Chapter 26: Particle & Nuclear Physics

26.1 Atoms, nuclei and radiation

26.2 Fundamental particles

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 26.1: Learning outcome
a) infer from the results of the α-particle scattering experiment the existence and small size
of the nucleus
b) describe a simple model for the nuclear atom to include protons, neutrons and orbital
electrons
c) distinguish between nucleon number and proton number
d) understand that an element can exist in various isotopic forms, each with a different
number of neutrons
e) use the usual notation for the representation of nuclides
f) appreciate that nucleon number, proton number, and mass-energy are all conserved in
nuclear processes
g) show an understanding of the nature and properties of α-, β- and γ-radiations (both β– and
β+ are included)
h) state that (electron) antineutrinos and (electron) neutrinos are produced during β– and β+
decay
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 Rutherford & J.J Thomson atomic model
1906 - Rutherford J.J Thomson
Atom has a nucleus, which Positively charged
is tiny, positively charged & matter spread out like
also contains most of the
a pudding embedded
mass of an atom surrounded
by a cloud of negatively by negatively charged
charged electrons. electrons (like plums
in a pudding)

The ‘Plum
3 radioactivity Pudding’
Model
Geiger & Marsden’s alpha particle scattering
experiment
In 1909, Hans Geiger and
Ernest Marsden work together
with Rutherford, performed an
experiment using alpha
particles to determine which of
the structure of an atom.

Geiger and Marsden

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Geiger & Marsden’s alpha particle scattering experiment
gold foil 10-6 m
thickness

The tiny flash - represent a particles

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 What was observed
C
alpha thin metal foil
source

B
S
microscope

observation
 Most of tiny flash at B.
 Few tiny flash at A & C (small angle)
 1 in 20000 (very few) tiny flash at the back of the thin metal
foil with angle more than 90o

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 Explanation
1. Most of the alpha particles passed
the atom in straight direction.
 most of atom contain empty
space
2. Some alpha particles are deflected
 Nucleus is positively charged
(repulsion force between the
positively charged nucleus and
the bombarded alpha particles
when they came near the nucleus)

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 Explanation
3 A very few alpha particles
deflected by more than 90o.
 most of mass of an atom
concentrated in a small space at
centre.
 Thus, when the alpha particles
make near head on collisions
with the dense positively charged
nucleus – they were deflected
with angle more than 90o ( 1 in
20000 of a particles)

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 How their results supported Rutherford’s
atomic model
1. The relatively small number of deflections
indicates that most of the atom is empty space with
only a very small nucleus.
2. The backward deflections can only occur if the
nucleus contains most of the atom’s mass.
3. The ‘plum pudding’ model would not possibly
produce backward deflections. Individual a particles
would pass through it like a bullet, hardly being
detected because a particles are more massive than
electrons.

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 Question
In Rutherfod’s experiment, alpha particles were
directed at a thin gold foil. A small fraction of the
alpha particles were back-scattered through 180o.
Describe and explain how the fraction back-scattered
changes if each of the following changes are
(separately made)
a. A thicker foil is used
b. Faster alpha particles are used.
c. A silver foil is used (nucleus has less positive charge
than gold nucleus)

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 Simple model of an atom

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 Please
Scale of particles memorize all
of these!!!

Particles Range of sizes

Radius of proton & ~10-15 m
radius of neutron
Radius of nucleus ~10-15 m - 10-14 m

Radius of atom ~10-10 m

Size of molecule ~10-10 m - 10-6 m

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 Nuclear density
 A proton is a small, positively charged sphere.
 Given that
 Mass of proton, mp = 1.67 x 10-27 kg
 Radius of proton r = 0.80 fm = 0.80 x 10-15 m (radius of proton is not
accurately known)

• So, proton has a density of roughly 1018 kgm-3. this is also the density of an
atomic nucleus because nuclei are made of protons and neutrons held
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closely together
 Question
Gold has a density of
19700 kgm-3. 193g of gold
contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms.
Use this information to
estimate the volume of a
gold atom and hence its
radius. State any
assumption you made

Answer:

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 Atomic structure
An atom will always have the
same number of electrons as
protons because it is neutral. nucleus
 Nucleons = protons and
neutrons in a nucleus
 term nucleon is used for either
A Lithium atom
a proton or a neutron
protons
neutrons
•Eg : in a nucleus of gold, there
electrons
are 79 protons and 118 neutrons
giving a total of 197 nucleons
altogether
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 Nucleus characterisation
 In a nucleus, we know, there are neutrons
and protons
 The convention for designating a nuclei is
by:
Z = proton number or atomic number
A Lithium atom
N = neutron number
A = mass number Protons = 3
= Total number of nucleons Neutrons = 4
= total no of neutrons + proton Electrons = 3
This Lithium atom has:
A = Z+ N atomic number (Z) = 3
mass number (A) = 7
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Properties of protons, neutrons and electrons
Position in the Approximate Electric
atom Mass charge

PROTON (p) nucleus u +e

NEUTRON (n) nucleus u 0
outside
ELECTRON (e)
nucleus 1u/2000 -e
-
Alpha-particle +2e
(a) / helium 4u
nucleus
(2 p + 2 n)

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Nuclei notation/ nuclear representation
Specific combination of protons and neutrons in a
nucleus is called a nuclide

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 Mass of particles
 We know that mass of

Neutron, mn = 1.66 x 10-27 kg (1 atomic mass unit or 1u)

Proton mp = 1.66 x 10-27 kg (1 atomic mass unit or 1u)
Electron me = 9.11 10-31 kg (1u/1840 )

 Thus, vast majority of the mass of the atom is therefore in

the nucleus

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 Isotopes

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 Isotopes
Atoms of the same element may be identical chemically, but
their nuclei may be slightly different
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines
what element it is
• eg: helium has always 2 protons, carbon 6 protons uranium
92 protons
But, the number of neutrons in the nuclei for a given element
can vary
 For example : Neon
 Three different naturally occuring forms of neon are
20 21 22
10 Ne Ne
10 10Ne
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 Isotopes (continue)
Isotopes are nuclei of the same element having
the same number of protons but with a different
number of neutrons

So, since number of protons and therefore the number

of electrons in isotopes of the same element are
identical , they will have same chemical properties

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 Isotopes (cont)
 But as the number of protons + neutrons in isotopes of the
same element are different, thus, they (isotopes) has different
nuclear properties.
 Each individual isotope is a separate nuclide.
 Example:
Hydrogen has three different important isotopes

protium deuterium tritium

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 Isotopes (cont)
 Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe &
has simplest structure possible for an atom
 Protium and deuterium occur naturally but tritium has to be made
 Deuterium and tritium forms the fuel of many fusion research
reactor
 Different number of neutrons in the isotopes of an element
means the isotopes will have different relative atomic
masses
 There are differences also in physical properties such as
density and boiling point
 For example, heavy water which containing deuterium has a boiling
point of 104oC under normal atmospheric pressure

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 Isotopes & Radioisotopes
Isotopes are nuclei with same atomic number
but different atomic mass.
Isotopes that are unstable and undergo radioactive
decay are called radioisotopes.
A change in the number of neutrons does not affect
the charge of the atom.
But, it means the isotopes of an element have
different relative atomic masses and also their
physical properties such as density and boiling
point.
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 Isotopes & atomic masses
The atomic mass assigned to the element in the
periodic table usually represents an average of the
masses of its isotopes.
The average has been adjusted (weighted) to reflect the
relative abundance of the different isotopes in nature.
So, even though carbon-12 is the basis for the Atomic
Mass Unit , the atomic mass of carbon is usually listed
as 12.011, because of its isotopes.

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 Isotopes & Radioisotopes (cont)
 Radioactive isotopes (radioisotopes) have unstable nuclei
that decay, emitting alpha, beta, and sometimes gamma
rays.
 Nuclei consists of protons and neutrons and if the balance
between these two types of particles is too far to one side,
the nucleus may emit a or b radiation as a way of
achieving greater stability
 Gamma radiation always emitted after a or b decay to
release excess energy from the nuclei

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 Is the atom still the same element?
 If there is a change in the number of protons, the atom
becomes a different element with different chemical
properties.
 If there is only a change in the number of neutron, the atom
is the same element, but becomes a different isotope of that
element or we can say different nuclide.
 All isotopes of a certain element also have the same
chemical properties but have varying radiological
properties such as half-life, or type of radiation emitted.

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 Test Urself
1. Uranium has atomic number of 92. Two of its common
isotopes have nucleon numbers 235 and 238.
1. Determine the number of neutrons for these isotopes
2. There are seven naturally occurring isotopes of mercury
with nucleon numbers (relative abundances of 196
(0.2%), 198 (10%), 199 (16.8 %), 200 (23.1%), 201
(13.2%), 202 (29.8%) and 204 (6.9%)
a) Determine the proton and neutron numbers for each isotope
b) Determine the average relative atomic mass (equivalent to
the average nucleon number) of naturally occurring mercury

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 Test urself (cont)
Group the following imaginary elements A – H into
isotopes and name them using the periodic table as
given.

A B C D E F G H
Proton 20 23 21 22 20 22 22 23
number
Nucleon 44 50 46 46 46 48 50 51
number

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 Fundamental particles

* additional points
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 Fundamental particles
Fundamental particles are the particles that cannot be
subdivided further
New particles subdivide from proton and neutron are
found in 20th century by physicist through
By looking at cosmic rays which are particles that arrive
at the earth from outer space
By looking at particles produced by high energy
collisions in particle accelerator

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 Fundamental forces
1. Strong nuclear force
a) Holds nucleus together & acts between neutrons and
protons.
b) Its range is (10-14m)
2. Weak nuclear force
a) Causes a neutron to change into a proton or a proton
into a neutron.
b) Range is fraction of femtometer (10-18m)

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 Forces in the universe (cont)
3. Gravitational force
a) Acts between any two matter particles
b) Range is unlimited
4. Electromagnetic force
a) Acts between charge particles.
b) This force due to the charged particles creating and
exchanging virtual photons and its range is unlimited .

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 Strength of the forces relative to gravity

1 x10-14

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 Comparing the forces

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 Strong nuclear force
We also know that positives repel. We can do a
calculation on two positive charges to find that a
force of about 200 N exists between them.
So why does the nucleus not fly apart? There is a
force that stops this, the strong nuclear force. It is
very short range, up to the order of 10-14 m.
The strong force is mediated by gluons which bind
the nucleons together. All hadrons feel the strong
force.

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 The Weak Nuclear Force
 Force that is only found within the nucleus, the weak nuclear
force, responsible for beta minus decay.
 Has a very short range, about 10-18 m.
 In beta decay, things happen that cannot be explained by the
action of the electromagnetic force, gravity, or the strong
force.
 This force is poorly understood.
 The weak force is mediated by the W and Z bosons:
W- mediates the beta minus decay, and its variants which we
will look at later.
W+ mediates the beta plus decay.
The role of the Z boson is not well understood
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 Electromagnetic force Gravitational force
Acts between charged Acts between any two
particles matter particles
This force due to the Range is unlimited
charged particles
creating and exchanging
photons
Range is unlimited

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 Particles & antiparticles
 Particle physics is concerned with fundamental particles.
 It used to be thought that protons, neutrons and electrons
were the fundamental particles of matter, which could not
be broken down into anything smaller.
 However it has been found that nucleons are made up of
smaller particles, so nucleons are now not fundamental.
 Each particle has an antiparticle. However, antiparticles
are not found in normal matter, but arise in:
high-energy collision experiments,
interactions with cosmic rays,
radioactive decay.

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 Properties of particle & antiparticle
Particle &
antiparticle
Mass Same
Charge Equal but opposite
Lifetime Same

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 Annihilation
When particles and antiparticles meet, they annihilate
each other, releasing their combined mass as energy in
the form of photons.

42 radioactivity
 *Pair-production (reverse of annihilation)
Electrons and positrons can be formed when a gamma
ray passes through matter.
This pair production is a good illustration of how mass
and energy can be changed from one to another.

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 Families of particles

HADRONS
(affected by strong nuclear force-
(strong interaction)
PARTICLES
LEPTONS
not affected by strong nuclear force
but by weak force/interaction
or if they are charged particles;
through electromagnetic interaction)

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 Families of particles
Hadrons
(affected by strong
nuclear force -
(strong interaction))

Baryon Mesons(2
(3 quarks) quarks)

Π mesons K mesons
Protons Neutrons (pions) (Kaons)

Π+ mesons Π- K+ K- K
Π mesons
mesons

• All of this particle have their anti-particle with their quarks opposite from them.
45 radioactivity
• Π+ mesons also know as pions
 Family of Leptons

46 radioactivity
 Baryon and mesons
Quarks (pronounced “quork”) are the fundamental
particles from which hadrons are made. They cannot
exist on their own. Quarks make up the hadrons.
In baryons (the “heavy weights”) they are found as
triplets.
In mesons (the “middle weights”), they are always in a
quark-antiquark pair.

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 Quarks and antiquark
There are three main quarks, up, down, and strange.
The names have no real significance beyond the
imagination of the physicist that dubbed them
such. They have corresponding antiquarks.
*There are three others with even odder names, top,
bottom, and charm (not in syllabus).

48 radioactivity
 Properties of quarks
* *

49 radioactivity
 Quark model of proton and neutron
uud udd

50 radioactivity
 Antiquark model for proton and neutron

51 radioactivity
 Beta decay using quark interaction
Beta minus

Beta plus

52 radioactivity
 Weak interaction in beta minus decay

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 *Role of antineutrino
 Antineutrino can interact
with a proton and make
it change into a neutron.
 A Beta plus is created
and emitted at the same
time.
 The interaction is due to
the exchange of a
particle called a W+
boson (weak interaction)
which is created in the
proton and absorbed by
radioactivity
54
the antineutrino
 Weak interaction in beta plus decay

 In beta plus decay, a proton turns into a neutron.

 The positive charge is transferred by the W+ boson, which then
becomes a positron and an electron neutrino.
 Note how the positron arrow points towards the interaction, as the
positron is an antiparticle. Beta decay occurs in proton rich nuclei.
radioactivity
55
 *Role of neutrino
 A neutrino can interact
with a neutron and make
it change into a proton .
 A beta minus particle is
created and emitted at the
same time.
 The interaction is due to
exchange particle called
W- boson (weak
interaction) , which is
created in the neutron and
absorbed by the neutrino.
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 Energy of accelerated particle
The electron is a fundamental particle, with no
substructure.
All the energy of a moving electron is kinetic; there
are no bonds to vibrate.
For a charge in electric field, we know that electric
potential energy:

So, we can equate for a moving charge

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 Energy of accelerated particle
When the charge accelerates or decelerate

Thus, for an electron with Q = e, its velocity is

1 eV = energy gained by an electron when being

accelerated by p.d of 1 V
58 radioactivity
 Radioactivity

59 radioactivity
 Unstable nucleus
In large nucleus, nucleons are not held together tightly
causing it to be unstable.
More number of protons in a nucleus, the more electric
repulsion acts. (long range).
So, need more neutrons to keep the protons apart.
Thus, heavy nuclei have more neutrons than protons.
But, when number of proton greater than 83, adding
neutrons not enough, nuclei become unstable
(decaying nucleus).

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 Radiation and radioactivity (cont)
Radiation is the energy that is released as particles
or rays, during radioactive decay.
Radioactivity is
the property of an atom that describes spontaneous
changes in its nucleus that create a different nuclide.
OR
Spontaneous disintegration of nuclei to move from an
unstable state to a stable one.
The radiation can be in the form of alpha particles,
beta particles, or gamma rays

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 Radiation and radioactivity (cont)
The unbalanced or unstable atom tries to become
more stable by changing the number of neutrons
and/or protons in the nucleus. This can happen in
several ways:
1. converting neutrons to protons
2. converting protons to neutrons
3. ejecting an alpha particle (two neutrons and
two protons) from the nucleus.


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 Radioactivity discovery (cont)

• There are 3 types of radiation which are emitted by

radioactive substance:
Alpha a
Beta b (b+ and b-)
Gamma g

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 Conserved quantity in nuclear process
1. Proton number
2. Nucleon number
3. Total momentum
4. Mass-energy

64 radioactivity
 Alpha decay

Parent nucleus Daughter nucleus

Sg 104
263
106
259
Rf  42 He  energy
A before  263 Z before  106
A after  259  4(conserved ) Z after  104  2(conserved )

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 Beta radiation
Emitted by a Nucleus X with either
Too many neutrons :
 A neutrons change into a proton & emits b- particle
 An antineutrino is emitted

Too many protons:

 A proton change into a neutron nucleus emits b+ (positron)
 In addition, a neutrino is emitted

66 radioactivity
 b- and b+ decay

67 radioactivity
 g radiation

68 radioactivity
 Ions
 a and b particles are fast moving charged particles
When they move or get close to atoms, , they may
collide and knock or drag electrons away from the
atoms.
The resulting atoms are said to be ionised
This process is called ionisation

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Ions
.

Lithium atom Positive Negative

Lithium ion Lithium ion

electrons protons neutrons

radioactivity 70
 Test urself
1. Write balance equation for this following:
220
A nucleus of radon-220 86 Rndecays by alpha emission to
form an isotope of polonium, Po.
25
A nucleus of a sodium isotope 11 Na
decays by beta emission
to form an isotope of magnesium, Mg
2. Complete this equation for the beta decay of a nucleus
of argon
18 Ar  K  ?
41

71 radioactivity
 Radiation characteristics
 Ionisation
 Penetration power in air
 Properties in electric & magnetic field

72 radioactivity
 Basic characteristics of radiation
Radiati Nature Symbol Mass Charge Typical speed
on (relative to
proton)

4
a Helium or
2 He 4 +2e Slow (106ms-1)
nuclei

0
b Fast b+, e 1
e Fast moving
1
moving b-, -e with range of
electron 1840 energies (25 –
99 % of speed
of light)
g ray photons g 0 0 Speed of light
(3 x 108ms-1)

73 radioactivity
 1. Ionisation power
 a radiation is has strongest ionisation effect as a particle
Has greater mass & charge than b particle
Travels more slowly (interacts more strongly with any atoms
it passes more likely to cause ionisation).
 b particle also causes medium ionisation effect as it has
smaller charge than alpha.
 g rays (no charge) also cause ionisation but (in small scale)

74 radioactivity
 How alpha ionise air

75 radioactivity
 2. Penetrating power of a, b and g rays
 a, rays is absorbed by a thin sheet of paper or a few cm of
air
 b rays is absorbed by a few cm of metal as such aluminium
 g rays is never completely absorbed. But, in practical a few
cm of lead or few metres of concrete greatly reduces the
intensity.

76 radioactivity
 3. a, b and g in electric field  Assuming a, and
b have same
velocity
 a and b are
attracted to the
plate with
opposite charge of
themselves.
 But, b are much
deflected more
than a since b
has less mass than
a, thus harder to
be deflected. a
has larger inertia.
 g rays are not
deflected
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 4. a, b and g in magnetic field

78 radioactivity
 Properties of radiation

79 radioactivity
 Radioactive decay
Radioactive decay is a spontaneous, random process.
Background radiation is present at all times, and is the
same in all directions (1 or 2 counts per second). The
main sources are:
a. Radioactive decay of rocks in the Earth’s crust.
b. Cosmic radiation (from the Big Bang).
c. Materials in buildings that produce radon gases

80 radioactivity
 Background radiation

Background radiation is the general term given to all

natural and artificial radiation that is present in the
atmosphere. Some sources of background radiation:
1. Some natural radioactive nuclides
Rocks such as granite
Foods
Human Bodies

2. Radiation from man-made source

Medicine
Nuclear explosions
Leaks from nuclear power station
81 radioactivity
 Background radiation (cont)
If we switch on a Geiger counter it will detect this
background radiation and give a reading for the level.
In experiments with radioactive sources, it is
important to take account of background radiation
In order to determine the count rate due to the
radioactive source, the background rate must be
subtracted from the total measured count rate to
obtain the corrected count rate

82 radioactivity
 The End

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