Lecture 14

Taken in part from Chapters 13-15 Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology

by Michael Quirk and Julian Serda

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Objectives
Basic concepts for photolithography, including process overview, critical dimension generations, light spectrum, resolution and process latitude. Difference between negative and positive lithography. Eight basic steps to photolithography. Wafer surface preparation for photolithography. Photoresist physical properties. Applications of conventional i-line photoresist. Deep UV resists Photoresist application techniques Soft bake processing
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Wafer Fabrication Process Flow

Wafer fabrication (front-end) Wafer start Thin Films Polish

Unpatterned wafer Completed wafer Diffusion Photo Etch

Test/Sort

Implant

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Photolithography Concepts Patterning process Photomask Reticle Critical dimension generations Light spectrum and wavelengths Resolution Overlay accuracy Process latitude
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Three Basic Exposure Methods

1:1 Exposure 1:1 Exposure ~5:1 Exposure

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 Contact printing capable of high resolution but has unacceptable defect densities. May be used in Development but not manufacturing. Proximity printing cannot easily print features below a few mm in line width. Used in nano-technolgy. Projection printing provides high resolution and low defect densities and dominates today. Typical projection systems use reduction optics (2X - 5X), step and repeat or step and scan. They print 50 wafers/hour and cost $5 - 10M.
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Steps in Lithography Process

Lithography has three parts: (1) Light source, (2) Wafer exposure (3) Resist
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Photomask and Reticle for Microlithography

1:1 Mask 4:1 Reticle

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Three Dimensional Pattern in Photoresist

Linewidth Space Photoresist

Thickness

Substrate

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Section of the Electromagnetic Spectrum

Visible Microwaves
12

Gamma rays

X-rays

UV

Infrared

Radio waves
10

f (Hz) (m) P

10 10

22

10 10

20

10 10

18

10 10
-8

16

10 10
-6

14

10 10
-4

10 10
-2

10 10 0

10 10 2

10 10 4

-14

-12

-10

157 P (nm)

193

248

365 i

405 436 h g

VUV DUV DUV

Common UV wavelengths used in optical lithography.

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Light Sources

Decreasing feature sizes requires shorter .

Hg vapor lamps: Hg plasma inside glass lamp

Produces multiple wavelengths Limited in intensity g line: = 436 nm (used to mid 1980s) I line: = 365 nm (early 1990s, >0.3 m)

Deep UV by excimer lasers

Kr + NF3 + (energy) KrF + (photon emission) KrF: = 248 nm (used for 0.25 m) ArF: = 193 nm (used for 0.12 m)

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Important Wavelengths for Photolithography Exposure

UV Wavelength (nm) 436 405 365 248 193 157 Wavelength Name g-line h-line i-line Deep UV (DUV) Deep UV (DUV) Vacuum UV (VUV) UV Emission Source Mercury arc lamp Mercury arc lamp Mercury arc lamp Mercury arc lamp or Krypton Fluoride (KrF) excimer laser Argon Fluoride (ArF) excimer laser Fluorine (F2) excimer laser

Table 13.1 14 - 13

Importance of Mask Overlay Accuracy

Top view of CMOS inverter

The masking layers determine the accuracy by which subsequent processes can be performed. The photoresist mask pattern prepares individual layers for proper placement, orientation, and size of structures to be etched or implanted. Small sizes and low tolerances do not provide much room for error.
Cross section of CMOS inverter
Figure 13.4 14 - 14

PMOSFET

NMOSFET

Photolithography Processes Negative Resist

Wafer image is opposite of mask image Exposed resist hardens and is insoluble Developer removes unexposed resist

Positive Resist
Mask image is same as wafer image Exposed resist softens and is soluble Developer removes exposed resist

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Negative Lithography
Areas exposed to light become crosslinked and resist the developer chemical. Exposed area of photoresist Island Window
Photoresist

Ultraviolet light Chrome island on glass mask

Shadow on photoresist

Photoresist Oxide Silicon substrate

Oxide Silicon substrate

Resulting pattern after the resist is developed.

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Positive Lithography

Ultraviolet light Areas exposed to light are dissolved. Chrome island on glass mask Shadow on photoresist Island
photoresist Photoresist

Window

Exposed area of photoresist

photoresist Photoresist oxide Oxide silicon substrate Silicon substrate oxide Oxide silicon substrate Silicon substrate

Resulting pattern after the resist is developed.

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Relationship Between Mask and Resist

Desired photoresist structure to be printed on wafer Island of photoresist Substrate

Chrome Window

Quartz Island

Mask pattern required when using negative photoresist (opposite of intended structure)

Mask pattern required when using positive photoresist (same as intended structure)
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Clear Field and Dark Field Masks

Clear Field Mask Dark Field Mask

Simulation of metal interconnect lines (positive resist lithography)

Simulation of contact holes (positive resist lithography)

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Eight Steps of Photolithography

Step 1. Vapor prime 2. Spin coat 3. Soft bake 4. Alignment and exposure 5. Post-exposure bake (PEB) 6. Develop 7. Hard bake 8. Develop inspect Chapter 13 13 13 14 15 15 15 15
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Eight Steps of Photolithography

UV Light HMDS
P

Resist

Mask

1) Vapor prime

2) Spin coat

3) Soft bake

4) Alignment and Exposure

5) Post-exposure bake

6) Develop

7) Hard bake

8) Develop inspect

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Photolithography Track System

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Vapor Prime
The First Step of Photolithography: Promotes Good Photoresist-to-Wafer Adhesion Primes Wafer with Hexamethyldisilazane, HMDS Followed by Dehydration Bake Ensures Wafer Surface is Clean and Dry

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Spin Coat
Process Summary: Wafer is held onto vacuum chuck Dispense ~5ml of photoresist Slow spin ~ 500 rpm Ramp up to ~ 3000 to 5000 rpm Quality measures: time speed thickness uniformity particles and defects
Photoresist dispenser

Vacuum chuck To vacuum pump

Spindle connected to spin motor

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Soft bake
Characteristics of Soft Bake: Improves Photoresist-to-Wafer Adhesion Promotes Resist Uniformity on Wafer Improves Linewidth Control During Etch Drives Off Most of Solvent in Photoresist Typical Bake Temperatures are 90 to 100rC
For About 30 Seconds On a Hot Plate Followed by Cooling Step on Cold Plate

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Alignment and Exposure

UV light source Process Summary: Transfers the mask image to the resistcoated wafer Activates photo-sensitive components of photoresist Quality measures: linewidth resolution overlay accuracy particles and defects

Mask

Resist

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Post-Exposure Bake
Required for Deep UV Resists Typical Temperatures 100 to 110rC on a hot plate Immediately after Exposure Has Become a Virtual Standard for DUV and Standard Resists

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Photoresist Development
Process Summary: Soluble areas of photoresist are dissolved by developer chemical Visible patterns appear on wafer - windows - islands Quality measures: - line resolution - uniformity - particles and defects
To vacuum pump Develop dispenser

Vacuum chuck

Spindle connected to spin motor

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Hard Bake
A Post-Development Thermal Bake Evaporate Remaining Solvent Improve Resist-to-Wafer Adhesion Higher Temperature (120 to 140rC) than Soft Bake

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Develop / Inspect
Inspect to Verify a Quality Pattern
Identify Quality Problems (Defects) Characterize the Performance of the Photolithography Process Prevents Passing Defects to Other Areas
Etch Implant

Rework Mis-processed or Defective Resist-coated Wafers

Typically an Automated Operation

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Vapor Prime
Wafer Cleaning Dehydration Bake Wafer Priming Priming Techniques
Puddle Dispense and Spin Spray Dispense and Spin Vapor Prime and Dehydration Bake

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Effect of Poor Resist Adhesion Due to Surface Contamination

Resist liftoff

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HMDS Puddle Dispense and Spin

Spin wafer to remove excess liquid

Puddle formation

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HMDS Hot Plate Dehydration Bake and Vapor Prime

Process Summary: Dehydration bake in enclosed chamber with exhaust Hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS) Clean and dry wafer surface (hydrophobic) Temp ~ 200 to 250rC Time ~ 60 sec.
Chamber cover

Wafer

Hot plate

Exhaust

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Purpose of Photoresist in Wafer Fab

To transfer the mask pattern to the photoresist on the top layer of the wafer surface To protect the underlying material during subsequent processing e.g. etch or ion implantation.

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Progressive Improvements in Photoresist

Better image definition (resolution). Better adhesion to semiconductor wafer surfaces. Better uniformity characteristics. Increased process latitude (less sensitivity to process variations).

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Spin Coat
Photoresist
Types of Photoresist Negative Versus Positive Photoresists

Photoresist Physical Properties Conventional I-Line Photoresists

Negative I-Line Photoresists Positive I-Line Photoresists

Deep UV (DUV) Photoresists Photoresist Dispensing Methods

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Types of Photoresists
Two Types of Photoresist
Positive Resist Negative Resist

CD Capability
Conventional Resist Deep UV Resist

Process Applications
Non-critical Layers Critical Layers

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Negative Versus Positive Resists Negative Resist

Wafer image is opposite of mask image Exposed resist hardens and is insoluble Developer removes unexposed resist

Positive Resist
Mask image is same as wafer image Exposed resist softens and is soluble Developer removes exposed resist

Resolution Issues Clear Field Versus Dark Field Masks

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Photoresist Physical Characteristics          Resolution Contrast Sensitivity Viscosity Adhesion Etch resistance Surface tension Storage and handling Contaminants and particles
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Resist Contrast
Poor Resist Contrast Sloped walls Swelling Poor contrast Good Resist Contrast Sharp walls No swelling Good contrast

Resist

Resist

Film

Film

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Surface Tension
Low surface tension from low molecular forces High surface tension from high molecular forces

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Components of Conventional Photoresist

Solvent: gives resist its flow characteristics Resin: mix of polymers used as binder; gives resist mechanical and chemical properties

Sensitizers: photosensitive component of the resist material

Additives: chemicals that control specific aspects of resist material

Figure 13.18 14 - 43

Negative Resist Cross-Linking

Unexposed areas remain soluble to developer chemical.
Photoresist

UV

Areas exposed to light become crosslinked and resist the developer chemical.

Oxide

Substrate Unexposed Exposed

Soluble

Crosslinks

Pre-exposure - photoresist

Post-exposure - photoresist

Post-develop - photoresist
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PAC as Dissolution Inhibitor in Positive I-Line Resist

Unexposed resist, containing PACs, remain crosslinked and insoluble to developer chemical.
Photoresist Substrate Exposed Unexposed

UV

Resist exposed to light dissolves in the developer chemical.

Oxide

PAC

Pre-exposure + photoresist

Soluble resist

Post-exposure + photoresist

Post-develop + photoresist
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Good Contrast Characteristics of Positive I-line Photoresist

Positive Photoresist:
Resist

Sharp walls No swelling Good contrast

Film

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DUV Emission Spectrum

KrF laser emission spectrum
100 80 60 40 Relative Intensity (%) 40 Relative Intensity (%) 20 0 20 0
DUV* 248 nm

Emission spectrum of high-intensity mercury lamp

120 100 80 60
h-line 405 nm g-line 436 nm i-line 365 nm

248 nm 200 300 400 Wavelength (nm)

* Intensity of mercury lamp is too low at 248 nm to be usable in DUV photolithography applications. Excimer lasers, such as shown on the left provide more energy for a given DUV wavelength.

500

600

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Chemically Amplified (CA) DUV Resist

Unexposed resist remains crosslinked and PAGs are inactive.
Photoresist Substrate Exposed
PAG PAG H+ H+ H+ PAG PAG

UV

Resist exposed to light dissolves in the developer chemical.

Oxide

Unexposed

PAG PAG

PAG

PAG

PAG

Pre-exposure + CA photoresist

Acid-catalyzed reaction (during PEB)

Unchanged

Post-exposure + CA photoresist

Post-develop + CA photoresist
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Exposure Steps for ChemicallyAmplified DUV Resist

1. Resin is phenolic copolymer with protecting group that makes it insoluble in developer. 2. Photoacid generator (PAG) generates acid during exposure. 3. Acid generated in exposed resist areas serves as catalyst to remove resin-protecting group during post exposure thermal bake. 4. Exposed areas of resist without protecting group are soluble in aqueous developer.

Table 13.5 14 - 49

Steps of Photoresist Spin Coating

1) Resist dispense 2) Spin-up

3) Spin-off

4) Solvent evaporation

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Automated Wafer Track for Photolithography

Wafer stepper (Alignment/Exposure system) Transfer station

Load station

Vapor prime

Resist coat

Develop Edge-bead and removal Rinse

Wafer Transfer System

Soft bake

Cool plate

Cool plate

Hard bake

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Photoresist Dispense Nozzle

Z X U Y

Nozzle position can be adjusted in four directions. Resist flow

Resist dispenser nozzle Wafer Stainless steel bowl Bottom side EBR Air flow Vacuum chuck Air flow Exhaust

Spin motor Vacuum

Drain

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Resist Spin Speed Curve

Spin Speed Curve of IX300 80000 70000 60000 Resist Thickness () 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000
21 cP 110 cP 70 cP

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000
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Spin Speed (RPM)

Soft Bake on Vacuum Hot Plate

Purpose of Soft Bake: Partial evaporation of photoresist solvents Improves adhesion Improves uniformity Improves etch resistance Improves linewidth control Optimizes light absorbance characteristics of photoresist
Chamber cover

Wafer

Hot plate Solvent exhaust

Figure 13.28 14 - 54

Solvent Content of Resist Versus Temperature During Soft Bake

Residual Solvent (% w/w)

DNQ/Novolak resist

Bake Temperature (C)

Figure 13.29 14 - 55