled, the collection stage should be designed so
that there is the minimum degree of contamination of the material
destined for recycling. Again, if waste is to be deposited at a landfill,
the trucks that take it there must be suitable for driving on the
landfill.
Timing of collection:
 Frequency of collection: The frequency of collection (in terms of the
number of times in a week or a month that waste is collected) is a
fundamental parameter of any waste collection system. In general the
frequency of collection must be higher in developing countries than in
temperate industrialized countries, and the frequency must be
acceptable to the residents, otherwise waste may be dumped in the
streets.
 Time of day: Whilst waste collection from urban areas is normally
carried out during the hours of daylight, there are many instances of
waste being collected at night. In large, congested cities at least some
of the collection operations may be carried out at night in order to
avoid the traffic congestion that blocks many roads during daylight
hours, greatly increasing journey times and reducing productivity.
Waste collection vehicles themselves cause congestion, particularly if
they must stop in narrow streets. There may also be regulations that
prevent trucks from using city streets during business hours, to reduce
congestion.
 Shift working: Many waste collection agencies do most of their work
during the morning shift (typically 7.00 a.m. to 2.00 p.m.) and in the
afternoon and night shifts provide only additional services to business
districts and finish work that was not completed during the morning shift.
 Days of the week: “Daily collection” may mean six days a week (with no
working on the weekend rest day) or seven days a week. Providing a
collection service seven days a week requires a larger workforce so that
employees can have one day off each week and may cause problems for
supervision (unless extra supervisors and managers are appointed or they
agree to work or be on call seven days a week).
Collection “on alternate days” generally means three days between
collections over the weekend, and a greater load of waste to collect after
the weekend. In the same way, collection twice a week means collection
once after three days and once after four days.
Point of collection:
The point of collection is the location at which the waste passes from
the control of the generator to the control of the collection agency. The
generator is responsible for the task of taking the waste to the point of
collection, and so is concerned about the time and effort required and
must be willing to do this work. The collection agency is concerned
about the costs of the collection operation, difficulties in access and
loading the waste, and problems that occur when the generators fail to
do their part.
The cost of collection from community storage is less than collection
from each dwelling, provided that significant quantities of waste are
not scattered on the streets and containers do not need to be replaced
frequently.
• There is also a general concern about general environmental aspects,
including:
 Whether the waste will be scattered by wind, animals, children or
waste pickers before it is collected.
 The smell or pollution caused by the waste while it is awaiting
collection, and, in this connection, the proximity to houses or
businesses.
 Regarding the appearance of the waste and any obstruction it may
cause to traffic or pedestrians, and,
 Whether insects and rats will be able to breed in or near the storage
facilities.
• There are three locations where the waste can be transferred to the
collection agency;
 In the street at a short distance from the generator’s property.
 In the street at the property boundary, and
 Inside the property.
 In the street:
Community Containers: These containers are sometimes known as
communal containers or street containers. In this system, householders
bring their wastes to predetermined locations where there is usually
some form of community storage facility, and refuse collection vehicles
visit these sites at frequent intervals, usually once daily or every second
day, to remove accumulated waste.
The principal advantage of this method of collection is that it reduces
considerably the number of sources from which waste has to be
collected.
• The economy that results from the reduced number of collection
points could be a false one if the containers are too widely spaced
and there is poor public co-operation resulting in wastes being thrown
on the ground to avoid having to bring them to the container. If this
happens the task of collection will be transferred to the street
sweeping service which is more expensive than collecting from
containers.
• The spacing at which community storage facilities should be located
depends on the extent to which a community is willing to co-operate
in their proper use by carrying their waste to the containers rather
than dropping it in the street or on open plots nearer to their homes
or businesses.
• Block collection system – This method of collection is used in many
countries. In this system, a collection vehicle travels a predetermined
route at prescribed intervals, usually every two to three days, and
stops at selected locations where a bell is sounded. Alternatively the
vehicle may play music as it drives along to notify householders of its
arrival. Upon hearing the signal the householders bring their refuse to
the trucks and hand it over to the crew who empty the containers and
pass them back to the householders. Sometimes the residents load
the waste into the vehicle themselves.
• No containers are left in public places. Vehicle and labor productivity
of this system lies between low and medium. The timing must be such
that there are residents or servants in the properties to bring out
their waste, otherwise the waste will be left out in the street.
 At the property boundary – Curbside collection: Under this arrangement,
the collection crew collects waste in bins, bags and other containers
which have been left at the roadside. In some places the waste is just left
in a pile, requiring considerably more effort from the collection service.
The residents and shopkeepers must be informed beforehand about the
days on which collection will take place so that they can put out their
waste in time for collection. This system requires a very regular and well-
organized collection service so the householders know when to put out
their wastes.
• Delays in the collection service result in waste being left out for more
time, increasing the chances that it will be scattered. Where collection is
irregular, it is common to see the containers placed permanently outside,
with increased incidence of the scattering of wastes by waste pickers and
animals, and increased risks that containers will be stolen or damaged.
• Curbside collection can also be used in conjunction with ringing a bell
or other signals to invite householders to set out their waste
containers. The increased use of this option could reduce some of the
disadvantages of the system relating to the scattering of refuse by
scavenging animals, theft of containers and traffic accidents caused by
rolling bins.
• Curbside collection is perhaps the most commonly used method in
high-income areas of the industrialized countries, having replaced
back door collection as labor costs became excessive.
 Inside the property:
Back door collection – This system requires residents to do no more
than to store their waste in their yards outside their back doors. The
collection crew enters each property, takes out the container, empties
the waste into the collection vehicle and returns the container to its
place outside the back door, not forgetting to replace the lid. The lack
of householder involvement in the collection process results in
increased labor costs for entering all premises and frequent delays
while waiting for gates to be opened. Where labor costs are high, this
method may be twice as expensive as curbside collection. This method
is becoming less common in industrialized countries and is rarely
practiced in developing countries.
• Collection from apartment buildings – There are two further options
for multi-storey apartment buildings. One is to provide storage
outside or at the ground floor, from which the waste can be collected
by the collection service. Wastes may be brought to these containers
by the residents themselves, by the caretaker of the building or by
means of vertical refuse chutes that have openings on each floor so
that residents can put their waste into the chutes so that it drops into
containers at ground floor level. (Such chutes have proved very
problematic in many situations, becoming blocked and odorous, or
encouraging the breeding of cockroaches. They must have smooth
interiors, be always used in a disciplined way and be cleaned
regularly.)
• Another alternative is that the cleaning service workers collect waste
from each individual apartment, either picking up the waste that is
left outside each door or knocking on the doors to ask the residents
to hand over their waste.
• This is clearly very labor-intensive, but has proved to be sustainable in
middle-class areas of Cairo.
• Special collections: Bulky waste and garden waste can be collected in
a number of ways. Since the generation of such waste is often at
irregular intervals, the collection agency may provide a service which
collects bulky waste on request. Households and businesses are
informed of a telephone number which they can dial, or an office they
can visit, to request that particular items or materials are collected
from their premises. The unwanted items must be clearly described
or identified with labels so that no valued items are removed at the
same time, by mistake.
• Collection may be from outside or inside the property. A fee may be
charged for this service, but, in order to avoid this fee, people may
dump their bulky waste on open ground, from where it may be more
costly to collect it.
• Often the most productive and economical approach for any city is a
combination of these methods - different methods being used in
different parts of the city. The system and frequency that are chosen
should be dictated by the willingness to pay of the householders.
Methods of Loading and
Transporting Waste
• Loading: The method used to load waste from the storage container
into the collection vehicle must be given careful consideration
because of the impacts on the cost of the service and the health of
the labourers. In situations where labour costs are low it is common
to see very slow methods of loading waste, but it must be
remembered that this keeps the vehicle waiting for long periods and
reduces the number of trips it can do in one day, and so can have a
significant impact on the cost of collecting each ton of waste, even if
it is considered that labour costs are not important.
• Health and safety risks must also be kept in mind, because some
loading methods expose labourers to risks from inhaling dust and
fungal spores, from skin contact with the wastes (either to their hands
or to their feet and legs), from lifting injuries and from traffic
accidents.
• In selecting a container and collection system, it is important to
consider the space needed by the container, and if the container is to
be lifted or emptied mechanically there must be a way of ensuring
that parked cars and other obstructions do not prevent the collection
vehicle from getting close enough to the container.
• Separate or combined collection: It is surprising how many accounts
there are of initiatives to encourage household segregation of wastes
(so that recyclables are kept separate from other wastes) where little
thought has been given to the separate collection of the two or more
streams. There are various kinds of vehicle that have been designed
to collect different types of waste in separate compartments, but such
systems are very expensive and not suited to the economic and social
conditions in developing countries. In such situations it is better to
encourage the informal or private sectors to collect the recyclable
fraction.
• It may, however, in some circumstances, be appropriate to consider
collecting some types of waste separately. For example, wastes from
markets, restaurants and hotels may be collected separately from wastes
from other sources if they are to be used for animal feed or composting
(because they are likely to be less contaminated by harmful materials).
• For the same reason, street sweepings may be collected separately from
domestic wastes. Furthermore it may be decided not to mix waste from
certain industries and hospitals with general municipal wastes if the
former are to be deposited in a separate part of a landfill where waste
pickers are not allowed to operate. High-density wastes such as industrial
sludge, construction and demolition waste and street sweepings
containing large amounts of sand may be collected separately from low-
density wastes because the two types require different types of container
or vehicle.
• Direct collection or transfer: In many cases the vehicle that picks up
waste from the point of collection can take the waste directly to the final
destination (treatment plant or disposal site). However, if the vehicle
that initially collects the waste is small and/or the time that it would
take to get to the final destination would be long, it may be economical
to transfer the waste (together with waste from other similar primary
collection vehicles) to a larger and/or faster vehicle.
• If waste is collected from high-density housing areas with narrow
streets, a two-stage system is almost always required. The waste may be
transferred from the primary vehicle to the secondary vehicle at a
special transfer station or at one of a number of transfer points. In some
cases there may be benefits in having three stages of collection. Adding
stages and transfer operations increases the complexity of the system,
requiring more management effort and risking lower reliability.
• Transfer may allow some tasks to be performed during the day, and
others at night or when there is less congestion.
• Sometimes the organizations responsible for primary and secondary
collection are different. One example is when a municipal
organization collects waste from houses and shops, and a regional
organization operates secondary transport and disposal. Another
example is when waste is collected from houses by a community-
based scheme and it left at a transfer point for removal by municipal
vehicles.
• As a general rule the choice of the optimum collection system is
greatly influenced by the distance between the collection areas and
the disposal site.
 Solid Waste Storage System
• Storage, loading, transport and disposal are the four essential
elements of any solid waste management system. Compatibility
between each of the three stages of storage, loading and transport is
essential to ensure economic operation – they should all fit together
and be designed with the others in mind.
• The objective should be to develop a fully or partly containerized
storage, loading and transport system, which does not allow the
waste material to come in contact with the ground at any stage of the
collection system.
• Keeping the waste in containers is hygienic, and minimizes handling
and loading times, but under some economic conditions it appears
that less satisfactory collection systems, that deposit waste on the
ground and then load it, cost less per ton. Containers can be a very
significant part of the costs of a collection system, particularly if the
containers quickly become corroded or damaged or need to be
replaced frequently for other reasons.
• Solid waste storage facilities for domestic wastes may be classified as
household (that is, household bins or bags, sometimes known as
primary storage) and community (that is, containers or bunkers, each
used by many households, known as secondary storage). The storage
volume required for domestic wastes is a function of the number of
people served, the daily rate of waste generation per capita, and the
number of days between successive collections.
• Storage capacities required for commercial and institutional premises
are determined according to the size and nature of the activities as
well as the number of people involved.
• A waste bin or other storage facility must satisfy many requirements:
a) Convenience – It should be convenient to use – not too high for
children to use, and with a large enough opening so that all
acceptable objects can be placed inside it. If the container is used
by more than one household, there is a risk that waste will be
dumped near it rather than in it if it is not convenient to use, and
when there is waste around the container, this will discourage
others from putting their waste inside, since they will not want to
walk on the surrounding waste.
b. Size – It should be large enough to accommodate the wastes that
need to be stored in it, taking into account the longest expected
interval between visits of the collection team and fluctuations in
waste generation. Bulky items such as cardboard boxes and foliage
can quickly fill a container, but it is generally not reasonable to design
for such items.
c. Loading – The loading of the waste into the collection vehicle should
be economical (considering both the labour required and the time
that the collection vehicle is waiting), hygienic (so that the collection
labourers and any others in the vicinity are exposed to the smallest
possible risk) and safe (not presenting a serious risk of injury from
lifting or cuts). If loading can only be done using a particular type of
vehicle, standby arrangements and vehicle maintenance should be
sufficient to ensure that this type of vehicle is always available.
d) Shape – Containers should be tapered (that is having bigger plan
dimensions at the top than at the bottom) so that they are easy to
empty when tipped, even if the waste has been compacted into
them. Damaged containers may trap waste inside them if the
damage makes them smaller in one dimension where the damage
has occurred, in comparison with the base.
e) Isolating the wastes – It is desirable that there is no access to the
waste for flies, animals and rain, but these objectives may be
difficult to achieve in practice, especially if the container is used by
many people. A well-fitting lid can be effective for these purposes,
provided that the lid is kept closed most of the time.
• However, often users fear getting their hands dirty and are unwilling
to open the lid, and so they dump their waste nearby. If the lid is
already open, users may be unwilling to close it, in which case flies
have access to the waste for laying their eggs, animals and birds
scatter the waste, and entering rainfall adds to the weight that is to be
collected and accelerates decomposition.
• Lids often become damaged or lost. Sometimes the lids are too high
for children to reach. A possible alternative is a fixed sloping cover
with a side opening; this can be effective in preventing rain from
reaching the waste but makes it more difficult for the users to empty
their containers.
f) Durability – The containers should be sufficiently durable, resistant
to mechanical damage, corrosion, ultra-violet radiation and, in
many cases, hot ashes or fire. Containers that have a relatively short
lifetime may be economical if their costs are low and there is a
reliable mechanism for replacing them.
 Household Waste Storage
• A variety of facilities are used for household storage of solid wastes.
Temporary containers, such as cardboard boxes, plastic bags and a range
of different types of containers are often used. Plastic bags are suitable
in a number of ways – they contain moisture if they have not been torn
and they are relatively clean and easy to handle. It is also preferable that
plastic bags are filled with waste rather than discarded empty and
therefore easily carried by the wind. One disadvantage is that they are
easily torn open by dogs and cats, and another is that sharp objects can
easily pierce them to cause injury to the person who is carrying them.
• Cardboard boxes lose their strength when they become wet because of
the waste they contain, or when coming into contact with rain or
moisture from the ground. Some improvised metal containers have
jagged edges which can cut hands that lift them.
• Many common types of household waste storage are not kept
covered or enclosed and so do not discourage the breeding of flies.
Plastic and galvanized steel bins with lids are commonly used in
middle-income and high-income areas, but they are relatively
expensive and so they may be stolen.
• Containers made from used car and truck tyres, with capacities
ranging from 30 to 80 litres, when fitted with a suitable lid, offer a
useful, fly-proof, washable, robust and low-cost storage solution.
 Community Waste Storage
• The use of community containers, filled either directly by residents or
from primary collection vehicles (such as tricycles or handcarts) is
particularly appropriate in densely populated residential areas, such
as low-income to medium-income areas with single family dwellings,
or multi-storey housing in all income groups. Community waste
storage facilities may be either stationary (fixed) or portable, and
portable containers may be emptied in-situ or replaced with empty
containers.
• The capacity or volume required for a community container depends
on the following factors:
 The volumetric generation rate for the households and commercial
premises that are expected to use the container, which is usually
estimated by dividing the generation rate on a weight basis by the
density of waste at the community storage stage.
 The number of people expected to use the container. It may be
difficult to know how many people will use any particular container.
Residents may not use the container nearest to their dwellings if it is
not in the direction that they usually go (to school, work or shops, for
example) or if it must be accessed by crossing a busy road. Numbers
using the storage will increase if new housing is built in the area.
• The type of container: A taller container may provide more
compaction of the lower layers of waste caused by the waste above,
but tall containers may be difficult for children to use, so that more
waste is dumped outside the container. Covered containers that are
filled through relatively small openings in the cover may not be filled
completely because the waste may form a mound inside the
container to block the opening while there is still empty space beside
this mound inside the container.
• Other types of waste that are expected to be put in the container,
such as street sweepings, garden waste, construction and demolition
waste and commercial waste.
• The longest expected interval between emptying: If the waste is
collected six days a week there is an interval of two days over the rest
day. (For example, if Sunday is the rest day and the waste is collected
early in the morning from Monday to Saturday, the waste of Saturday
and Sunday must be collected early on Monday morning.)
• Seasonal, weekly and random variations in the quantities of
household waste should be allowed for. Random variations tend to
become less significant when more households are involved as
quantities get “averaged out”.
• If the container will be supervised by a municipal employee, it may be
possible to allow a lower storage capacity because the employee can
distribute and compact the waste in community containers to make
space for additional loads. It is very unlikely that residents using a
community container will try to rearrange or compact the waste if the
container is full; instead they will simply dump their waste on the
ground nearby.
• Because of all the uncertainties regarding storage requirement that
are outlined above, it is important to incorporate either extra capacity
or flexibility into the storage arrangements – extra capacity for
storage facilities that can be enlarged at minimal cost and flexibility in
the case of portable containers that can be moved or supplemented
as required.
• Stationary (fixed) facilities: The most common stationary units are
Uncovered masonry bunkers (also known as compounds and
enclosures) with capacities between 1 m³ and 5 m³
Covered galvanized or masonry bins with capacities up to 2 m³ and
access for loading at the top and unloading through a side flap door;
and
Concrete or steel pipe sections with capacities up to 300 litres
• All three types of secondary storage facilities have been tried
frequently and have failed consistently. Waste is often scattered
around the facility, and insects, rodents and animals are attracted to it
(Photos 5.2). Except for covered bins, no protection is provided
against the ingress of rain. Besides creating aesthetic and health
problems, stationary waste storage facilities are operationally grossly
inadequate. Waste has to be removed by raking it out onto the
ground and loading it into baskets before it is carried to the vehicle.
• This is often a demeaning, unhealthy and time-consuming task, which
limits the productivity of both labour and vehicles.
• Hinged or sliding lids are often provided but they are rarely used as
intended, sometimes because the lids are too high or too heavy for
children to operate, or because they are considered to be dirty and so
no user wishes to touch them. Closed lids encourage the dumping of
waste nearby rather than in the container. The openings of the
storage units should be in the top surface to allow emptying of
buckets and bins into the container. It may be wise to locate
community storage containers inside simple shelters in areas of
intense rainfall.
• Portable bins emptied in-situ: A better solution, which is much more
efficient and hygienic and is growing rapidly in popularity, is the
portable container. Standard European sizes of two-wheeled bins
have capacities of 80 to 240 liters and four-wheeled containers have
capacities of 660, 880, 1,100, and 1,500 liters.
• They are commonly made from plastic but may also be made from
galvanized sheet steel. There are many variations within this concept,
including containers with capacities between 1 and 3 cubic meters.
(Figure 5.3 and Photos 5.3) These containers are emptied by
mechanical lifting equipment fitted to the collection truck and then
replaced in the same location. One truck, on its collection round, can
empty many such containers before going to a transfer station,
treatment plant or disposal site to unload.
• Wheeled bins are usually fitted with lids, but these lids are generally
not used and are often damaged. Some have mechanisms that open
the lid when a bar is pushed down by the user’s foot, but often these
mechanisms are soon broken.
• Most containers of this type have four wheels so that they can be
maneuvered to line up with the lifting gear on the truck.
• The conventional system is to empty wheeled bins using compactor
trucks that have lifting equipment at the rear, side or front. Although
this system is widely used in industrialized countries, it may be very
unsuitable in some low- and middle-income countries. One problem is
the use of compactor trucks, which have proved to be expensive and
unreliable in many situations.
• Another problem can be that the ground on which the bins are
located is soft or uneven, or at a different level from the road. In such
cases it can be very difficult to move a bin that is fitted with small
wheels.
• Using bins with broken wheels involves high labor costs, poor vehicle
utilization and high replacement costs for the bins. Regular checking
and maintenance of these wheels is a better solution.
• The thickness of the steel sheet used to fabricate these bins should be
greater where waste densities are higher, to provide greater strength
and corrosion resistance.
• One solution to these drawbacks was demonstrated very successfully
in Gaza. Non-compaction trucks were fitted with hydraulic cranes that
could pick up and empty 1 m3 containers (which were not fitted with
wheels) that could located anywhere (even on loose sand) within the
8 meter reach of the crane on the truck. However, this system could
not be used in narrow streets or where there was a risk of touching
overhead electricity wires.
• Exchanged containers: The common feature in this category of waste
container is that full containers are transported with the wastes inside
to a transfer station, treatment plant or landfill, and emptied at this
destination. Often an empty container is left next to the full container
before the full one is removed (Figure 5.4). Vehicle productivity is
maximized since the time taken to set down an empty container and
load a full one is very small.
• Container system vehicles are capable of making up to five times the
number of trips of other collection vehicles. The labour requirement
is also minimal when compared with stationary facilities provided that
containers are exchanged before the loaded container overflows.
• Productivity is also heavily influenced by the amount of waste that is
transported on each trip.
• The durability and replacement cost of the containers must be taken
into account in any cost calculations.
• Exchanged container systems are used in a variety of ways:
• As a community container for domestic wastes – Residents and
shopkeepers bring their wastes to the containers. Exchanged
container systems come in a range of sizes, and it is very important to
select an appropriate size of container (paying particular attention to
the loading height), according to the population to be served.
• As the second stage in a transfer system – On a small scale, wastes
collected from houses and shops by small collection vehicles such as
handcarts and three wheeler auto-rickshaws can be loaded into
exchangeable containers.
• From markets – Markets usually produce large quantities of waste
that are generated continuously throughout the working day. Large
exchanged containers can be located at such markets and emptied
each evening or more frequently if needed.
• For industrial and institutional wastes – Many wastes from industries
and institutions are not biodegradable so they can be collected less
frequently than household wastes, either on a regular schedule or at
the request of the generator.
 Selection of Waste Collection
Vehicles
• Factors to consider when selecting vehicle types:
• Waste generation rate: It is a general rule that more affluent
countries and communities generate more waste. Countrywide
average rates of waste generation in most industrialized countries lie
between 0.8 and 1.4 kg/capita/day. In developing countries the
average generation rate is generally within the range of 0.2 to 0.4
kg/capita/day. The rate of waste generation has a significant influence
on the choice of collection system and vehicle.
• If vehicle productivity is reduced, alternative systems, such as the use
of portable community containers can prove more productive in such
a case.
• Waste density: For the purposes of planning the collection service,
the basic requirements are to know the weight of waste to be
collected each day and its density, so that it is possible to calculate
the volume of the wastes and the size of the truck body required for
the most economic loads, without overloading.
• Waste volume per capita: Any waste studies should take into
consideration any projected increases in the amount of wastes which
will be generated in the future, allowing for urban population growth,
additions to the areas to be serviced, and increases in per capita
waste generation rates and reductions in waste densities as standards
of living improve.
• Waste constituents: Abrasive materials in waste, such as sand and
ash, wear out sliding parts and exposed hydraulic components of
refuse collection vehicles. Vehicles, such as compactor vehicles, that
are fitted with such features require high levels of maintenance and
frequent replacement of sliding and rotating components that are in
contact with wastes which contain large proportions of inert
materials.
• Transport distance and road conditions: Road surface conditions,
traffic density and overall haul distance have an important influence
on vehicle choice and also affect any decision about using transfer
stations. The conditions at both the collection and disposal sites must
be evaluated.
• There is little point in using costly high-speed vehicles with high fuel
consumptions in situations where haul distances are short and traffic
speeds are slow, making lower powered and lower cost vehicles more
efficient. The choice of any collection vehicle must be a compromise
between its efficiency when collecting and its efficiency when
transporting the waste to a transfer, treatment or disposal site.
• Loading heights: The loading heights of different vehicles have a
significant effect on the speed of loading and consequently on vehicle
productivity. Excessive loading heights increase the health risks faced
by the workers who are exposed to the dust and the micro-organisms
from the wastes during loading. Loaders should never be asked to
load wastes above their shoulder height due to the excessive work
loads and the health hazards of wastes falling onto their heads.
• Traffic conditions and restrictions: The density of traffic in any city or
town determines the speed of road traffic, which in turn affects the
type of vehicle most appropriate for the conditions. In some cities
there are restrictions on the use of large trucks during daylight hours,
or during periods when traffic is particularly heavy. Large trucks may
be banned from using certain streets or bridges because of weight
limits, traffic congestion or pollution.
• Local manufacture and sustainability: A key element of sustainability
in any solid waste management system is the rapid supply of spare
parts and access to maintenance facilities for the vehicles and other
equipment being used. Inevitably, if complex and specialized
imported vehicles are used, there will be long delays and high costs in
the procurement of spare parts as these vehicles wear or break down
in the future.
• Probably more solid waste management projects have failed because
of a lack of spare parts and the associated long delivery times than
from any other cause.
• Level of service and willingness to pay: If all of the costs of the solid
waste management system are to be paid from a service fee, the
householders’ willingness to pay for the service will determine the
level of service that can be provided in a sustainable way. This
willingness to pay can be expected to be different for different income
groups.
• Use of external advisors: Any advice which is not based on an
investigation of local data – such as measurements of the waste
density, and investigations of the labour market (including the
willingness to work in solid waste management), as well as any
projected changes in the future, and the transport distances from
different parts of the city – should be treated with great caution and
not accepted without further investigations.
• Labour involvement in decision making: Wherever there are labour
unions representing the workers, their inputs and those of the
workers themselves should be sought before any changes, in
particular in the types of vehicles to be used and the size of any truck
crews, are made. The crew accommodation on the trucks must be
related to the crew size. They may also have useful suggestions for
improving the way that the work is done, based on their first-hand
experience.
• Transportation used in other sectors: It is often useful to observe the
types of vehicles, and the makes and models of truck chassis, that are
used locally in other sectors, such as public transport, goods haulage
and agriculture, when selecting the most suitable vehicle type.
 Dimensions and capacities of
vehicle bodies
• There are many alternative types of collection bodies, and most can
be bought or constructed in a range of sizes. The GVW or gross
vehicle weight is the maximum permitted total weight for any fully
loaded vehicle and for reliable performance, and to comply with the
law, this should never be exceeded.
• Payloads and gross vehicle weight: The required volumetric capacity
of the body is calculated by dividing the payload by the density of the
wastes in the body. Consequently, the higher the waste density, the
smaller the body that is required to achieve the maximum tonnage
that the vehicle may carry.
• There is no logical reason for using compaction vehicles if payloads
with non-compaction vehicles are higher and the capital and
maintenance costs of the non-compaction trucks are lower.
• Loading height: The waste collectors should never be expected to
load waste above their shoulder height (typically 1.5meters
) to avoid the health problems caused by wastes falling onto their
heads. However, wastes enclosed in small plastic bags can be thrown
up to heights of 1.8 meters. High loading heights increase loading
times and so reduce vehicle efficiency.
• Vehicle body size: It is necessary to undertake a survey of waste
density, per capita generation and population density in any area to
be served, together with comparisons of vehicle and labour
productivity for different vehicle sizes in order to select the optimum
size of waste collection vehicle.
• Non-compacting collection vehicle bodies: In most developing
countries the wastes are sufficiently dense that the full payload of the
refuse truck can be reached without compacting the wastes. In these
circumstances, there is little need to use expensive, complex and
heavy compactor vehicles.
• High-sided open-top vehicles: High-sided open-top vehicles are
conventional tipping trucks with the sides extended upwards to
increase their capacity. These are extremely slow and unhygienic to
load, as the wastes must be passed up from ground level to a worker
inside the truck who packs the load.
• Side loading “roll-top” vehicles: These vehicles generally have tops
shaped like half of a cylinder on the bodies and can be loaded from
each side through curved sliding doors, and they tip to empty.

• Side loading binlift system: This system is commonly used in China with
standardized bins of around 100 liters capacity. The bins are wheeled to
the side of the vehicle where the lift mechanism picks them up and
discharges their contents through the roof into the front of the body.
When the front is full, the body is tipped with the rear door closed so
that the wastes slide to the rear, and loading can continue.
• Crane-tipper System
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Comapactors
 Pneumatic Refuse Collection
• An automated vacuum waste collection system, also known as
pneumatic refuse collection, or automated vacuum collection (AVAC),
transports waste at a high speed through underground pneumatic
tubes to a collection station where it is compacted and sealed in
containers. When the container is full, it is transported away and then
emptied. The system helps facilitate the separation and recycling of
waste.
• The process begins with the deposition of trash into intake hatches,
called portholes, which may be specialized for waste, recycling, or
compost. Portholes are located in public areas and on private
property where the owner has opted in.
• The waste is then pulled through an underground pipeline by an air
pressure difference created by large industrial fans, in response to
porthole sensors that indicate when the trash needs to be emptied
and help ensure that only one kind of waste material travels through
the pipe at a time. The pipelines converge on a central processing
facility that uses automated software to direct the waste to the
proper container, and then be trucked to its final location, such as a
landfill or composting a plant.