REFRIGERATION

Chapter 6: Low Temperature

Refrigeration (Cryogenics)

Presented by
Keshav Kumar Acharya
Teaching Assistant
TU, IOE
Purwanchal Campus
 Introduction
• The term ‘cryogenics’ is derived from the Greek word Kryos
which means cold or frost.
• It is frequently applied to very low temperature refrigeration
applications such as in the liquefaction of gases and in the
study of physical phenomenon at temperatures approaching
absolute zero.
• The first low temperature refrigeration system was primarily
developed for the solidification of carbon dioxide and the
liquefaction and subsequent fractional distillation of gases
such as air, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen and helium.
• In refrigeration, the temperature from – 100 0 C to -2730 C (or
absolute zero) are treated as low temperature
 Limitations of VCRS for Production
of Low Temperature
• The use of VCRS for the production of low temperatures is
limited inherently by the solidification temperature of the
refrigerants. The refrigerant used must have a freezing
temperature well below the required temperature to be
attained.

• The pressure in the evaporator is extremely low (below

atmospheric) and the suction volume is very large when a
refrigerant with high boiling temperature is used.
 Limitations of VCRS for Production
of Low Temperature
• The pressure in the condenser is extremely high when a
refrigerant with low boiling temperature is used.
• The coefficient of performance is low because of very high
pressure ratios.
• The difficulties encountered in the operation of any
mechanical equipment at very low temperature.

When the vapor compression refrigeration system is to be used

for the production of low temperature, the common alternative to
stage compression is the cascade system. In this system series
of refrigerants with progressively lower boiling temperatures are
used in a series of single – stage units
Cascade Refrigeration System
Cascade Refrigeration System
 Cascade Refrigeration System
• The cascade refrigeration system consists of two or more
vapor compression refrigeration systems in series which use
refrigerants with progressively lower boiling temperatures.
• In this system, a cascade condenser serves as an evaporator
for the high temperature cascade system and a condenser for
the low temperature cascade system.
• The only useful refrigerating effect is produced in the
evaporator of the low temperature cascade system.
• The principal advantage of the cascade system is that it
permits the use of two different refrigerants.
• The high temperature cascade system uses a refrigerant with
high boiling temperature such as R -12 or R – 22.
• The low temperature cascade system uses a refrigerant with
low boiling temperature such as R – 13
Coefficient of Performance of a Two –
Stage Cascade System
• If Q tonnes of refrigeration is the load on the low temperature
cascade system, then the mass of refrigerant through the low
temperature cascade system is given by

• The mass of refrigerant m2 required in the high temperature

cascade system in order to liquefy the refrigerant of low
temperature cascade system in the cascade condenser may
be obtained by balancing the heat of both the systems.
Coefficient of Performance of a Two –
Stage Cascade System
• The total work done and the refrigerating effect are given by

• So, the coefficient of performance of the system is given by

• And the power required to drive the system

Manufacture of Solid Carbon Dioxide
or Dry Ice
• The carbon dioxide gas is, first of all, compressed to a
pressure of 60 to 70 bar and then condensed by using cooling
water.
• The liquid carbon dioxide thus obtained is solidified in order
to produce solid carbon dioxide or dry ice.
• One of the most widely used methods of solidification of the
liquid carbon dioxide is by the expansion of liquid carbon
dioxide to a pressure below that of its triple point pressure
Manufacture of Solid Carbon Dioxide
or Dry Ice
• The equipment is similar to that of vapor compression system
with the exceptions that means must be provided for
supplying the make – up carbon dioxide gas and for the
removal of solid carbon dioxide.
Manufacture of Solid Carbon Dioxide
or Dry Ice
• First of all, the carbon dioxide gas is compressed from point 1
to point 2 to a pressure sufficiently high as represented by the
curve 1 – 2.
• It is then condensed in the condenser by cooling water from
point 2 to point 3.
• The high pressure liquid carbon dioxide thus obtained is now
expanded in an expansion valve from point 3 to point 4, to a
pressure below that of the triple point pressure.
• The carbon dioxide at point 4 is a mixture of solid carbon
dioxide and gaseous carbon dioxide.
• The solid carbon dioxide or dry ice can be removed at point 5
and pressed mechanically into blocks
• The carbon dioxide gas removed at point 6 is mixed with the
make – up carbon dioxide gas at point 7 before being fed to
the compressor at point 1.
Manufacture of Solid Carbon Dioxide
or Dry Ice
• The power consumption for the satisfactory operation of this
single – stage compression system is large (appox 330 kW
hour per tonne of solid ice).
• The main reason being the high pressure ratio (about 70)
• In order to reduce the power consumption , multi – stage
compression (usually three stage) with water intercoolers and
flash intercoolers may be used.
Manufacture of Solid Carbon Dioxide
or Dry Ice
• Another problem in the process is the formation of solid snow
in the expansion valve which will block the flow to the snow
chamber
• This may be eliminated by first producing liquid carbon
dioxide in low pressure flash intercooler at pressure above the
triple point pressure, and then reducing its pressure to one
atmosphere in the snow chamber
 Linde System for Liquefaction of Air
• Linde or Hampson system is the
simplest method of air liquefaction
• The equipment includes a compressor,
a heat exchanger and a separator.
• The atmospheric air is compressed
isothermally in a compressor to a
pressure of 100 to 200 atm.
• The high pressure air is cooled to about
– 106.70 C in the heat exchanger.
• The cooled air from the heat exchanger
is throttled to atmospheric pressure and
a temperature of -1900 C.
• A portion of the air is liquified and
removed from the separator while the
remaining cold air returns to
compressor through heat exchanger
 Linde System for Liquefaction of Air
• Heat balance of the heat
exchanger

• And that of separator

• Since 3 – 4 is a throttling
process
 Linde System for Liquefaction of Air
• The simple linde or
Hampson system for
liquefying air is
comparatively inefficient
and is used only when
small quantity of liquid air is
needed.
• In order to increase the
efficiency, a dual pressure
Linde system is used.
• In this system, a portion of
the gas after the first
throttling is bled back
through heat exchanger
into the discharge of the
first stage compression
 Linde System for Liquefaction of Air
• The increased economy
results from this system
because the majority of gas
undergoes only one
expansion to the
intermediate pressure
• Both the simple and dual
pressure Linde systems
may be improved if the high
pressure compressed air is
precooled by an evaporator
of a vapor compression
system
 Claude System for Liquefaction of Air
• It differs from Linde system
by the addition of an
expander and a second
heat exchanger
• In this system, air is
compressed isothermally in
a compressor to
approximately 40 atm
• This high pressure air is
partially cooled by passing
through the first heat
exchanger
• A portion of air (about 80
%) at point 3 is bled and
cooled by expansion in an
expander
 Claude System for Liquefaction of Air
• The remaining portion of air
passes through the second heat
exchanger
• The air from second heat
exchanger is throttled irreversibly
at atmospheric pressure
• The liquid air is removed from
the separator
• The low temperature air from the
expander is mixed with the
unliquefied air from the
separator, giving increased mass
flow of air at point 9.
• This air passes through the two
heat exchangers to the
compressor
 Claude System for Liquefaction of Air
• Heat balance of first heat
exchanger

• Heat balance of the second heat

exchanger

• Heat balance of separator

• The enthalpy at point 9 is given

by
 Claude System for Liquefaction of Air
Advantages of Claude System Over Linde system
• In Claude system, the air is to be compressed only up to 40
atmospheres, as compared to 100 to 200 atms in Linde system
• About 80 percent of the air is expanded reversibly in the
expander and the remaining 20 percent of the compressed air is
subjected to irreversible throttling. In Linde system, all the air is
throttled irreversibly.
• Claude system gives an enhanced liquefaction
• The specific work of Claude system is less than that of simple
Linde system.
 Liquefaction of Hydrogen
• The hydrogen is one of the most difficult gas to liquefy because of its
extremely low liquefaction temperature
• In this system, pure hydrogen gas at a pressure of about 100 atm
and 270 C from the compressor is precooled in two heat exchangers
A and B.
• In heat exchanger A, the incoming high pressure hydrogen is cooled
by the outgoing low pressure hydrogen while in heat exchanger B, it
is cooled by nitrogen
• The high pressure hydrogen gas from both the heat exchangers is
passed through a third heat exchanger C where the hydrogen gas is
further cooled to about – 2070 C by nitrogen boiling under reduced
pressure
• This hydrogen gas is further cooled to about – 2300 C in the fourth
heat exchanger D by the low pressure hydrogen gas returning from
the separator.
• The liquid hydrogen is produced by throttling the hydrogen gas from
the heat exchanger D to atmospheric pressure
Liquefaction of Hydrogen
 Liquefaction of Helium
• Helium is the most difficult of all gases to liquefy
• At atmospheric pressure, it boils at approximately – 269 0 C
• Its maximum inversion temperature is about – 234 0 C
• It may be liquefied by an arrangement similar to hydrogen
liquefier where both liquid nitrogen and liquid hydrogen are
used for precooling.
• The disadvantage of this system include the high cost and
hazardous nature of liquid hydrogen
• The helium may also be liquefied by using Claude principle,
where expanders are used for producing refrigeration
 Liquefaction of Helium
• This system was developed by SC
Collins for liquefaction of helium
• In this system, helium at a pressure of
approximately 12 atm is supplied to the
liquefier by a four stage compressor
• The part of helium is precooled by liquid
nitrogen
• By using the combination of heat
exchangers and expanders, the high
pressure helium gas may be cooled to
about – 2570 C.
• The helium gas thus obtained is
throttled to atmospheric pressure to
produce liquid helium at – 2690 C
• Collins found that for one such plant,
liquefaction rate of 25 to 32 litres per
hour may be obtained with a power
requirement of 45 kW