GASEOUS

EXCHANGE
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CELLULAR
RESPIRATION, BREATHING AND
GASEOUS EXCHANGE
 Cellular respiration: the process by which cells derive energy from glucose
 Breathing: the rhythmical process of moving air into and out of the lungs
 Gaseous exchange: allows the body to replenish the oxygen and eliminate
the carbon dioxide
WHY DO WE NEED
GASEOUS EXCHANGE?
 The main function of the respiratory system is to absorb oxygen from the
atmosphere and make it available to the cells for respiration.
 Carbon dioxide is released by the cells during respiration and must
continually be removed through gaseous exchange.
 The increased concentration in the body can dangerously lower the pH of
body fluids.
REQUIREMENTS FOR
GASEOUS EXCHANGE
 • The gaseous exchange surface area must be large
 to maximise gaseous exchange

 The gaseous exchange surface must be thin

 for quick and easy diffusion

 The gaseous exchange surface should be moist

 gases ( and ) must be in solution in order to diffuse through a membrane

 The gaseous exchange surface must be properly ventilated

 for good supply and removal.

 The gaseous exchange surface must have a transport system

 for efficient transport of gases

 The gaseous exchange surface must be well protected

 it is very thin and fragile
 REQUIREMENTS FOR
GASEOUS EXCHANGE
 These requirements and met in different ways in different environments

Organism Habitat Gaseous exchange structure

Dicotyledonous Terrestrial Gaseous exchange mainly takes place in the leaves. The main gaseous
plant exchange surface is the outer surface of the spongy mesophyll cells.
Spongy mesophyll is made up of large, round parenchyma cells with
large intercellular air spaces. These cells have a large outer surface and
have moist cell walls through which gases ( and ) can diffuse. Gases
enter the leaf, or leave it, through the stomata, which mainly occur in the
lower epidermis. The stomata can open and close to regulate gaseous
exchange
Flatworm, e.g. Aquatic The entire outer surface of the Planaria’s body is a gaseous exchange
Planaria surface. The outer surface area : volume ratio is very large. Planaria
absorbs oxygen directly from the water, by diffusion through its body
wall. Because it is so flat, gases can easily spread throughout its entire
body. diffuses out of the cells, through the body wall and into the
surrounding water
Earthworm Terrestrial Gaseous exchange takes place through the skin from the air (in the soil)
surrounding the animal. The skin is kept moist by mucus from the skin
epidermis, as well as the coelomic fluid that is secreted onto the skin.
dissolves in the moisture, diffuses through the skin to the surface blood
vessels and is transported by larger blood vessels to the rest of the body.
 REQUIREMENTS FOR
Organism GASEOUS EXCHANGE
Habitat Gaseous exchange structure
Insect, e.g. Terrestria The locust has a tracheole system. Air enters the body through small
locust openings known as spiracles, which occur on the thorax and abdomen.
They open into the tracheas that form an extensive network of tubes.
Tracheas branch, becoming even smaller, to form tracheoles. diffuses
out of the tracheoles, which have very thin walls, into the cells. Locusts
also have air sacs that function as a ventilation system. Air sacs are close
to the most important muscles and ensure that air moves quickly to and
from the tissues. Locusts’ have an outer exoskeleton which is
impermeable to water to prevent water loss
Bony fish Aquatic Fish have gills for gaseous exchange. They have four gills on each side of
the head, situated in the gill chamber. Gills consist of a large number of
filaments and are richly supplied with blood capillaries. The gill chamber
opens with a gill slit to the exterior. Water flows into the mouth and over
the gills. Dissolved in the water diffuses into the blood of the capillaries.
diffuses from the blood into the water. -rich water flows out of the gill
slits
Mammal Terrestrial Mammals have lungs and a blood system. The human gaseous exchange
apparatus is covered in more detail in the rest of this section
HUMAN GASEOUS
EXCHANGE: STRUCTURE OF
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 The human respiratory system consists of the:
 air passages
 lungs
 respiratory muscles
AIR PASSAGES
 The air passages transport air to and from the lungs and include the nasal
passage, pharynx (throat), trachea (windpipe), bronchi and bronchiole
AIR PASSAGES: NASAL
CAVITIES
 The two external nostrils lead to the two nasal cavities that
are separated by a septum
 Small hairs in the nasal cavities filter larger particles from the
inhaled air
 Each nasal cavity is divided into three passages by three
curved turbinate bones
 The nasal cavities are lined with a mucous membrane, which
consists of ciliated columnar epithelial cells.
 The columnar epithelial cells are richly supplied with
superficial blood capillaries that warm the incoming air.
 Goblet cells in the columnar epithelium secrete mucus
that:
 traps dust and germs.
 is antiseptic and prevents inhaled germs from
multiplying.
 moistens the incoming air and prevent gaseous
exchange surfaces from drying out.
 Cilia on the columnar epithelial cells continuously perform
sweeping movements in the direction away from the lungs;
AIR PASSAGES: PHARYNX
(THROAT)
 The nasal cavities open into the pharynx.
 The pharynx leads to two openings:
 the opening known as the glottis, which leads to the trachea.
 the opening leading to the oesophagus (gullet).

 The pharynx is lined with a mucous membrane that performs the same
function as the one in the nasal cavities
 AIR PASSAGES: TRACHEA
(WINDPIPE)
 The trachea is a long, tubular structure (about 12 cm long), located at the front
of the oesophagus.
 The larynx (voice box), which houses the vocal cords, is located at the top of
the trachea
 The larynx is a triangular box made of cartilage.
 At the top of the larynx is the epiglottis, a thin, leaf-shaped structure made of
cartilage.
 The epiglottis closes the glottis (the opening to the trachea) during the
swallowing process. This prevents food from entering the trachea and choking
the person
 The walls of the trachea are reinforced and kept open by C-shaped cartilage
rings.
 The openings of the C-shaped cartilage rings, covered by involuntary muscle
tissue, face toward the back and press against the oesophagus. This allows the
oesophagus to expand as food moves down through it.
 Just like the rest of the air passages, the trachea is lined with a mucous
membrane of ciliated columnar epithelial cells that secrete mucus.
 Dust particles and germs that enter the trachea are trapped in the mucus and moved
to the pharynx by the sweeping action of the cilia, after which it is coughed up or
AIR PASSAGES: BRONCHI
AND BRONCHIOLI
 The trachea divides into a right and left bronchus that enter the right and
left lung respectively.
 The bronchi are also lined with a mucous membrane and are held open by
O-shaped cartilage rings.
 Inside the lungs, the bronchi divide into smaller branches, lose their
cartilage and form the bronchioles.
 Each bronchioli ends in an infundibulum which consists of groups of alveoli.
 AIR PASSAGES:
ADAPTATIONS TO THEIR
FUNCTIONS
Adaptation Function
Nasal cavities have hairs Filters larger dust particles from the inhaled air
All air passages are lined with a mucous
membrane of ciliated columnar epithelial cells:
• richly supplied with superficial capillaries
• goblet cells that secrete mucus • Warms the incoming air
• Traps dust and germs
• Antiseptic – preventing germs from multiplying
• Moistens incoming air – prevent gaseous
exchange surface from drying out
• Cilia perform sweeping movements • Carries dust and germ – carrying mucus toward
the outside
Opening to the trachea closed by the epiglottis trachea closed during swallowing; prevents
choking
Trachea walls supported by C-shaped cartilage supports and keeps trachea open
rings
'Open' sides of C-shaped rings in contact with oesophagus able to stretch during swallowing
LUNGS: EXTERNAL
STRUCTURE
 The two lungs are located in the chest.
 The lungs are surrounded and protected by 12 pairs of ribs.
 The intercostal muscles are found between the ribs.
 The right lung consists of three lobes, while the left lung has two.
 The lungs are spongy and elastic.
 Each lung is surrounded by a double membrane, the pleura.
 There is intrapleural fluid between the two pleural membranes that
prevents friction that occurs when the lungs shrink or expand.
 The lungs are conical and rest at the bottom on a dome-shaped muscle
plate, the diaphragm
LUNGS: INTERNAL
STRUCTURE
 Inside the lungs the bronchi branch out, becoming smaller and forming
bronchioli.
 As the bronchioli branch out into smaller bronchioli, they lose their
cartilage support and end in infundibula (lung sacs), which consist of
groups of alveoli.
 The walls of the alveoli form the gaseous exchange surface of the
lung
 The walls of the alveoli are very thin and consist of a single layer of
squamous epithelium
 The alveoli are surrounded by a network of capillaries.

 The walls of the capillaries consist of a single layer of squamous

epithelium (endothelium).
 The pulmonary arteries enter the lungs and branch into smaller
arterioles to form a network of capillaries around the walls of the
alveoli.
 The capillaries unite again and form venules that flow together to form
larger veins and finally the pulmonary veins, which then leave the
lungs
LUNGS: ADAPTATIONS FOR
THEIR FUNCTIONS
Adaptation Function
The lungs are spongy and elastic can expand and contract easily during
breathing
Lungs are surrounded by a double prevents friction during breathing
membrane, with intrapleural fluid
between the two membranes
Bronchioli eventually end in millions of increase the gaseous exchange surface
alveoli
Wall of an alveolus consists of a single thin surface for efficient gaseous
layer of squamous epithelium exchange
Alveoli are surrounded by a network of Transport of to the tissues and to the
blood capillaries lungs
Walls of the blood capillaries consist of a Thin surface for efficient gaseous
single layer of endothelium exchange
RESPIRATORY MUSCLES:
DIAPHRAGM
Different muscles play a role during breathing:
• In its relaxed state, the diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle plate.
• This muscle plate separates the chest and abdomen to form an airtight
thoracic cavity
RESPIRATORY MUSCLES:
INTERCOSTAL MUSCLES
 The intercostal muscles are located between consecutive ribs and consist
of two sets, i.e.:
 external intercostal muscles
 internal intercostal muscles
VENTILATION OF THE LUNGS
 The movement of air between the atmosphere and the lungs is caused by a
difference in air pressure between the atmospheric air and the air in the
thoracic cavity and lungs (alveoli).
 The movement of the respiratory muscles (diaphragm and intercostal
muscles) changes the volume of the thoracic cavity, which causes the
difference in pressure.
 Ventilation of the lungs takes place in two phases, i.e.
 Inhalation - air moves from the environment into the lungs.
 Exhalation - air moves from the lungs to the environment.
VENTILATION OF THE
LUNGS: INHALATION
 The diaphragm contracts and becomes flatter
 The thoracic cavity enlarges from top to bottom
 The external intercostal muscles contract causing the ribs to move upwards and
outwards
 The thoracic cavity enlarges from side to side and from front to back
 The abdominal muscles relax so that the abdominal cavity can accommodate the vicera
(all the internal organs) being pushed down by the diaphragm
 The total volume of the thoracic cavity is increased
 The pressure in the thoracic cavity and lungs decrease
 The elastic lungs expand
 Since the atmospheric pressure is higher than the pressure in the thoracic cavity and
the lungs, -rich air flows into the lungs

 Inhalation is an active process, because it is associated with contraction of the

diaphragm and external intercostal muscles, which increases the volume of the thoracic
cavity
VENTILATION OF THE
LUNGS: EXHALATION
 The diaphragm relaxes and returns to its original dome shape
 The thoracic cavity becomes smaller from top to bottom
 The external intercostal muscles relax, causing the ribs to move downward and
inward
 The thoracic cavity reduces in size from side to side and from front to back
 The total volume of the thoracic cavity is reduced
 The pressure in the thoracic cavity and lungs increase
 Since the pressure in the chest cavity and lungs is higher than the atmospheric
pressure, -rich air flows out of the lungs

 Exhalation is a passive process, because it is associated with relaxation of the

diaphragm and external intercostal muscles, which decreases the volume of the
thoracic cavity
GASEOUS EXCHANGE
 Gaseous exchange takes place in
the alveoli as well as in the
tissues, from where the gases are
then transported to their
destinations in different ways
 GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN
THE ALVEOLI
Exchange of
 The inhaled air in the alveoli has a higher
concentration than the blood in the surrounding blood
capillaries.
 A diffusion gradient is therefore created between the
air in the alveoli and the blood in the capillaries.
 The dissolves in a thin layer of moisture that lines the
alveoli and diffuses through the thin walls of the
squamous epithelium of the alveoli and endothelial
walls of the capillaries into the blood.
Exchange of
 The blood that reaches the alveoli from the tissues
has a higher concentration than the air in the alveoli.
 A diffusion gradient is therefore created between the
blood in the capillaries and the air in the alveoli.
 diffuses from the blood in the capillaries through the
endothelial walls of the capillaries and thin squamous
 GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN
THE TISSUES
Exchange of
 Oxygenated blood reaches the tissues.
 The blood in the capillaries has a higher concentration than the cells of the tissues.
 A diffusion gradient is therefore created between the blood in the capillaries and the cells.
 The diffuses through the endothelial walls of the capillaries into the tissue fluid that
surrounds the cells and into the cells
Exchange of
 The cells have a higher concentration than the blood in the capillaries.
 A diffusion gradient is therefore created between the cells and the blood in the capillaries
 The diffuses from the cells into the tissue fluid and then diffuses into the blood in the
capillaries.
 TRANSPORT OF GASES IN
THE BLOOD
Transport of
is transported in the blood in two ways:
 Most of the that diffuses from the air in the alveoli to the blood in the capillaries
combines with haemoglobin in the red blood cells to form oxyhaemoglobin
 A very small portion of the dissolves in the blood plasma.
 is transported via the heart to all the tissues in these two ways.

Transport of
is transported in the blood in three ways:
 Most of the that diffuses from the cells into the blood in the capillaries, combines
with water to form carbonic acid, after which it dissociates and is transported as
bicarbonate ions.
 A portion combines with haemoglobin to form carbaminohaemoglobin.
 The smallest portion of the dissolves in the blood plasma. is transported in these
HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL
OF BREATHING
 Chemoreceptors in the wall of the aorta and at the base
of the jugular arteries are very sensitive to changes in
the concentration in the blood.
 As soon as the concentration in the blood increases, e.g.
after/during exercise, the chemoreceptors send nerve
impulses to the respiratory and cardiovascular centres in
the medulla oblongata of the brain
 The respiratory centre in turn sends nerve impulses to
the diaphragm and intercostal muscles to accelerate
contraction and relaxation.
 The rate and depth of breathing thus increases and more
-laden air is exhaled.
 The cardiovascular centre sends nerve impulses to the
heart muscle and arterioles.
 The heart rate increases, the arterioles constrict and the
blood flows faster.
 is transported to the lungs faster, where it can be
exhaled.