Drinking Water Supply and Systems

LECTURE 5
Water Treatment – PART III
Disinfection of water
 Disinfection
 The process of killing or reducing the infective bacteria from the water and making it
safe to the user
 The water which comes out from the filter may contain some disease – causing
bacteria in addition to the useful bacteria
 Before the water is supplied to the public it is utmost necessary to kill all the disease
causing bacteria.
 The chemicals or substances which are used for killing the bacteria are known as
disinfectants.
 Disinfectants
1. They should destroy all the harmful pathogens and make it safe for use,.
2. They should not take more time in killing bacteria
3. They should be economical and easily available
4. They should not require high skill for their application
5. After treatment the water should not become toxic and objectionable to the user.
6. The concentration should be determined by simply and quickly.
Mechanism of Disinfection
The disinfectant either destroys or inactivates the pathogens by one of the
following
- 1) Damage to cell wall of the micro-organism
- 2) Alteration of cell permeability
- 3) Changing the colloidal nature of the cell protoplasm
- 4) Inactivation of critical enzyme systems responsible for metabolic activities
 Methods of disinfection
a) Physical Methods
1. 1. Boiling
2. 2. Ultra-Violet Rays: a special example is SODIS
3. 3. Ultrasonic Rays:
b) Chemical Methods
1. Chlorination 2. Bromine and Iodine 3. Potassium
Permanganate: 4. Ozone
5. Excess Lime Treatment
Outline the factors that influence Disinfection Process
 Boiling
 This is the most immediate and emergency method of sterilizing the water for human
consumption.
 This is a satisfactory method for destroying disease organisms in water.
 But this method is expensive unless it is used at home only.
 Water must be brought to a “rolling” boil this is usually 80oc (this is where the
bacteria present is killed).
 Water must be boiled in the same container in which it is to be cooled and stored
( otherwise if another container is used it may again be contaminated).
 (It is noted that boiling alters the taste of water this is due to the removal of dissolved
gases e.g carbon dioxide).
 Ozone
 Although ozone is used as a disinfectant it is also very effective in the removal of tastes,
colour and odours from water.
 Ozone is made by the discharge of high voltage electrical current through dry air, where
some part of the oxygen,O2 is converted into O3 (ozone).
 The equipment installed at each treatment plant consists of air filters, blowers, dryers,
ozone generators and ozone absorption facilities.
Advantages
i) Ozone has a very rapid sterilizing effect in water – reduce bacteria by 95.2%.
ii) Reduce colour (21-59%) and often improve or remove tastes and odours.

Disadvantage
i) Presence of salts of iron and manganese can interfere with colour reduction.
 Ultra-Violet Light
 This has been used at a few small installations, but the water to be sterilized must
be clear and the lamp must be kept clean at all times.
 Even a low concentration of soluble iron in the water will absorb ultraviolet light,
though the water is clear to visible light.
 The equipment is costly and has working difficulties.
 (The quartz of the lamp is transparent to the ultraviolet rays.
 The method can only be applied to water free from suspended or colouring matter
which impede the penetration of the rays).
 Chlorination
 Chlorination is the addition of chlorine to kill the bacteria Chlorination is very widely
adopted in all developing countries for treatment of water for public supply.
 Chlorine is available in gas, liquid or solid form (bleaching powder)

ADVANTAGES OF CHLORINE
1. Chlorine is manufactured easily by electrolytes of common salts (NaCl)
2. It is powerful oxidant and can penetrate the cell wall of organism and its contents.
3. Dosage can be controlled precisely
4. can be easily detected by simple orthotolidine test
5. Does not form harmful constituents on reaction with organics of inorganics in water
6. leaves required residue in water to neutralize recontamination later.
PRECAUTIONS IN USING CHLORINE
1. Chlorine gas or liquid is highly corrosive and Lethal to Inhale.
2. If the water contains phenolic compounds, there is a reaction with chlorine can result in
cancer causing substances.
 Behaviour of chlorine in water
 Chlorine is added to water in gas or compound form (hypochlorite).
 After it is added in water it may exist in any or all of the following forms, capable
of some sterilizing action.
(i) Chlorine hypochlorous acid, hypochlorite ion
(ii) Monochloramine, dichloramine, and Nitrogen trichloride,
(iii) Chlorine organic matter
 Form (i) is the most vigorous of the three and is given the name of free available
chlorine residue. Forms (ii) and (iii) are described as combined available chlorine
residue and are much weaker oxidizing and hence sterilizing agents than form (i)
 The development of chlorination can be set down in four stages as follows
(1) Simple chlorination
(2) Ammonia - chlorine treatment (chlorination)
(3) Super chlorination and de chlorination
(4) Breakpoint chlorination
Plain chlorination
 Plain chlorination is the process of addition of chlorine only
when the surface water with no other treatment is required.
 The water of springs is pure and can be used after plain
chlorination.
 A rate of 0.8 mg/lit/hour at 15N/cm 2 pressure is the normal
dosage so as to maintain in a resided chlorine of 0.2 mg/lit.
 Simple chlorination
 This is the process of adding small quantities of chlorine to maintain bacteriologically
pure water.
 Such a process cannot be applied successfully if the water contains much organic matter.
This is also defined as chlorinating with doses sufficient to provide a concentration of
residue chlorine 0.1- 0.2 ppm after 10 minutes contact regardless whether it is free
residue or combined residue chlorine. Dose may be too low to oxidize free ammonia
present in the raw waters so combined residue chlorine results.
 Ammonia chlorine treatment (chloromination)
 This is the treatment where ammonia and chlorine are added together to reduce taste and
odour problems, in drinking water.
 Chlorine combines with ammonia to form Chloramines. This prevents formation of
odoriferous chlorinated organic compounds. Bactericidal effect is maintained over a long
period.
 Methods of administering ammonia and chlorine depend on the purpose of treatment.
 Ammonia is added before chlorine if taste and odour control is the main object of
chloramination, but in most cases chlorine is added first to obtain quick bacteria kill, as
addition of ammonia ensures maintenance of a residue over long period.
 Super chlorination
 Super chlorination is defined as administration of a dose considerably in excess of that
necessary for the adequate bacterial purification of water. About 10 to 15 mg/lit is applied
with a contact time of 10 to 30 minutes under the circumstances such as during epidemic
breakout
 This means that de-chlorination is undertaken before the water is used. This is
accomplished by addition of sulphur dioxide, sodium thiosulphate or sodium sulphite
 Super-chlorination was originally intended to minimize taste and odour difficulties but it
was realized later that it was a safeguard in dealing with heavily-polluted water
 Treatment of a polluted water with a heavy dose of chlorine is good practice, since it will
meet fluctuations in the chlorine demand of the untreated water to ensure that the residue
does not fall below an effective bactericidal level. (any objectionable excess of chlorine
is removed by de-chlorination)
 Where super-chlorination or alternatively breakpoint chlorination is practiced a baffled
contact tank is provided of approximately 30min retention but not less than 20min to
ensure complete sterility.
 Breakpoint Chlorination
 In the presence of free ammonia, as the chlorine dose increase progressively it increases the
residue chlorine.
 First reaching a maximum, then decreasing to a minimum and again increasing at a rate
corresponding to the added chlorine, this means that once the minimum residue has been
passed the chlorine added remains as free available chlorine.
 The minimum point mentioned is called the breakpoint. Chlorination past the breakpoint
fully oxidizes the organic matter to simple non-odoriferous substances.
 In the presence of ammonia compounds this are oxidized by the time breakpoint is reached.
 Curves of varying outlines are obtained with various waters but they are similar in that a
point would be reached at which upward slope will indicate that the residue chlorine is
increased at a rate correspondingly to the dose of chlorine added.
 This indicates that the chlorine demand has been met and that free available residue chlorine
exists. In treated water, free residue chlorine does not produce objectionable taste and odors
and therefore can be passed into the distribution system without the consumer being aware
of its presence.
Illustration of Break point
chlorination
 Points of chlorination

 Pre-chlorination
 Postchlorination (primary chlorination)
 Re-chlorination (secondary chlorination or booster chlorination

Other uses of free residue chlorination are;-

 1) Colour reduction.
 2) Manganese removal
 3) Improvement of coagulation in certain waters.
 Example
Chlorine usage in the treatment of 25000 m 3/day is 9 kg/day. The residual
chlorine after 10 minutes contact is 0.2 mg/l. Calculate the dosage in mg/l and
the chlorine demand of the water
Solution:
Water treated per day = 25000 m3 = 25 x 106 L/d
Chlorine consumed per day = 9 kg
Chlorine used per litre of water = 9 x 106 /(25 x 106) = 0.36 mg/l
Residual chorine = 0.2 mg/l
Therefore, chlorine demand = 0.36 – 0.2 = 0.16 mg/l
Water Conditioning
 Water conditioning (Stabilization)
 Stabilization means that, the water should not change after purification process.
 It should be stable through out to the consumer.
 This means that the water should have an equilibrium between the calcium hardness
the alkalinity and the dissolved free carbon dioxide (CO2) of water.
 At a given pH value the water has no tendency either to deposit calcium carbonate or
to dissolve calcium carbonate (this is called equilibrium or saturation pH).
 Therefore higher pH than the equilibrium pH deposit calcium carbonate. This leads to
blockage of mains due to deposition of calcium carbonate.
 For this case the pH need to be reduced to the equilibrium value. And less pH value
than the equilibrium value dissolves calcium carbonate (this leads to corrosion)
therefore pH is required to be raised.

 Water is said to be corrosive if it attacks any of the minerals
commonly used in water network systems (pipelines). For
example if any of the following materials are used there might
be corrosion;-
 Copper:
 Asbestos cement and concrete
 Steel and Iron
 Water softening and Demineralization
This have two basic purposes;
a) Reducing hardness – producing compounds of calcium and magnesium. (removed by
softening processes to prevent the scaling of boilers, water heaters and industrial equipment
and to reduce the amount of soap needed to produce the tastes in homes, laundries, textiles etc.
b) Removing minerals from brackish waters, brines and sea water in area where fresh-water
resources are limited and where the cost of piping fresh water from distant points would be so
great that demineralization is more economical.
Minerals in Natural Waters
 Dissolved minerals in fresh waters are those associated with hardness and alkalinity,
whereas saline waters are characterized by their neutral salts.
 Alkaline minerals are subdivided into two groups;-

a) one causing alkalinity only b) causing alkalinity and hardness

 Neutral Salts a) causing salinity and non-carbonate hardness. b) causing salinity only.

(mineral acids can only be found in water polluted by acid industrial wastes)
The above minerals and salts causes temporary and permanent hardness
 Water Hardness
1. Temporary hardness: It is caused due to the presence of carbonates and bicarbonates of
calcium and magnesium.
2. Permanent hardness: It is caused due to the presence of chlorides and sulphates calcium
and magnesium.
Excess of hardness leads to the following effects.
1. Large soap consumption in washing and bathing
2. Fabrics when washed become rough and strained with precipitates.
3. Hard water is not fit for industrial use like textiles, paper making, dye and ice cream
manufactures
4. The precipitates clog the pores on the skin and makes the skin rough
5. Precipitates can choke pipe lines and values
6. It forms scales in the boilers tubes and reduces their efficiency and cause in erustations
7. Very hard water is not palatable
What is the WHO or Kenyan guideline value for Hardness in water supply?
 Water softening
 This is the removal of excess hardness in water
Benefits of soft waters include
 Soft water in homes leads to savings in the consumption of soap and to improved cleaning
action.
 Savings in fuel and maintenance in operation of boilers and heaters

METHODS OF REMOVAL OF HARDNESS

1. Boiling 2. Freezing
3. Lime addition 4. Lime soda process
5. Excess Lime treatment 6. Caustic soda process
7. Zeolete process 8. Dimineralisation or exchange process
 Methods 1,2 and 3 are suitable for removal of temporary hardness and 4 to 8 for both
temporary and permanent hardness
Removal of temporary hardness by boiling and addition of lime
 Removal of permanent Hardness by Lime soda softening
 In this process lime and soda ash are used to change soluble calcium and magnesium
compounds into nearly insoluble compounds, which are flocculated, settled and filtered
as with conventional coagulation.
 The reactions are as shown below, but in practice are influenced by water temperature,
pH and complex physicochemical relationships.
Removal of Sulphate
MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 = Mg(OH)2 + CaSO4
CaSO4 + Na2CO3 = CaCO3 + Na2SO4
Removal of Chloride
(CaCl2 + Na2CO3 = CaCO3 + 2NaCl )
MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2 = Mg(OH)2 + CaCl2
MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 = Mg(OH)2 + CaSO4
 Advantages and disadvantages of lime soda softening
Advantages
1. The PH value of water treated by this process is stabilized which results in decrease in
corrosion of the distribution system.
2. Less quantity of coagulant will be required, if this process is adopted
3. Removal of iron and manganese to some extent
5. Hardness of water is reduced to 40mg/lit (of CaCO3) and magnesium upto 10mg/lit
5. The process is economical
6. This process is most suitable for tubed and acidic waters where it will not possible to adopt
zeolite process
Disadvantages
1. Large quantity of sludge formed during this process to be disposed of 2. This process
requires skilled supervision for its successful working
3. If recarbonation is omitted, a thick layer of calcium carbonate will be deposited in the
filtering media, distribution pipes etc.
 Zeolite process
 This is also known as the base-exchange or Ion exchange process. The hardness may be
completely removed by this process.
Principle
 Zeolites are compounds (silicates of aluminium and sodium) which replace sodium Ions
with calcium and magnesium Ions when hardwater is passes through a bed of zeolites.
 The zeolite can be regenerated by passing a concentrated solution of sodium chloride
through the bed. The chemical reactions involved are;
 Advantages and Disadvantages of ion exchange process
Advantages
1. In this process, the sludge is not formed hence problem of sludge disposal does not arise
2. It can be operated easily and no skilled supervision required
3. The hardness of water reduces to zero and hence used for boiler and textile industries
4. The process is economical where salt is cheaply available
5. The load on Zeolite can be reduced by combining it with lime or aeration process
Disadvantages
1. The Zeolite process cannot be used for acidic water
2. The Zeolite process is unsuitable for water containing Iron and Manganese
3. The Zeolite should be operated carefully to avoid injury or damage to the equipment
 Other methods of demineralization
 Electrodialysis: Direct current forces the ions to migrate though suitable
membranes from the water being treated, leaving demineralized water in
suitable compartments.
 Distillation: Evaporation of brines or sea water produces mineral free distilled
water. This include solar distillation in which solar heat is used for operation.
 Freezing: The fresh water ice crystals are separated from freezing brines.
Summary
Summary
 It has been long but at last our water is ready for
distribution!

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