PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL

BIOLOGY NUTRITION AND GROWTH IN

ANIMALS HOMEWORK
BRETT CHINCHEN
The functions of the major nutrients in an
animal’s diet
• Major nutrients: carbohydrates (sugars, starches, disaccharides and
polysaccharides); proteins (amino acids, peptides and polypeptides);
lipids (fats, oils, triglycerides); vitamins (fat and water soluble forms);
minerals (micro and macro classes); fibre; water; dietary sources
Function in the body: energy, growth and repair, insulation, specific
vitamin and mineral functions; simple metabolic pathways; gut
mobility; cell function and hydration
• Digestion: single stomach digestion (foregut and hindgut fermentation
digestive systems); ruminant digestion; digestive system organs eg
stomach and small intestine; movement of foodstuffs through
digestive tract; physical and chemical digestion.
An overview of the function and sources of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins,
minerals, fibre and water for the cow (ruminant) and pig (non-ruminant).
 Carbohydrate Function Carbohydrate Source

•Carbohydrates: Basic source of energy for all animals. As much as a half or Carbohydrates, forming about
more of an animal's calories are from Carbohydrates more so if the animal is 75% of plant dry matter,
a herbivore compared to for instance a carnivore. provide the major energy
•Carbohydrates turn into glucose during metabolism and is used to provide source for dairy cows and aid
energy to the animal. Further functions include the following: in milk glucose and fat
production.
•Keep and maintain the digestive system keeping it regular.
•Give the animal energy Structural carbohydrates,
•Help the animal to create body heat (endothermic reaction creates warmth) which are part of the plant
•Crucial in mammals as this helps with milk production cell wall, and non-structural
carbohydrates found within
In cows Carbohydrates are the major source of energy for rumen the plant cell.
microorganisms and the single-largest component (60–70%) of a dairy cow's
diet. They represent the major component of net energy for support of
maintenance and milk production. Diet carbohydrate concentration influences
the composition of milk as precursors for lactose, fat, and protein.
 Protein Function Protein Source
Proteins: Proteins are crucial in helping an animal repair damaged tissue Cattle, as ruminants, have a unique
and also for muscle growth and maintenance. Proteins are thus used in digestive system that allows them to
building up cell structure, and also enzyme function. From a cellular point extract nutrition from plant materials
of view therefore proteins facilitate the growth & repair of animal cells. that many other animals cannot digest.

What do they do? The primary source of protein for cows

Proteins like carbohydrates are also a source of fuel for an animal, proteins comes from microbial proteins
can however be stored as fats and are used by cells/tissues when required. produced during the microbial
This then also helps defend the animal as they are used to make antibodies fermentation process in their rumen.
and protection from diseases.
Proteins contribute to the heathy development, growth & repair of This fermentation occurs in the rumen,
muscles, bones, skin & fat, plus hair, feathers, nails etc. the largest compartment of a cow’s
stomach, where bacteria, protozoa, and
Protein is a crucial component of a cow’s diet. It plays a vital role fungi break down complex
in growth, milk production, and overall health. Cattle obtain dietary carbohydrates into simpler compounds,
protein from various sources, including microbial proteins produced producing volatile fatty acids (VFAs)
during microbial fermentation in the rumen. that are absorbed by the cow, serving
as their primary energy source.
 Fat Function Fat Source
Fats/lipids: When consumed in the correct amounts, fats become an Different from monogastric species,
energy source, similar to carbohydrates. Fats will help to facilitate the ruminants generally receive a low amount of
absorption of certain soluble vitamins such as Vitamins A, D, E and K. lipids into the diet.

What do they do? It is common practice in nutrition of dairy

Provide material to build new cells cows to provide no more than 6% of lipids (>
Regulate the movement of the muscles 90% FA) in the diet, with around 3% coming
Improve the immune system from the forages and grains, and the rest
Insulate the body keeping it warm with a layer of fat (consider artic sea added as supplemental fat.
mammals for instance)
Enables the more effective absorption of vitamins and minerals Cows get fat from eating grass, hay, and
grains. Plants are enriched with cellulose.
In cow’s extensive metabolism of lipids occurs in the rumen and this has High-quality forages and protein
a major impact on the profile of fatty acids available for absorption and supplements, such as soybean meal or canola
tissue utilization. The two major processes that occur are hydrolysis of meal, can provide the necessary proteins.
ester linkages in lipids found in feedstuffs and the biohydrogenation of Cows and other animals often need help from
unsaturated fatty acids. bacteria to help them digest cellulose and
other foods that are hard to digest. When
Dairy cattle are on average less fat than those reared for meat production. these foods are not properly digested, they
This difference in evident in the difference in breeds used and also in thier will be stored as fat in their body. And this
feeding. will often result in a significant increase in
weight.
 Vitamin Function Vitamin Source
Vitamins: Animals require small amounts of certain vitamins to Research as early as 1911 detailed reductions in offspring
work properly and stay healthy. vigour and milk production when feeding a single plant
Certain vitamins are more important than others and this is source and it was later discovered that this was due to an
dependent on a number of factors from environmental to what imbalance of vitamins and minerals. By drawing
species the animal is and even age and stage as well as lifestyle. comparisons with other animals, such as rats and guinea
pigs, researchers discovered that some vitamins (such as
Of the 14 known vitamins, cattle only require two of these in B) were likely being generated by the rumen microbiome
the diet (as they are unable to synthesise them themselves), that or elsewhere in the body (for example, vitamin C is
is vitamins A and E. produced in the liver).
Vitamin A is essential in immunity, growth and development
Vitamin E is a vital antioxidant – that removes potentially Cows require a balanced diet of energy, protein, vitamins,
damaging oxidising agents occurring naturally in the body. and minerals to thrive. They need access to clean water,
comfortable living conditions, and proper veterinary care.
Cows receiving a varied and nutritious diet, and some may Additionally, cows are social animals, so they benefit from
argue that a diet that is rich in vitamins and minerals translates being around other cows and having plenty of space to
into the quality of milk and beef products, we therefore have a roam and graze.
vested interest in ensuring cows are healthy and receive the
vitamins they require. In basic dairy cow diets, provitamin A and vitamin E are
mainly found in pasture and in grass and legume silages,
but the concentrations are highly variable.
 Mineral Function Mineral Source
Minerals: These are essential for body regulation and overall health. Some minerals may be The most important source
toxic if ingested in large amounts. of minerals for cows comes
from the pasture and
What do they do in cows: forages they are grazing
• Iron is indispensable for hemoglobin formation and, thus, crucial in oxygen transport to since these feeds contribute
tissues. the highest percentage of
• Zinc is involved in over 300 enzymatic reactions, significantly impacting wound healing, skin the diet.
health, and immune function. Manganese is essential for bone formation, blood clotting, and
aiding in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. These feeds are, in fact,
• Potassium is essential for the functioning of muscles and nerves and maintains fluid balance good sources of most of the
within the cattle’s body. required minerals.
• Magnesium is crucial for muscle and nerve function and aids in metabolic processes.
• Calcium and Phosphorus are synonymous with bone health in cattle. They are vital for the
development and maintenance of bones and teeth. Moreover, they play a crucial role in milk
production.

• In cows: Macrominerals include calcium, Phosphorus, magnesium, and potassium, while

microminerals encompass iron, zinc, copper, manganese, selenium, and iodine. These
minerals are pivotal for various bodily functions, including bone formation, blood clotting,
muscle function, enzyme activation, hormone production, and maintenance of nervous system
function.
 Fibre Function Fibre Source
Fibre: The majority of a dairy cow’s diet is made
There are two types of fibre up of forages, which are fibrous feeds
1) Soluble which dissolves in water to form a gel-like material. This can help such as corn silage (chopped fermented
lower blood cholesterol and glucose levels. whole corn plants), legumes (ex. Alfalfa,
2) Insoluble which promotes the movement of material through the digestive clover, vetch, etc.), and grasses.
system, and is excreted out.

What does it do?

Normal healthy digestion which is regular with well-formed faeces.
Can prevent over feeding as fills stomach.
Helps to slow down the absorption of nutrients – allowing them to enter the
blood stream.

For cows, fibre is an important feed component, not only as an energy and
nutrient source, but also as a regulatory factor for the maintenance of rumen health
and feed intake. Compared to other nutrients, fibre, particularly forage- fibre, has
much longer ruminal retention time because of slower degradation and greater
buoyancy in the rumen. For cows fibre can affect rumination behaviour.
 Water Function Water Source
Water: Naturally occurring water
• Water is crucial for all life forms on earth and in mammals particularly as it assists with the can be a source but
transportation of nutrients throughout the body of the animal. additional water needs to be
• Water assists the animal to cool down. provided.
• Water assists with digestion; this includes excretion both urinating and defecating as well as
salivating and other bodily fluids Cows require on average 3
• Needed for milk/egg production. to 30 gallons a day this
depends on a number of
In cows: factors for instance dairy
Milk is comprised of largely water and a cow’s yield is directly related to the amount of water in cows require more water
its body. As an essential nutrient, it is second only to oxygen in its importance in given that milk is 70%
maintaining life and optimising productivity in dairy cattle. water.

Water is often the forgotten nutrient. A dairy cow requires water for a multitude of functions, Similarly, weather
including digestion and metabolism of energy and nutrients, transport of nutrients and conditions play a role here
metabolites to and from cells in the blood, excretion of waste products (via urine, faeces and as does the bread of cow.
respiration), maintenance of ion and fluid balance, thermoregulation and creation of a fluid
environment within which the foetus develops

Cows receiving dry feed will also require more drinking water.
 Bibliography Cowa

• Minerals for Beef Cows (psu.edu)

• The Importance of Mineral Nutrition: Essential Minerals for Cattle Health and Productivity (herdx.com)
• Research: Exploring trace mineral sources in cow feeds - Dairy Global
• source of minerals for cows diet - Search Images (bing.com)
• The Importance of Mineral Nutrition: Essential Minerals for Cattle Health and Productivity (herdx.com)
• function of minerals in cows - Search (bing.com)
• Importance of Nutrients for Cattle - Growel Agrovet Private Limited
• Beef Cattle vs Dairy Cattle: The Key Differences (With Pictures) | Animal World (animal-world.com)
• Regent’s Park, Central London – Heartwood Centre for Counselling and Psychotherapy Training (heartwoodcounselling.org)
• Overview of Fat Digestion and Metabolism in Dairy Cows | The Cattle Site
• Why Are Cows Fat? (7 Facts You Should Know) – Animalpolis
• A Guide to Cows' Dietary Needs: Best Food Options and Supplements for Health and Productivity - Farm and Chill
• Optimising the dairy cow diet for improved health | Farming Connect g( ov.wales)
• National Geographic Kids – cattle and cows
• source of Carbohydrates for cows - Search (bing.com)
• Carbohydrate in cows - Search (bing.com)
• Nutritional Requirements of Dairy Cattle - Management and Nutrition - MSD Veterinary Manual (msdvetmanual.com)
• Nutrition and feeding of dairy cattle - PMC (nih.gov)
• The effects of source and concentration of dietaryfiber
, starch, and fatty acids on the daily patterns of feed intake, rumination, and rumen pH in dairy cows - Journal of Dairy Science
• The schematic diagram of the preparation process of the cow dungfibers. | Download Scientific Diagram (researchgate.net)
• How much water should you give your cattle? - The Standard (standardmedia.co.ke)
• Guide to planning water requirements on your dairy farm - Farmers Weekly (fwi.co.uk)
• Water: a forgotten nutrient (vettimes.co.uk)
 Carbohydrate Function Carbohydrate Source

•Carbohydrates: Basic source of energy for all animals. As much The type of starch and fibre used in the
as a half or more of an animal's calories are from Carbohydrates diet highly affected some blood
more so if the animal is a herbivore compared to for instance a parameters, such as glycaemic and
carnivore. insulin responses.
•Carbohydrates turn into glucose during metabolism and is used to
provide energy to the animal. Further functions include the The Barley group showed the highest
following: daily weight gain. Lower glycaemia
levels were observed in the Faba bean
•Keep and maintain the digestive system keeping it regular. group compared to the Corn one.
•Give the animal energy
•Help the animal to create body heat (endothermic reaction creates Alternative protein sources for swine
warmth) diets can limit the glycaemic and insulin
•Crucial in mammals as this helps with milk production response with no negative effects on
growing performance.
Structural carbohydrates, which are part
of the plant cell wall, and non-structural
carbohydrates found within the plant
cell. Corn is the main source.
 Protein Function Protein Source
Proteins: Proteins are crucial in helping an animal repair It is quite common today to formulate swine diets
damaged tissue and also for muscle growth and maintenance. based on the concept of “ideal” protein; ie, to
Proteins are thus used in building up cell structure, and also express essential amino acid requirements as a
enzyme function. From a cellular point of view therefore percent of the lysine requirement. Additionally, it
proteins facilitate the growth & repair of animal cells. is becoming more popular to formulate swine
diets on the basis of standardized (or true) or
What do they do? apparent digestible amino acids. This method is
Proteins like carbohydrates are also a source of fuel for an particularly advantageous when substantial
animal, proteins can however be stored as fats and are used by amounts of byproduct feeds are included in the
cells/tissues when required. This then also helps defend the diet.
animal as they are used to make antibodies and protection from
diseases. Rapeseed meal and grain legumes, used in
Proteins contribute to the heathy development, growth & repair combination with cereals and taking care not to
of muscles, bones, skin & fat, plus hair, feathers, nails etc. exceed the anti-nutritional factor threshold values,
can be included in diets of growing-finishing pigs,
Protein is a crucial component of a pig’s diet. It plays a vital without any negative effect on growth performance
role in growth, milk production, and overall health. Pigs obtain and meat quality.
dietary protein from various sources.
 Fat Function Fat Source
Fats/lipids: When consumed in the correct amounts, fats become an The requirement is generally met by the fat
energy source, similar to carbohydrates. Fats will help to facilitate the present in natural dietary ingredients. The oil
absorption of certain soluble vitamins such as Vitamins A, D, E and K. in corn is a rich source of linoleic acid.

What do they do? Most whole grains are high in carbohydrates,

Provide material to build new cells which can cause your pigs to put on fat rather
Regulate the movement of the muscles than lean, healthy muscle. For this reason, it’s
Improve the immune system a good idea to supplement regular grains with
Insulate the body keeping it warm with a layer of fat (consider artic sea protein-rich offerings like alfalfa and
mammals for instance) soybeans.
Enables the more effective absorption of vitamins and minerals
Corn is a cheap and effective fattening food
In pig’s Linoleic acid, arachidonic acid, and probably other long-chain, for pigs. Many pig farmers also swear by
polyunsaturated fatty acids are required by pigs. However, the longer giving their pigs skim milk. Sugar products,
chain fatty acids can be synthesized in vivo from linoleic acid, so linoleic such as cane sugar and molasses, will also
acid is considered the dietary essential fatty acid. The NRC estimates the fatten up a pig quickly.
linoleic acid requirement at 0.1% for growing and breeding swine.
 Vitamin Function Vitamin Source
Vitamins: Animals require small amounts of certain vitamins to work To ensure optimum and reliable pig performance,
properly and stay healthy. salt and certain trace minerals and vitamins need
Certain vitamins are more important than others and this is dependent on to be routinely added to the diet. Grains, by-
a number of factors from environmental to what species the animal is products and protein supplements in swine diets
and even age and stage as well as lifestyle. provide trace minerals and vitamins that pigs
require, though the amount provided is not often
Pigs require several trace minerals and vitamins in their diet for sufficient or their bioavailability.
optimum performance, because they serve a variety of important
metabolic functions in the body. Some vitamins are lost during storage, drying, and
processing of common feedstuffs or may be
Examples: unavailable to the pig.
Vitamin D: This antirachitic, fat-soluble vitamin is necessary for proper
bone growth and ossification. Some vitamins, however, can be synthesised
Vitamin E: This fat-soluble vitamin serves as a natural antioxidant in within the pig’s body in sufficient quantities to
feedstuffs. meet the pig’s requirement. Amounts of choline,
Vitamin K: folic acid and biotin that are present in grains and
This fat-soluble vitamin is necessary to maintain normal blood clotting. protein supplements are sufficient for normal
Vitamin B: This vitamin. Feedstuffs of plant origin are devoid of this growth, but they should be supplemented in diets
vitamin, but animal products are good sources. Although some intestinal for breeding swine.
synthesis of this vitamin occurs, vitamin B12 is generally included in
vitamin premixes for swine.
 Mineral Function Mineral Source
Minerals: These are essential for body regulation and overall health. Some minerals may be toxic if Minerals are available
ingested in large amounts. in inorganic or organic
forms to add in swine
What do they do in pigs: diets.
Ten mineral elements are regularly added to swine diets because the natural ingredients commonly
used in swine diets (cereal grain, soybean meal, etc.) are deficient or the minerals are not available to Inorganic minerals are
the pig. These minerals can be divided into two groups, macro- and micro or trace-minerals, based on provided as inorganic
the amounts added to the diet. The requirements for, and dietary concentrations of the macro-minerals salts like sulphates,
are generally expressed as a percentage of the diet. carbonates, chlorides,
and
Examples: oxides.
Sodium and chloride. These two elements assist in maintaining the osmotic pressure of body fluids
and acid/base balance. Organic minerals are
Iron. Iron is required for the synthesis of hemoglobin that transports oxygen in red blood cells, provided as a complex
myoglobin in muscle tissue, and iron-containing enzymes. with
Zinc. Zinc is important for the proper function of many enzymes and is essential for normal skin an organic agent like
development and maintenance and reproduction. amino acids, proteins,
Iodine. Iodine is a vital component of thyroid hormones and therefore, it affects the pig’s metabolic and
rate. Carbohydrates.
Selenium. Selenium is a component of many enzymes that protect cell contents and membranes
against oxidative damage.
 Fibre Function Fibre Source
Fibre: Wheat bran, wheat middlings, oat
There are two types of fibre husks, maize bran, rye bran, sugar
1) Soluble which dissolves in water to form a gel-like material. This can help lower beet pulp and fibre, corn cobs and
blood cholesterol and glucose levels. bran, distillers grains, rapeseed, soy
2) Insoluble which promotes the movement of material through the digestive system, bean hulls, kiwi fruit and chicory.
and is excreted out. Fibrous crop by-products, forages and
roots including cassava, citrus pulp,
What does it do? konjac flour and sweet potato etc.
Normal healthy digestion which is regular with well-formed faeces.
Can prevent over feeding as fills stomach. An optimal pig diet should
Helps to slow down the absorption of nutrients – allowing them to enter the blood include soluble and insoluble fibre as
stream. well as resistant starch. Beet pulp is
an example of an ingredient rich in
For pigs: Feeding sows a high-fiber diet is the most effective method to increase soluble fibre, while palm-kernel meal
postprandial satiety, thereby improving the welfare of sows subjected to feed provides insoluble fiber. Some
restriction during pregnancy. There are a number of fibrous ingredients available, fibrous materials, such as wheat co-
including wheat middlings, corn germ, sugar beet pulp, corn gluten feed, soy hulls, products, include a mixture of soluble
dried grass, and alfalfa meal. Dietary fiber maintains normal physiological function in and insoluble fibre.
the digestive tract – think gut function. A major concern when including fiber in diets
for mono-gastric animals is that high dietary fiber content is associated with decreased
nutrient utilisation and low net energy values.
 Water Function Water Source
Water: Naturally occurring
• Water is crucial for all life forms on earth and in mammals particularly as it assists with the water can be a
transportation of nutrients throughout the body of the animal. source but additional
• Water assists the animal to cool down. water needs to be
• Water assists with digestion; this includes excretion both urinating and defecating as well as provided.
salivating and other bodily fluids
• Needed for milk/egg production. Additional source of
clean water need to
In pigs: be provided for pigs.
• Water meets the pig’s basic need of freedom from thirst
• Water is essential for nearly all body functions, including temperature regulation, absorption of
nutrients, tissue growth and waste excretion
• Water directly affects feed intake, so contributes to pig growth and performance
• Water is used in cleaning and disinfection routines to maintain animal heath
At birth, water accounts for 82% of the pig’s empty body weight. By the time the pig weighs 240
pounds, water comprises only 51% of the empty body weight. In addition to body tissue and metabolic
functions, water is used for: a) the adjustment of body temperature; b) the maintenance of mineral
homeostasis; c) the excretion of the end products of metabolism (particularly urea); d) the achievement
of satiety (gut fill); and e) satisfaction of behavioural needs. Major sources of water for physiological
needs, including growth, reproduction, and lactation are water from feedstuffs, water from metabolic
processes, and drinking water.
 Bibliography Pigs
• Full article: Different carbohydrate sources affect swine performance and post-prandi
al glycaemic response (tandfonline.com)
• 05c23aa5992cd83677dcf893e4dc52114d3f.pdf (semanticscholar.org)
• Alternative and Sustainable Protein Sources in Pig Diet: A Review - PMC (nih.gov)
• Swine Nutrition Guide - Pork Information Gateway (porkgateway.org)
• How to Feed Pigs: 12 Steps (with Pictures) – wikiHow
• Trace Minerals and Vitamins for Swine Diets - Pork Information Gateway (porkgatew
ay.org)
• Physiological function and application of dietary fiber
in pig nutrition: A review - PMC (nih.gov)
• Fiber effects in nutrition and gut health in pigs | Journal of Animal Science and Biotec
hnology | Full Text (biomedcentral.com)
• Water guidance for pig farmers | AHDB